INSTITUTE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY

ME-322 Manufacturing Processes

Max Marks: 100

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Figure 1 Orthogonal Forces Cutting Model

The friction force F is the frictional force resisting the flow of the chip along the rake face of the
tool. The normal force to friction is perpendicular to the friction force. These two components
can be used to define the coefficient of friction between the tool and the chip:

= coefficient of friction

F= Friction Force
N=Normal Force
The friction force and its normal force can be added vectorially to form a resultant force R,
which is oriented at an angle b, called the friction angle. The friction angle is related to the
coefficient of friction as

In addition to the tool forces acting on the chip, there are two force components applied by the
work piece on the chip: shear force and normal force to shear. The shear force Fs is the force that
causes shear deformation to occur in the shear plane, and the normal force to shear Fn is
perpendicular to the shear force. Based on the shear force, we can define the shear stress that acts
along the shear plane between the work and the chip:

Where As = area of the shear plane. This shear plane area can be calculated as

The shear stress I represents the level of stress required to perform the machining operation.
Therefore, this stress is equal to the shear strength of the work material (t =S) under the
conditions at which cutting occurs.
Vector addition of the two force components Fs and Fn yields the resultant force R In order for
the forces acting on the chip to be in balance, this resultant R must be equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction, and collinear with the resultant R.
None of the four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can be directly measured in a machining
operation, because the directions in which they are applied vary with different tool geometries
and cutting conditions. However, it is possible for the cutting tool to be instrumented using a
force measuring device called a dynamometer, so that two additional force components acting
against the tool can be directly measured: cutting force and thrust force. The cutting force Fc is
in the direction of cutting, the same direction as the cutting speed v, and the thrust force Ft is
perpendicular to the cutting force and is associated with the chip thickness before the cut to. The
cutting force and thrust force are shown in Figure above. Equations can be derived to relate the
four force components that cannot be measured to the two forces that can be measured. Using the
force diagram

Figure 2

If cutting force and thrust force are known, these four equations can be used to calculate
estimates of shear force, friction force, and normal force to friction. Based on these force
estimates, shear stress and coefficient of friction can be determined.
(b) Define following terms;
i. Ductility
The amount of strain that the material can endure before failure is also a mechanical property of
interest in many manufacturing processes. The common measure of this property is ductility, the
ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture
ii. Feed rate
The product of feed and number of revolution per minute is known as feed rate. Formula of feed
rate is as

iii. Cutting speed

To perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and work. This relative
motion is achieved in most machining operations by means of a primary motion, called the
cutting speed.

iv. Machinability
[12+8]
The property of material that how easily it should be machined. Machinability should be
measured by measuring the tool wear.
*Q.2 (a) Describe the ultrasonic machining process. Mention other processes where
ultrasonic technology is applied and what is the main advantage of application of this
technology?
Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a nontraditional machining process in which abrasives contained
in slurry are driven at high velocity against the work by a tool vibrating at low amplitude and
high frequency. The amplitudes are around 0.075 mm (0.003 in), and the frequencies are
approximately 20,000 Hz. The tool oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the work surface,
and is fed slowly into the work, so that the shape of the tool is formed in the part. However, it is
the action of the abrasives, impinging against the work surface that performs the cutting. The
general arrangement of the USM process is depicted in Figure below Common tool materials
used in USM include soft steel and stainless steel. Abrasive materials in USM include boron
nitride, boron carbide, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide,

Figure 3

And diamond. Grit size (ranges between 100 and 2000. The vibration amplitude should be set
approximately equal to the grit size, and the gap size should be maintained at about two times
grit size. To a significant degree, grit size determines the surface finish on the new work surface.
In addition to surface finish, material removal rate is an important performance variable in
ultrasonic machining. For a given work material, the removal rate in USM increases with

increasing frequency and amplitude of vibration. The cutting action in USM operates on the tool
as well as the work. As the abrasive particles erode the work surface, they also erode the tool,
thus affecting its shape. It is therefore important to know the relative volumes of work material
and tool material removed during the processsimilar to the grinding ratio. This ratio of stock
removed to tool wear varies for different work materials, ranging from around 100:1 for cutting
glass down to about 1:1 for cutting tool steel. The slurry in USM consists of a mixture of water
and abrasive particles. Concentration of abrasives in water ranges from 20% to 60%. The slurry
must be continuously circulated to bring fresh grains into action at the toolwork gap. It also
washes away chips and worn grits created by the cutting process. The development of ultrasonic
machining was motivated by the need to machine hard, brittle work materials, such as ceramics,
glass, and carbides. It is also successfully used on certain metals, such as stainless steel and
titanium. Shapes obtained by USM include non-round holes, holes along a curved axis, and
coining operations, in which an image pattern on the tool is imparted to a flat work surface.
Ultrasonic machining processes are used now a day in followings

