EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
EE5401
Cellular Mobile Communications
Dr. Chai Chin Choy
(Email : [email protected])
Dr. Sun Sumei
(Email : [email protected])
Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R)
1 Fusionopolis Way, #21-01 Connexis, Singapore 138632
Lecture notes can be downloaded from
http://www1.i2r.a-star.edu.sg/~chaicc/
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Mainly focus on physical layer subjects.
Knowledge on Digital Communications, Probability and Random Processes are
required.
Continuous Assessment 30%
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Final Examination 70%
National University of Singapore
EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Subject Outline
Part 1 (Dr. Chai)
Introduction to Cellular Mobile Communications
Radio Propagation : Large Scale Effects
- Path loss prediction models
- Shadowing
Multiple Access Techniques
- Packet radio and random access
- FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA
- Orthogonal Frequency Division Mulitplexing (OFDM)
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Cellular System Concepts
-
Cellular coverage and frequency reuse
Channel assignment and control
Cellular traffic
System expansion techniques
Brief Overview of System Standards: GSM, IS-95 (if time allows)
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Part 2 (Dr. Sun)
Radio Propagation : Small Scale Effects
-
Multipath models : Rayleigh, Rician
Doppler effect, power spectra and signal correlation
Coherence time and bandwidth
Flat and selective fading channel
Modulation Techniques
- Constant envelope and phase modulation
- QPSK, /4 QPSK, FSK, GMSK
Equalization, Diversity and Coding Techniques
- Linear and non-linear equalization
- Selection, equal-gain and maximal ratio combining
- Interleaving and convolutional coding
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
References
1.
Theodore S Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice, Prentice-Hall, 2nd
Edition (1st edition is fine).
2.
Jon W Mark, Weihua Zhuang, Wireless Communications and Networking, Prentice Hall.
3.
Simon R Saunders, Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems, Wiley.
4.
William CY Lee, Mobile Communications Engineering, McGraw-Hill.
5.
JD Parsons, The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel, Wiley, 2nd Edition.
6.
Michel Daoud Yacoub, Foundations of Mobile Radio Engineering, CRC Press.
(RBR: TK6570 Mob.Ya)
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
7.
William C Jakes, Microwave Mobile Communications, IEEE Press.
8.
John Proakis, Digital Communications, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Introduction
The target for mobile communications is to provide communications for anyone, from
anywhere, at any time.
A demanding task. Technological challenges include:
1. Timevarying, hostile communication channel.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
2. Location and tracking complexities due to mobility.
3. Efficient use of scarce resources such as frequency spectrum cellular structure.
The amount of interference generated is critical.
4. Power restrictions due to health issues.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
For carrier at 100MHz, at year 1940, the stability of oscillator at the base station is more than 100kHz, at year 2000 it is only 10Hz. This means less
frequency guard band is needed.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
The exponential growth of mobile subscribers worldwide is due to the decreasing
service charges and diminishing hardware costs. The key enabling technologies are:
1. RF technologies (such as improved frequency stability in electronics)
2. IC design (size)
3. Battery technology (weight and size)
4. Higher order modulation is made possible due to the use of more sophisticated
advanced digital signal processing techniques.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
(including overhead on guard frequency band, roll-off factor etc.)
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
5. Speech coding techniques reduces the required bandwidth per channel.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Cellular system
Example : Consider a system allocated total bandwidth of 12.5 MHz and each voice channel
requires a 10kHz slot. We can only support 12.5MHz/10kHz = 1250 simultaneous
conversations. If the penetration rate in Singapore is 10%, for a population of 3M+, this is
equivalent to 300k users. What happen if 1% of the users making call at the same time?
So what can we do?
Answer: Channels need to be in someway reused or shared.
-
Frequency bands are reused at different locations. With this, higher user capacity in
the same frequency spectrum can be achieved.
Each cell has a base station (BS), providing the radio interface to the mobile station (MS).
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
- Technical challenge: interference issue, location tracking, etc., needs to be overcome.-
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
A sophisticated technique called a handover enables a call to proceed uninterrupted
across cell boundaries.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
All the BSs are connected to a mobile switching centre (MSC) which is responsible for
connection users to the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Communication between the BS and MSs is defined by a standard common air interface
that specifies 4 different physical channels:
Forward (Downlink) voice/data channel: BS to MS
Reverse (Uplink) voice/data channel: MS to BS
Forward (Downlink) control channel: BS to MS
Reverse (Uplink) control channel: MS to BS
Control channels transmit and receive data messages that carry call initiation and
service requests, and are monitored by mobiles when they do not have a call in progress.
