Definition and Mathematics of Work

In the first three units of The Physics Classroom, we utilized Newton's laws to
analyze the motion of objects. Force and mass information were used to
determine the acceleration of an object. Acceleration information was
subsequently used to determine information about the velocity or
displacement of an object after a given period of time. In this manner,
Newton's laws serve as a useful model for analyzing motion and making
predictions about the final state of an object's motion. In this unit, an entirely
different model will be used to analyze the motion of objects. Motion will be
approached from the perspective of work and energy. The affect that work
has upon the energy of an object (or system of objects) will be investigated;
the resulting velocity and/or height of the object can then be predicted from
energy information. In order to understand this work-energy approach to the
analysis of motion, it is important to first have a solid understanding of a few
basic terms. Thus, Lesson 1 of this unit will focus on the definitions and
meanings
of
such
terms
as
work, mechanical
energy, potential
energy, kinetic energy, and power.

When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of

the object, it is said that work was done upon the object.
There are three keyingredients to work - force, displacement, and cause. In
order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a
displacement and the force must cause the displacement. There are several
good examples of work that can be observed in everyday life - a horse
pulling a plow through the field, a father pushing a grocery cart down the
aisle of a grocery store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her
shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a barbell above his head, an Olympian
launching the shot-put, etc. In each case described here there is a force
exerted upon an object to cause that object to be displaced.

Read the following five statements and determine whether or not they
represent examples of work. Then click on the See Answer button to view the
answer.

A teacher applies a force to a wall and becomes exhausted.

No.
This is not an example of work. The wall is not displaced. A force must cause
a displacement in order for work to be done.
A book falls off a table and free falls to the ground.
Yes.
This is an example of work. There is a force (gravity) which acts on the book
which causes it to be displaced in a downward direction (i.e., "fall").
A waiter carries a tray full of meals above his head by one arm straight
across the room at constant speed. (Careful! This is a very difficult question
that will be discussed in more detail later.)
No.
This is not an example of work. There is a force (the waiter pushes up on the
tray) and there is a displacement (the tray is moved horizontally across the
room). Yet the force does not cause the displacement. To cause a
displacement, there must be a component of force in the direction of the
displacement.
A rocket accelerates through space.
Yes.
This is an example of work. There is a force (the expelled gases push on the
rocket) which causes the rocket to be displaced through space.
Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following equation.
where F is the force, d is the displacement, and the angle (theta) is defined
as the angle between the force and the displacement vector. Perhaps the
most difficult aspect of the above equation is the angle "theta." The angle is
not just any 'ole angle, but rather a very specific angle. The angle measure is
defined as the angle between the force and the displacement. To gather an
idea of it's meaning, consider the following three scenarios.

Scenario A: A force acts

rightward upon an object as it
is displaced rightward. In such
an instance, the force vector
and the displacement vector
are in the same direction.
Thus, the angle between F and
d is 0 degrees.

Scenario B: A force acts

leftward upon an object that is
displaced rightward. In such an
instance, the force vector and
the displacement vector are in
the opposite direction. Thus, the angle between F and d is 180 degrees.

Scenario C: A force acts upward on an object as it is displaced

rightward. In such an instance, the force vector and the displacement
vector are at right angles to each other. Thus, the angle between F and d
is 90 degrees.

To Do Work, Forces Must Cause Displacements

Let's consider Scenario C above in more detail. Scenario C involves a

situation similar to the waiter who carried a tray full of meals above his head
by one arm straight across the room at constant speed. It was mentioned
earlier that the waiter does not do work upon the tray as he carries it across
the room. The force supplied by the waiter on the tray is an upward force and
the displacement of the tray is a horizontal displacement. As such, the angle
between the force and the displacement is 90 degrees. If the work done by
the waiter on the tray were to be calculated, then the results would be 0.
Regardless of the magnitude of the force and displacement, F*d*cosine 90
degrees is 0 (since the cosine of 90 degrees is 0). A vertical force can never
cause a horizontal displacement; thus, a vertical force does not do work on a
horizontally displaced object!!
It can be accurately noted that the waiter's
hand did push forward on the tray for a brief
period of time to accelerate it from rest to a
final walking speed. But once up to speed, the
tray will stay in its straight-line motion at a
constant speed without a forward force. And if