Drilling
Die punching
Milling

Advantages

Easy machine process low cost

(b) Describe electro chemical machining process and what are its limitations?
An important group of nontraditional processes use electrical energy to remove material. This
group is identified by the term electrochemical processes, because electrical energy is used in
combination with chemical reactions to accomplish material removal. In effect, these processes
are the reverse of electroplating the work material must be a conductor in the electrochemical
machining processes. The basic process in this group is electrochemical machining (ECM).
Electrochemical machining removes metal from an electrically conductive work piece by anodic
dissolution, in which the shape of the work piece is obtained by a formed electrode tool in close
proximity to, but separated from, the work by a rapidly flowing electrolyte. ECM is basically a
deplating operation. The work piece is the anode, and the tool is the cathode. The principle
underlying the process is that material is deplated from the anode (the positive pole) and
deposited onto the cathode (the negative pole) in the presence of an electrolyte bath. The
difference in ECM is that the electrolyte bath flows rapidly between the two poles to carry off the
deplated material, so that it does not become plated onto the tool. A limitation for
electrochemical machining is that material should be electrically conductive.
(c) What is the strain hardening? Explain with an example of process in which it occurs?
[10+6+4]

Stress increases continuously in the plastic region until necking begins. When this happened in
the engineering stressstrain curve, its significance was lost because an admittedly erroneous
area value was used to calculate stress. Now when the true stress also increases, it cannot be
dismissed so lightly. What it means is that the metal is becoming stronger as strain increases.
This is the property called strain hardening.in all cold working processes the strain hardening
occurs
**Q.3 (a) Describe / explain forging process. What is the main difference in a forged part
and hot rolled part?
Forging
In forging, a work piece is compressed between two opposing dies, so that the die shapes are
imparted to the work. Forging is traditionally a hot working process, but many types of forging
are performed cold. Today, forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety of
high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and other applications. These components
include engine crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, and jet
engine turbine parts. In addition, steel and other basic metals industries use forging to establish
the basic form of large components that are subsequently machined to final shape and
dimensions. Forging is carried out in many different ways. One way to classify the operations is
by working temperature. Most forging operations are performed hot or warm, owing to the
significant deformation demanded by the process and the need to reduce strength and increase
ductility of the work metal. However, cold forging is also very common for certain products. The
advantage of cold forging is the increased strength that results from strain hardening of the
component. Either impact or gradual pressure is used in forging. The distinction derives more
from the type of equipment used than differences in process technology. A forging machine that
applies an impact load is called a forging hammer, while one that applies gradual pressure is
called a forging press.
Hot Rolling
Most rolling processes are very capital intensive, requiring massive pieces of equipment, called
rolling mills, to perform them. The high investment cost requires the mills to be used for
production in large quantities of standard items such as sheets and plates. Most rolling is carried
out by hot working, called hot rolling, owing to the large amount of deformation required. Hotrolled metal is generally free of residual stresses, and its properties are isotropic. Disadvantages
of hot rolling are that the product cannot be held to close tolerances.
Differences
The basic difference in the rolling and forging is that in forging the process is carried out on the
bulk of material and in hot rolling it is done in the sheet mostly.in forging different types of dies
are used and also hydraulic hammer are used but in hot rolling the sheet is just passed through
the rollers.
(b) Explain the difference between wire drawing and bar drawing.
The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the stock size that is processed.
Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and rod stock, while wire drawing applies to