~5% of total available channels.
A MS contains a transceiver, an antenna and control circuitry. A BS consists of several
transmitters and receivers.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Mobile Radio Propagation :
Large Scale Path Loss
The radio propagation channel exhibits many different forms of channel impairments,
as a result of time-varying signal reflections, blockage and motion.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Continuous measurements made along the radial direction
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Summary
Receiver
Source
Transmit
antenna
Path Loss
Shadowing Fast fading
Multiplicative
noise
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Receive
antenna
AWGN
Additive
noise
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Short-term and long-term fading
After removing the path loss component, we result in an instantaneous fading signal
r (t ) = a (t )e j (t ) ,
The envelope of the signal is given as
a (t ) = m(t ) (t )
m(t ) and (t ) represent the long-term fading and short-term fading, respectively.
At a given time t, when MS is at physical spot A, y from BS, then
a ( y ) = m( y ) ( y )
When no short-term fading, (y) is a constant, long-term fading are the major factors.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Measurements made along the tangential direction
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
If severe short-term fading is present in the mobile radio environment, then
1 y+L
m ( y ) = m( y )
( x)dx ,
2L y L
where m( y ) is the true local mean. A proper chosen of L between 40 and 200 willc
1 y+L
make m ( y ) m( y ) or
( x)dx 1 .
2L y L
The fast fading component
( y) =
a( y)
or ( y ) dB = a ( y ) dB m ( y ) dB
m ( y )
Single path fading the amplitude follows some distributions, such as Rayleigh
distribution, Rician distribution, etc.
Multipath path fading in each path, the amplitude follows some distributions.
Intersymbol Interference (ISI) is also presence.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Instantaneous received signal
amplitude changes with time
Non-resolvable multipath
resulting in (flat) fading
Resolvable multipath
(Frequency selective fading)
Channel impulse response
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Large scale propagation model: predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation distance. This is useful in estimating the radio
coverage area of a transmitter.
-
Path loss : attenuation with distance.
Shadowing (long-term fading) : due to the nature of the terrain, the average received
signal is strong when the MS is at the high spot and weak at the low spot, even at the
same distance from BS. This average signal is called local mean and is a RV. Its
statistics follow the log-normal distribution.
Small scale propagation model : characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received
signal strength over short travel distances around a few wavelength or short time
duration (short-term fading).
Propagation equation : all terms are in dB scale
LdB = L path loss,dB + Lshadowing ,dB + Lshort term fading ,dB
(what about if all quantities are in linear scale?)
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Notes on power levels :
1. dBw=10 log10 [ P (in W )]
2. dBm=10 log10 [ P (in mW)]
P
3. dB is a power ratio, ie. 10 log10 1
P2
Reflection, diffraction and scattering are the three major causes which impact
propagation in a mobile communication system.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Reflection
Reflection coefficient of ground (a) vertical polarization (v) or E field in the plane of
incidence. (b) horizontal polarization (h) or E field perpendicular to the incident plane
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
E (x)
k (z)
H (y)
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Propagation over smooth plane : the received signal is the phasor sum of the direct
wave and the reflected wave from the plane (2-ray model).
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Received
power in dB
First Fresnel
Third Fresnel zone
zone
40dB/decade
Second Fresnel
zone
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Distance from BS
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
The phase relationship between the reflected ground wave and the direct wave
changes with distance and antenna height. Signal nulls appear if the components are
in anti-phase. The first so-called Fresnel zone distance D f is a useful parameter in
cellular design.
Two ray models are only used to understand the path loss mechanism. In general,
multiple reflection paths present, and have impact on the path loss, shadowing and
short-term fading phenomenon.
In open terrian, actual measured power is normally much higher, ie, n < 4 , or logdistance path loss model is generally given as
Pr 1
Pt d
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, 3 < n < 4.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Diffraction
Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth,
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
beyond the horizon, and to propagate behind obstacles.
The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygens Principle.
Each element of a wavefront (a surface of constant phase) at a point in time may be
regarded as the centre of a secondary disturbance, which gives rise to spherical
wavelets.