the only force exerted upon the tray during the constant speed stage of its
motion is upward, then no work is done upon the tray. Again, a vertical force
does not do work on a horizontally displaced object.
The equation for work lists three variables - each variable is associated with
one of the three key words mentioned in the definition of work (force,
displacement, and cause). The angle theta in the equation is associated with
the amount of force that causes a displacement. As mentioned in a previous
unit, when a force is exerted on an object at an angle to the horizontal, only
a part of the force contributes to (or causes) a horizontal displacement. Let's
consider the force of a chain pulling upwards and rightwards upon Fido in
order to drag Fido to the right. It is only the horizontal component of the
tension force in the chain that causes Fido to be displaced to the right. The
horizontal component is found by multiplying the force F by the cosine of the
angle between F and d. In this sense, the cosine theta in the work equation
relates to the cause factor - it selects the portion of the force that actually
causes a displacement.

The Meaning of Theta

When determining the measure of the angle in the work

equation, it is important to recognize that the angle has a
precise definition - it is the angle between the force and the displacement
vector. Be sure to avoid mindlessly using any 'ole angle in the equation. A
common physics lab involves applying a force to displace a cart up a ramp to
the top of a chair or box. A force is applied to a cart to displace it up the
incline at constant speed. Several incline angles are typically used; yet, the
force is always applied parallel to the incline. The displacement of the cart is
also parallel to the incline. Since F and d are in the same direction, the angle
theta in the work equation is 0 degrees. Nevertheless, most students
experienced the strong temptation to measure the angle of incline and use it
in the equation. Don't forget: the angle in the equation is not just any 'ole
angle. It is defined as the angle between the force and the displacement
vector.

The Meaning of Negative Work

On occasion, a force acts upon a moving object to

hinder a displacement. Examples might include a car
skidding to a stop on a roadway surface or a baseball
runner sliding to a stop on the infield dirt. In such
instances, the force acts in the direction opposite the
objects motion in order to slow it down. The force
doesn't cause the displacement but rather hinders it.
These situations involve what is commonly
called negative work. The negative of negative work refers to the numerical
value that results when values of F, d and theta are substituted into the work
equation. Since the force vector is directly opposite the displacement vector,
theta is 180 degrees. The cosine(180 degrees) is -1 and so a negative value
results for the amount of work done upon the object. Negative work will
become important (and more meaningful) in Lesson 2 as we begin to discuss
the relationship between work and energy.

Units of Work
Whenever a new quantity is introduced in physics, the standard metric units
associated with that quantity are discussed. In the case of work (and also
energy), the standard metric unit is the Joule (abbreviated J). One Joule is
equivalent to one Newton of force causing a displacement of one meter. In
other words,

The Joule is the unit of work.

1 Joule = 1 Newton * 1 meter

1J=1N*m

In fact, any unit of force times any unit of displacement is equivalent to a

unit of work. Some nonstandard units for work are shown below. Notice that
when analyzed, each set of units is equivalent to a force unit times a
displacement unit.

In summary, work is done when a force acts upon an object to cause a

displacement. Three quantities must be known in order to calculate the
amount of work. Those three quantities are force, displacement and the
angle between the force and the displacement.

Calculating the Amount of Work Done by Forces

In a previous part of Lesson 1, work was described as taking place when a
force acts upon an object to cause a displacement. When a force acts to
cause an object to be displaced, three quantities must be known in order to
calculate the work. Those three quantities are force, displacement and the
angle between the force and the displacement. The work is subsequently
calculated as forcedisplacementcosine(theta) where theta is the angle
between the force and the displacement vectors. In this part of Lesson 1, the
concepts and mathematics of work will be applied in order to analyze a
variety of physical situations.

Check Your Understanding

Express your understanding of the concept and mathematics of work by

answering the following questions. When done, click the button to view the
answers.
1. Apply the work equation to determine the amount of work done by the
applied force in each of the three situations described below.

Diagram A Answer:
W = (100 N) * (5 m)* cos(0 degrees) = 500 J
The force and the displacement are given in the problem statement. It is said
(or shown or implied) that the force and the displacement are both
rightward. Since F and d are in the same direction,the angle is 0 degrees.

Diagram B Answer:
W = (100 N) * (5 m) * cos(30 degrees) = 433 J
The force and the displacement are given in theproblem statement. It is said
that the displacement is rightward. It is shown that the force is 30 degrees
above the horizontal. Thus, the angle between F and d is 30 degrees.