small diameter stock. Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in) are possible in wire drawing.
Although the mechanics of the process are the same for the two cases, the methods, equipment,
and even the terminology are somewhat different.
(c) Define yield strength and what is its effect on processing?
[12+5+3]
The point where the stressstrain curve for the material intersects a line that is parallel to the
straight portion of the curve but offset from it by a strain of 0.2%. The yield point is a strength
characteristic of the material, and is therefore often referred to as the yield strength (other names
include yield stress and elastic limit).yield strength decreases by increasing the temperature and
in hot working the process may get easier to perform.
***Q.4 (a) Explain TIG welding and MIG welding processes and compare these processes
in process and application point of view?
TIG Welding
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an AW process that uses a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and an inert gas for arc shielding. The term TIG welding (tungsten inert gas welding) is
often applied to this process. GTAW can be implemented with or without a filler metal. Figure
30.9 illustrates the latter case. When a filler metal is used, it is added to the weld pool from a
separate rod or wire, being melted by the heat of the arc rather than transferred across the arc as
in the consumable electrode AW processes. Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high
melting point of 3410 C (6170 F). Typical shielding gases include argon, helium, or a mixture of
these gas elements.
MIG Welding
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an AW process in which the electrode is a consumable bare
metal wire, and shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc with a gas. The bare wire is fed
continuously and automatically from a spool through the welding gun, as illustrated in Figure
30.4. A welding gun is shown in Figure 30.5. Wire diameters ranging from0.8 to 6.5 mm (1/32
1/4 in) are used in GMAW, the size depending on the thickness of the parts being joined and the
desired deposition rate. Gases used for shielding include inert gases such as argon and helium,
and active gases such as carbon dioxide. Selection of gases (and mixtures of gases) depends on
the metal being welded, as well as other factors. Inert gases are used for welding aluminum
alloys and stainless steels, while CO2 is commonly used for welding low and medium carbon
steels. The combination of bare electrode wire and shielding gases eliminates the slag covering
on the weld bead and thus precludes the need for manual grinding and cleaning of the slag. The
GMAW process is therefore ideal for making multiple welding passes on the same joint.
Industrial Applications
GTAW is applicable to nearly all metals in a wide range of stock thicknesses. It can also be used
for joining various combinations of dis similar metals. Its most common applications are for
aluminum and stainless steel. Cast irons, wrought irons, and of course tungsten are difficult to
weld by GTAW. In steel welding applications, GTAW is generally slower and more costly than
the consumable electrode AW processes, except when thin sections are involved and very-highquality welds are required. When thin sheets are TIG welded to close tolerances, filler metal is

usually not added. The process can be performed manually or by machine and automated
methods for all joint types. Advantages of GTAW in the applications to which it is suited include
high-quality welds, no weld spatter because no filler metal is transferred across the arc, and little
or no post weld cleaning because no flux is used.
GMAW is widely used in fabrication operations in factories for welding a variety of ferrous and
nonferrous metals. Because it uses continuous weld wire rather than welding sticks, it has a
significant advantage over SMAW in terms of arc time when performed manually. For the same
reason, it also lends itself to automation of arc welding. The electrode stubs remaining after stick
welding also wastes filler metal, so the utilization of electrode material is higher with GMAW.
Other features of GMAW include elimination of slag removal (since no flux is used), higher
deposition rates than SMAW, and good versatility.
(b) What are the characteristics of good welded joints?
Most weld joints are fusion welded so the followings basic characteristics are the part of
welding. (a), a typical fusion-weld joint in which filler metal has been added consists of several
zones: (1) fusion zone, (2) weld interface, (3) heat-affected zone, and (4) unaffected base metal
zone.
(c) What down the types of flames with their characteristics used in gas welding
[12+5+3]
Followings are the types of the flame.
Carburizing
This kind of flame is used for welding High carbon steel & cast iron. Amount of acetylene gas is
high in carburizing.
Neutral
A flame resulting from the burning of gases supplied in the proper proportions for perfect
combustion as approximately equal volumes of acetylene and oxygen
Oxidizing
Widely used for cutting and not suitable for welding. When the amount of oxygen increases, the
flame shortens but temperature goes too high.
Q.5 (a) What are the possible machining operations which can be carried out on a metal
casted part for making it to fit in assembly?
Following operation can be performed on the casted part
Turning
Turning is a machining process performed on a lathe in which a single point tool removes
material from a rotating cylindrical work piece.
Milling

Milling is one of the basic machining processes, which uses multi-tooth tool that produces
number of chips per revolution and machines a wide variety of part geometries
Drilling
Drilling is used to create round holes in work pieces using a rotating tool with two cutting edges.
This rotating tool is called a drill or drill bit. This operation is normally performed on a drill
press.
(b) What are the factors on the basis of these, a part is selected for EDM operation?

Melting temperature of the material

(c) The face milling operation is used to machine 4.0 mm from the top surface of a rectangular
piece of aluminum 300 mm long by 125 mm wide in a single pass. The cutter follows a path that
is centered over the workpiece. It has four teeth and is 150 mm in diameter. Cutting speed = 2.0
m/s, and chip load = 0.27 mm/tooth. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make the pass
across the surface and (b) the maximum metal removal rate during cutting.
[6+6+8]
The given data of the question is as:
Diameter=150 mm
Length=300 mm
Cutting speed=2.0
Solution may take place as
a)
Formula for time is

2.0=3.14 150 N
N=4.24 rad / sec

Feed rate=4.24 4 0.27=4.58 mm/rev

15021252
150 =33.54 mm2
A=0.5

T m=

300+ 33.54
=72.68 sec=1.21 min
4.58

b)
Formula foe material removal rate is as

R MR=125 4 4.58=2290 mm3 /min