The position of the wavefront at any later time is the envelope of all such wavelets.
Youngs double slit experiment: a series of interference fringes were viewed
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Youngs single slit experiment
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Knife-edge object
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and
buildings is essential in predicting the field strength in a given service area. It is
mathematically difficult to make very precise estimates of the diffraction losses over
complex and irregular terrian. Some cases have been derived, such as propagation
over a knife-edge object.
Multiple Knife-edge diffraction : For the presence of two knife edges, replace it by an
equivalent knife edge. One way is as follow.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Scattering
When encountering rough surfaces, reflected energy is spread out in all directions.
It is therefore expected that the received signal is stronger than predicted from
reflection and diffraction models alone.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Log Distance Path Loss Models
Pt
Beyond this point, the
relationship not
necessary still valid
Po
P
d0
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
After considering all these effects, log-distance path loss model is given as
n
1
Pr
d
where n is the path loss exponent. For Free-space propagation model, n=2, and for tworay model n=4.
At a reference point d 0 with received power P0 , can show that
n
d
Pr d 0
= =
P0 d
d0
The path loss from the reference point
L path (d ) = P0 (in dB) - Pr (in dB)
d
= 10n log10
d0
Be careful if we want to extrapolate the curve for d < d 0 , which follows another rule.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Pt
Po
P1
d
d0
n0
d
d1
n1
Pr
d0
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
The value of n depends on the amount of clutter in the environment. Usually
Environment
Free space
Urban area cellular radio
2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio
3 to 5
In building line-of-sight
1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building
4 to 6
Obstructed in factories
2 to 3
Sometime different values are used for n depending on the distance from the
transmitter.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
n does not directly reflect the strength of the received power, for example,
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Log-normal Shadowing
Two locations at the same distance from the transmitter can experience substantial
differences in signal level compared to the expected average value. This phenomenon
is caused by large buildings, foliage, etc that obstruct the propagation path and is
known as shadowing.
Experimental trails have shown that shadowing effects can be well modeled by a RV
with a log-normal distribution.
d
L path + shadowing (d ) = 10 n log10 + X
d0
Log-normal distribution
1. X = e Y where Y is normally distributed.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
2. A Gaussian distribution on a log-scale, ie. If xs be the attenuation due to
shadowing. Then
X dB = 10 log10 xs , then
X 2
dB
exp
f ( X dB ) =
2
2 X dB
2 X dB
The standard deviation X dB is known as the shadow dB spread.
1
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
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Empirical Models
Many empirical models have been suggested in the literature. Okumuras model has
gained widespread acceptance. This model is based entirely on measurements.
L path = L free + Amu ( f , d ) G (ht ) G (hr ) G Area
h
G (ht ) = 20 log10 ( t )
1000 m < ht < 10 m
200
h
G (hr ) = 10 log10 ( r )
hr 3 m
3
G (hr ) = 20 log10 (
hr
)
3
10 m > hr > 3 m
where Amu is the attenuation relative to free space, ht is the base station antenna
height, hr is the mobile antenna height, G(.) is the antenna height gain factor for the
base or mobile station, and G Area is the gain due to the type of environment.
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Other corrections may also be applied to Okumuras model. Some of the important
terrain such as slope of terrain, mixed land-sea parameters,
Hatas model : Empirical formulation of Okumuras model.
L = 69.55 + 26.16 log( f MHz ) 13.82 log(ht ) a (hr )
+ [44.9 6.55 log(ht )]log(d km )
For a small/medium city: a(hr ) = [1.1log( f MHz ) 0.7]hr [1.56 log( f MHz ) 0.8]
For a large city, where f c < 300MHz : a (hr ) = 8.29[log(1.54hr )]2 1.1
For a large city, where f c > 300MHz : a (hr ) = 3.2[log(11.75hr )]2 4.97
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Summary
Receiver
Source
Transmit
antenna
Path Loss
Shadowing Fast fading
Multiplicative
noise
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Receive
antenna
AWGN
Additive
noise
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EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Other useful References
Antenna and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems by Simon R. Saunders
More channel models for pico, micro and macro-cell can be found in the book
Mobile Communications Engineering, by William CY Lee More description on the principle
behind the channel characterization, and provide with the relevant references.
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