Diagram C Answer:
W = (147 N) * (5 m) * cos(0 degrees) = 735 J
The displacement is given in the problem statement. The applied force must
be 147 N since the 15-kg mass (Fgrav=147 N) is lifted at constant speed. Since
F and d are in the same direction, the angle is 0 degrees.

2. On many occasions, there is more than one force acting upon an object.
A free-body diagram is a diagram that depicts the type and the direction of
all the forces acting upon an object. The following descriptions and their
accompanying free-body diagrams show the forces acting upon an object.

For each case, indicate which force(s) are doing work upon the object. Then
calculate the work done by these forces.

Free-Body
Diagram

Forces
Doing
Work
on the
Object

Amount of
Work Done
by Each
Force

A 10-N force is applied to push a block across a

friction free surface for a displacement of 5.0 m to
the right.

Only Fapp does work. Fgrav and Fnorm do not do work since a vertical force cannot
cause a horizontal displacement.
Wapp= (10 N) * (5 m) *cos (0 degrees) = +50 Joules
A 10-N frictional force slows a moving block to a stop after a displacement of
5.0 m to the right.

Wfrict =(10 N) * (5 m) * cos (180 degrees) = -50 Joules

A 10-N force is applied to push a block across a frictional surface at constant
speed for a displacement of 5.0 m to the right.

Wapp = (10 N) * (5 m) * cos (0 deg) = +50 Joules

Wfrict = (10 N) * (5 m) * cos (180 deg) = -50 Joules

An approximately 2-kg object is sliding at constant speed across a friction

free surface for a displacement of 5 m to the right.

No work is done.
An approximately 2-kg object is pulled upward at constant speed by a 20-N
force for a vertical displacement of 5 m.

3. Before beginning its initial descent, a roller coaster car is always pulled up
the first hill to a high initial height. Work is done on the car (usually by a
chain) to achieve this initial height. A coaster designer is considering three
different incline angles at which to drag the 2000-kg car train to the top of
the 60-meter high hill. In each case, the force applied to the car will be
applied parallel to the hill. Her critical question is: which angle would require
the most work? Analyze the data, determine the work done in each case, and
answer this critical question.
a.

Angle
35 deg

Force
1.12 x 104 N

Distance
105 m

b.

45 deg

1.39 x 104 N

84.9 m

c.

55 deg

1.61 x 104 N

73.2 m

Work (J)

Be careful!
The angle in the table is the incline angle. The angle theta in the equation is
the angle between F and d. If the F is parallel to the incline and the d is
parallel to the incline, then the angle theta in the work equation is 0 degrees.
For this reason, W=F*d*cosine 0 degrees.
In each case, the work is approximately 1.18 x106 Joules.
The angle does not affect the amount of work done on the roller coaster car.
4. Ben Travlun carries a 200-N suitcase up three flights of stairs (a height of
10.0 m) and then pushes it with a horizontal force of 50.0 N at a constant

speed of 0.5 m/s for a horizontal distance of 35.0 meters. How much work
does Ben do on his suitcase during this entire motion?
The motion has two parts: pulling vertically to displace the suitcase vertically
(angle = 0 degrees) and pushing horizontally to displace the suitcase
horizontally (angle = 0 degrees).
For the vertical part, W = (200 N) * (10 m) * cos (0 deg) = 2000 J.
For the horizontal part, W = (50 N) * (35 m) * cos (0 deg) = 1750 J.
The total work done is 3750 J (the sum of the two parts).

5. A force of 50 N acts on the block at the angle shown in the diagram. The
block moves a horizontal distance of 3.0 m. How much work is done by the
applied force?

W = F * d * cos(Theta)
W = (50 N) * (3 m) * cos (30 degrees) = 129.9 Joules
6. How much work is done by an applied force to lift a 15-Newton block 3.0
meters vertically at a constant speed?
To lift a 15-Newton block at constant speed, 15-N of force must be applied to
it (Newton's laws). Thus,

W = (15 N) * (3 m) * cos (0 degrees) = 45 Joules

7. A student with a mass of 80.0 kg runs up three flights of stairs in 12.0 sec. The
student has gone a vertical distance of 8.0 m. Determine the amount of work done
by the student to elevate his body to this height. Assume that her speed is
constant.

The student weighs 784 N (Fgrav= 80 kg * 9.8 m/s/s).

To lift a 784-Newton person at constant speed, 784 N of force must be

applied to it (Newton's laws). The force is up, the displacement is up, and so
the angle theta in the work equation is 0 degrees. Thus,

W = (784 N) * (8 m) * cos (0 degrees) = 6272 Joules

8. Calculate the work done by a 2.0-N force (directed at a
30 angle to the vertical) to move a 500 gram box a
horizontal distance of 400 cm across a rough floor at a
constant speed of 0.5 m/s. (HINT: Be cautious with the
units.)
Here is a good example of the importance of understanding the angle
between F and d. In this problem, the d is horizontal and the F is at a 60degree angle to the horizontal. Thus, theta is 60 degrees.

W = (2.0 N) * (4.00 m) * cos (60 degrees) = 4.0 J

9. A tired squirrel (mass of 1 kg) does push-ups by applying a force to
elevate its center-of-mass by 5 cm. Estimate the number of push-ups that a
tired squirrel must do in order to do a approximately 5.0 Joules of work.

The squirrel applies a force of approximately 10 N (9.8 N to be exact) to raise

its body at constant speed. The displacement is 0.05 meters. The angle
between the upward force and the upward displacement is 0 degrees. The
work for 1 push-up is approximately
W = 10 N * 0.05 m * cos 0 degrees = 0.5 Joules
If the squirrel does a total of 5.0 Joules of work, then it must have done
about 10 push-ups

Potential Energy
An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the
heavy ball of a demolition machine is storing energy when it is held at an
elevated position. This stored energy of position is referred to as potential

energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to store energy as the result of its
position. When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not drawn), there is no
energy stored in the bow. Yet when its position is altered from its usual
equilibrium position, the bow is able to store energy by virtue of its position.
This stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Potential
energy is the stored energy of position possessed by an object.

Gravitational Potential Energy

The two examples above illustrate the two forms of potential energy to be
discussed in this course - gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as
the result of its vertical position or height. The energy is stored as the result
of the gravitational attraction of the Earth for the object. The gravitational
potential energy of the massive ball of a demolition machine is dependent on
two variables - the mass of the ball and the height to which it is raised. There
is a direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the mass of an
object. More massive objects have greater gravitational potential energy.
There is also a direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the
height of an object. The higher that an object is elevated, the greater the
gravitational potential energy. These relationships are expressed by the
following equation:

PEgrav = mass g height

PEgrav = m * g h

In the above equation, m represents the mass of the object, hrepresents the
height of the object and g represents the gravitational field strength (9.8
N/kg on Earth) - sometimes referred to as the acceleration of gravity.
To determine the gravitational potential energy of an object, a zero height
position must first be arbitrarily assigned. Typically, the ground is considered
to be a position of zero height. But this is merely an arbitrarily assigned
position that most people agree upon. Since many of our labs are done on
tabletops, it is often customary to assign the tabletop to be the zero height
position. Again this is merely arbitrary. If the tabletop is the zero position,
then the potential energy of an object is based upon its height relative to the
tabletop. For example, a pendulum bob swinging to and from above the
tabletop has a potential energy that can be measured based on its height
above the tabletop. By measuring the mass of the bob and the height of the
bob above the tabletop, the potential energy
of the bob can be determined.
Since the gravitational potential energy of an
object is directly proportional to its height
above the zero position, a doubling of the
height will result in a doubling of the
gravitational potential energy. Atripling of the
height will result in a tripling of the
gravitational potential energy.

Use this principle to determine the blanks in the following diagram. Knowing
that the potential energy at the top of the tall platform is 50 J, what is the
potential energy at the other positions shown on the stair steps and the
incline?

A: PE = 40 J (since the same mass is elevated to 4/5-ths height of the top

stair)
B: PE = 30 J (since the same mass is elevated to 3/5-ths height of the top
stair)
C: PE = 20 J (since the same mass is elevated to 2/5-ths height of the top
stair)
D: PE = 10 J (since the same mass is elevated to 1/5-ths height of the top
stair)
E and F: PE = 0 J (since the same mass is at the same zero height position
as shown for the bottom stair).

Elastic Potential Energy

The second form of potential energy that we will discuss is elastic potential
energy.Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as
the result of their stretching or compressing. Elastic potential energy can be
stored in rubber bands, bungee chords, trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn
into a bow, etc. The amount of elastic potential energy stored in such a
device is related to the amount of stretch of the device - the more stretch,
the more stored energy.
Springs are a special instance of a device
that can store elastic potential energy due
to either compression or stretching. A force
is required to compress a spring; the more
compression there is, the more force that is required to compress it further.

For certain springs, the amount of force is directly proportional to the amount
of stretch or compression (x); the constant of proportionality is known as the
spring constant (k).

Such springs are said to follow Hooke's Law. If a spring is not stretched or
compressed, then there is no elastic potential energy stored in it. The spring
is said to be at its equilibrium position. The equilibrium position is the
position that the spring naturally assumes when there is no force applied to
it. In terms of potential energy, the equilibrium position could be called the
zero-potential energy position. There is a special equation for springs that
relates the amount of elastic potential energy to the amount of stretch (or
compression) and the spring constant. The equation is

To summarize, potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object due

to its position relative to some zero position. An object possesses
gravitational potential energy if it is positioned at a height above (or below)
the zero height. An object possesses elastic potential energy if it is at a
position on an elastic medium other than the equilibrium position.

Check Your Understanding

Check your understanding of the concept of potential energy by answering

the following questions. When finished, click the button to view the answers.

1. A cart is loaded with a brick and pulled at constant speed along an inclined
plane to the height of a seat-top. If the mass of the loaded cart is 3.0 kg and
the height of the seat top is 0.45 meters, then what is the potential energy of
the loaded cart at the height of the seat-top?

PE = m*g*h
PE = (3 kg ) * (9.8 m/s/s) * (0.45 m)
PE = 13.2 J
2. If a force of 14.7 N is used to drag the loaded cart (from previous question) along
the incline for a distance of 0.90 meters, then how much work is done on the loaded
cart?

W = F * d * cos Theta
W = 14.7 N * 0.9 m * cos (0 degrees)
W = 13.2 J

(Note: The angle between F and d is 0 degrees because the F and d are in
the same directionn)
Note that the work done to lift the loaded cart up the inclined plane at constant
speed is equal to the potential energy change of the cart. This is not coincidental!
The reason for the relation between the potential energy change of the cart and the
work done upon it is the subject ofLesson 2.

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object that has motion - whether
it is vertical or horizontal motion - has kinetic energy. There are many forms
of kinetic energy - vibrational (the energy due to vibrational motion),
rotational (the energy due to rotational motion), and translational (the
energy due to motion from one location to another). To keep matters simple,
we will focus upon translational kinetic energy. The amount of translational
kinetic energy (from here on, the phrase kinetic energy will refer to
translational kinetic energy) that an object has depends upon two variables:
the mass (m) of the object and the speed (v) of the object. The following
equation is used to represent the kinetic energy (KE) of an object.

where m = mass of object

v = speed of object
This equation reveals that the kinetic energy of an object is directly
proportional to the square of its speed. That means that for a twofold
increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of four. For a
threefold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of
nine. And for a fourfold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by
a factor of sixteen. The kinetic energy is dependent upon the square of the
speed. As it is often said, an equation is not merely a recipe for algebraic
problem solving, but also a guide to thinking about the relationship between
quantities.
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not have a
direction. Unlikevelocity, acceleration, force,
and momentum, the kinetic energy of an object is
completely described by magnitude alone. Like work and potential energy,
the standard metric unit of measurement for kinetic energy is the Joule. As
might be implied by the above equation, 1 Joule is equivalent to 1
kg*(m/s)^2.

Check Your Understanding

Use your understanding of kinetic energy to answer the following questions.
Then click the button to view the answers.
1. Determine the kinetic energy of a 625-kg roller coaster car that is moving
with a speed of 18.3 m/s.
KE = 0.5*m*v2
KE = (0.5) * (625 kg) * (18.3 m/s)2
KE = 1.05 x105 Joules
2. If the roller coaster car in the above problem were moving with twice the speed,
then what would be its new kinetic energy?

If the speed is doubled, then the KE is quadrupled. Thus, KE = 4 * (1.04653

x 105 J) = 4.19 x 105 Joules.
or
KE = 0.5*m*v2
KE = 0.5*625 kg*(36.6 m/s)2
KE = 4.19 x 105 Joules
3. Missy Diwater, the former platform diver for the Ringling Brother's Circus, had a
kinetic energy of 12 000 J just prior to hitting the bucket of water. If Missy's mass is
40 kg, then what is her speed?

KE = 0.5*m*v2
12 000 J = (0.5) * (40 kg) * v2
300 J = (0.5) * v2
600 J = v2
v = 24.5 m/s
4. A 900-kg compact car moving at 60 mi/hr has approximately 320 000 Joules of
kinetic energy. Estimate its new kinetic energy if it is moving at 30 mi/hr. (HINT: use
the kinetic energy equation as a "guide to thinking.")

KE = 80 000 J

The KE is directly related to the square of the speed. If the speed is reduced
by a factor of 2 (as in from 60 mi/hr to 30 mi/hr) then the KE will be reduced
by a factor of 4. Thus, the new KE is (320 000 J)/4 or 80 000 J.

Mechanical Energy
In a previous part of Lesson 1, it was said that work is done upon an object
whenever a force acts upon it to cause it to be displaced. Work involves a force
acting upon an object to cause a displacement. In all instances in which work is
done, there is an object that supplies the force in order to do the work. If a World
Civilization book is lifted to the top shelf of a student locker, then the student
supplies the force to do the work on the book. If a plow is displaced across a field,
then some form of farm equipment (usually a tractor or a horse) supplies the force
to do the work on the plow. If a pitcher winds up and accelerates a baseball towards

home plate, then the pitcher supplies the force to do the work on the baseball. If a
roller coaster car is displaced from ground level to the top of the first drop of a roller
coaster ride, then a chain driven by a motor supplies the force to do the work on the
car. If a barbell is displaced from ground level to a height above a weightlifter's
head, then the weightlifter is supplying a force to do work on the barbell. In all
instances, an object that possesses some form of energy supplies the force to do
the work. In the instances described here, the objects doing the work (a student, a
tractor, a pitcher, a motor/chain) possess chemical potential energy stored in food
or fuel that is transformed into work. In the process of doing work, the object that is
doing the work exchanges energy with the object upon which the work is done.
When the work is done upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy
acquired by the objects upon which work is done is known as mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its

motion or due to its position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic
energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position).
Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at
some position relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a
brick held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height position). A
moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its motion (kinetic energy).
A moving baseball possesses mechanical energy due to both its high speed
(kinetic energy) and its vertical position above the ground
(gravitational potential energy). A World Civilization book at rest on the top
shelf of a locker possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position
above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A barbell lifted high above
a weightlifter's head possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position
above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A drawn bow possesses
mechanical energy due to its stretched position
(elasticpotential energy).

Mechanical Energy as the Ability to Do Work

An object that possesses mechanical energy is able
to do work. In fact, mechanical energy is often
defined as the ability to do work. Any object that possesses mechanical
energy - whether it is in the form of potential energy or kinetic energy - is
able to do work. That is, its mechanical energy enables that object to apply a
force to another object in order to cause it to be displaced.

Numerous examples can be given of how an object

with mechanical energy can harness that energy in
order to apply a force to cause another object to be
displaced. A classic example involves the massive
wrecking ball of a demolition machine. The wrecking ball is a massive object
that is swung backwards to a high position and allowed to swing forward into
building structure or other object in order to demolish it. Upon hitting the
structure, the wrecking ball applies a force to it in order to cause the wall of
the structure to be displaced. The diagram below depicts the process by
which the mechanical energy of a wrecking ball can be used to do work.

A hammer is a tool that utilizes mechanical energy to do work. The

mechanical energy of a hammer gives the hammer its ability to apply a force
to a nail in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the hammer has
mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the
nail. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

Another example that illustrates how mechanical

energy is the ability of an object to do work can be
seen any evening at your local bowling alley. The
mechanical energy of a bowling ball gives the ball the
ability to apply a force to a bowling pin in order to
cause it to be displaced. Because the massive ball has mechanical energy (in
the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the pin. Mechanical
energy is the ability to do work.

A dart gun is still another example of how mechanical energy

of an object can do work on another object. When a dart gun
is loaded and the springs are compressed, it possesses
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of the
compressed springs gives the springs the ability to apply a force to the dart
in order to cause it to be displaced. Because of the springs have mechanical
energy (in the form of elastic potential energy), it is able to do work on the
dart.
Mechanical energy is the
ability to do
work.
A common
scene in some parts of the
countryside is a
"wind farm." High-speed winds
are used to do work on the blades of a turbine at the so-called wind farm.
The mechanical energy of the moving air gives the air particles the ability to
apply a force and cause a displacement of the blades. As the blades spin,
their energy is subsequently converted into electrical energy (a nonmechanical form of energy) and supplied to homes and industries in order to
run electrical appliances. Because the moving wind has mechanical energy
(in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the blades. Once
more, mechanical energy is the ability to do
work.

The Total Mechanical Energy

As already mentioned, the mechanical energy
of an object can be the result of its motion
(i.e., kinetic energy) and/or the result of its stored energy of position
(i.e., potential energy). The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the
sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. This sum is simply
referred to as the total mechanical energy (abbreviated TME).

TME = PE + KE

As discussed earlier, there are two forms of potential energy discussed in our
course - gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Given
this fact, the above equation can be rewritten:

TME = PEgrav + PEspring + KE

The diagram below depicts the motion of Li Ping Phar (esteemed Chinese ski
jumper) as she glides down the hill and makes one of her record-setting
jumps.

The total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is the sum of the potential and
kinetic energies. The two forms of energy sum up to 50 000 Joules. Notice
also that the total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is a constant value
throughout her motion. There are conditions under which the total
mechanical energy will be a constant value and conditions under which it will
be a changing value. This is the subject ofLesson 2 - the work-energy
relationship. For now, merely remember that total mechanical energy is the
energy possessed by an object due to either its motion or its stored energy
of position. The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of
these two forms of energy. And finally, an object with mechanical energy is
able to do work on another object.

Power
The quantity work has to do with a force causing a displacement. Work has nothing
to do with the amount of time that this force acts to cause the displacement.
Sometimes, the work is done very quickly and other times the work is done rather
slowly. For example, a rock climber takes an abnormally long time to elevate her
body up a few meters along the side of a cliff. On the other hand, a trail hiker (who
selects the easier path up the mountain) might elevate her body a few meters in a

short amount of time. The two people might do the same amount of work, yet the
hiker does the work in considerably less time than the rock climber. The quantity
that has to do with the rate at which a certain amount of work is done is known as
the power. The hiker has a greater power rating than the rock climber.

Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio.

Mathematically, it is computed using the following equation.

The standard metric unit of power is theWatt. As

is implied by the equation for power, a unit of
power is equivalent to a unit of work divided by a
unit of time. Thus, a Watt is equivalent to a
Joule/second. For historical reasons,
the horsepower is occasionally used to describe the power delivered by a
machine. One horsepower is equivalent to approximately 750 Watts.

Most machines are designed and built to do work on objects. All machines
are typically described by a power rating. The power rating indicates the rate
at which that machine can do work upon other objects. Thus, the power of a
machine is the work/time ratio for that particular machine. A car engine is an
example of a machine that is given a power rating. The power rating relates
to how rapidly the car can accelerate the car. Suppose that a 40-horsepower
engine could accelerate the car from 0 mi/hr to 60 mi/hr in 16 seconds. If this
were the case, then a car with four times the horsepower could do the same
amount of work in one-fourth the time. That is, a 160-horsepower engine
could accelerate the same car from 0 mi/hr to 60 mi/hr in 4 seconds. The
point is that for the same amount of work, power and time are inversely
proportional. The power equation suggests that a more powerful engine can
do the same amount of work in less time.
A person is also a machine that has a power rating.
Some people are more power-full than others. That is,
some people are capable of doing the same amount of work in less time or
more work in the same amount of time. A common physics lab involves

quickly climbing a flight of stairs and using mass, height and time
information to determine a student's personal power. Despite the diagonal
motion along the staircase, it is often assumed that the horizontal motion is
constant and all the force from the steps is used to elevate the student
upward at a constant speed. Thus, the weight of the student is equal to the
force that does the work on the student and the height of the staircase is the
upward displacement. Suppose that Ben Pumpiniron elevates his 80-kg body
up the 2.0-meter stairwell in 1.8 seconds. If this were the case, then we
could calculate Ben's power rating. It can be assumed that Ben must apply
an 800-Newton downward force upon the stairs to elevate his body. By so
doing, the stairs would push upward on Ben's body with just enough force to
lift his body up the stairs. It can also be assumed that the angle between the
force of the stairs on Ben and Ben's displacement is 0 degrees. With these
two approximations, Ben's power rating could be determined as shown
below.

Ben's power rating is 871 Watts. He is quite a horse.

The expression for power is work/time. And since the expression for work is
force*displacement, the expression for power can be rewritten as
(force*displacement)/time. Since the expression for velocity is
displacement/time, the expression for power can be rewritten once more as
force*velocity. This is shown below.

This new equation for power reveals that a

powerful machine is both strong (big force) and
fast (big velocity). A powerful car engine is strong
and fast. A powerful piece of farm equipment is
strong and fast. A powerful weightlifter is strong
and fast. A powerful lineman on a football team
is strong and fast. A machine that is strong
enough to apply a big force to cause a
displacement in a small mount of time (i.e., a big
velocity) is a powerful machine.

Check Your Understanding

Use your understanding of work and power to answer the following

questions. When finished, click the button to view the answers.
1. Two physics students, Will N. Andable and Ben Pumpiniron, are in the
weightlifting room. Will lifts the 100-pound barbell over his head 10 times in
one minute; Ben lifts the 100-pound barbell over his head 10 times in 10
seconds. Which student does the most work? ______________ Which student
delivers the most power? ______________ Explain your
answers.
Ben and Will do the same amount of work. They apply
the same force to lift the same barbell the same distance
above their heads.

Yet, Ben is the most "power-full" since he does the same work in less time.
Power and time are inversely proportional.
2. During a physics lab, Jack and Jill ran up a hill. Jack is twice as massive as Jill; yet
Jill ascends the same distance in half the time. Who did the most work?
______________ Who delivered the most power? ______________ Explain your answers.
Jack does more work than Jill. Jack must apply twice the force to lift his twice-asmassive body up the same flight of stairs. Yet, Jill is just as "power-full" as Jack. Jill
does one-half the work yet does it one-half the time. The reduction in work done is
compensated for by the reduction in time.
3. A tired squirrel (mass of approximately 1 kg) does push-ups by applying a force to
elevate its center-of-mass by 5 cm in order to do a mere 0.50 Joule of work. If the
tired squirrel does all this work in 2 seconds, then determine its power.

The tired squirrel does 0.50 Joule of work in 2.0 seconds. The power rating of
this squirrel is found by
P = W / t = (0.50 J) / (2.0 s) = 0.25 Watts
4. When doing a chin-up, a physics student lifts her 42.0-kg body a distance of 0.25
meters in 2 seconds. What is the power delivered by the
student's biceps?

To raise her body upward at a constant speed, the

student must apply a force which is equal to her weight
(mg). The work done to lift her body is
W = F * d = (411.6 N) * (0.250 m)
W = 102.9 J
The power is the work/time ratio which is (102.9 J) / (2 seconds) = 51.5
Watts (rounded)
5. Your household's monthly electric bill is often expressed in kilowatt-hours.
One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy delivered by the flow of l kilowatt of
electricity for one hour. Use conversion factors to show how many joules of energy
you get when you buy 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity.
Using conversion factors, it can be shown that 1 kilo-watt*hour is equivalent to 3.6
x 106 Joules. First, convert 1 kW-hr to 1000 Watt-hours. Then convert 1000 Watthours to 3.6 x 106 Watt-seconds. Since a Watt-second is equivalent to a Joule, you
have found your answer.

6. An escalator is used to move 20 passengers every minute from the first floor of a
department store to the second. The second floor is located 5.20 meters above the
first floor. The average passenger's mass is 54.9 kg. Determine the power
requirement of the escalator in order to move this number of passengers in this
amount of time.

A good strategy would involve determining the work required to elevate one
average passenger. Then multiply this value by 20 to determine the total
work for elevating 20 passengers. Finally, the power can be determined by
dividing this total work value by the time required to do the work. The
solution goes as follows:
W1 passenger

W1 passenger = F d cos(0 deg)

= (54.9 kg 9.8 m/s2) 5.20 m = 2798 J (rounded)
W20 passengers = 55954 J (rounded)

P = W20 passengers / time = (55954 J) / (60 s)

P = 933 W