Name : Rizky Dwi Ardiansyah (151221054)

Class : AE2B

ROTORCRAFT

Rotorcraft or rotary-wing aircraft is a heavier-than-air flying machine that uses lift generated by
wings, called rotary wings or rotor blades, that revolve around a mast. Several rotor blades mounted
on a single mast are referred to as a rotor. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
defines a rotorcraft as "supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one or more rotors". [2]
Rotorcraft generally include those aircraft where one or more rotors are required to provide lift
throughout the entire flight, such as helicopters, cyclocopters, autogyros, and gyrodynes. Compound
rotorcraft may also include additional thrust engines or propellers and static lifting surface

Classes of rotorcraft
Helicopter

A helicopter is a rotorcraft whose rotors are driven by the engine(s) throughout the flight to
allow the helicopter to take off vertically, hover, fly forwards, backwards and laterally, as
well as to land vertically. Helicopters have several different configurations of one or more
main rotors.

Helicopters with a single shaft-driven main lift rotor require some sort of antitorque device
such as a tail rotor, fantail, or NOTAR, except some rare examples of helicopters using tip jet
propulsion, which generates almost no torque.

Cyclogyro/Cyclocopter

A cyclocopter is a rotorcraft whose rotors are also driven by the engine throughout the flight,
but the blades rotate about the horizontal axis while being parallel to it. They are being
developed in a number of countries in order to replace the helicopters [citation needed], which have a
number of very serious shortcomings such as low efficiency in forward flight, low speed,
very high noise and vibration levels, limited flight range, and low altitude ceiling. At the
present time flying model prototypes have been built in China, US, S. Korea and Austria.

Autogyro

An autogyro (sometimes called gyrocopter, gyroplane, or rotaplane) utilizes an unpowered

rotor, driven by aerodynamic forces in a state of autorotation to develop lift, and an enginepowered propeller, similar to that of a fixed-wing aircraft, to provide thrust. While similar to
a helicopter rotor in appearance, the autogyro's rotor must have air flowing up and through
the rotor disk in order to generate rotation. Early autogyros resembled the fixed-wing aircraft
of the day, with wings and a front-mounted engine and propeller in a tractor configuration to
pull the aircraft through the air. Late-model autogyros feature a rear-mounted engine and
propeller in a pusher configuration.

The autogyro was invented in 1920 by Juan de la Cierva. The autogyro with pusher propeller
was first tested by Etienne Dormoy with his Buhl A-1 Autogyro

Gyrodyne

Fairey Rotodyne prototype.

The rotor of a gyrodyne is normally driven by its engine for takeoff and landinghovering
like a helicopterwith anti-torque and propulsion for forward flight provided by one or more
propellers mounted on short or stub wings. As power is increased to the propeller, less power
is required by the rotor to provide forward thrust resulting in reduced pitch angles and rotor
blade flapping. At cruise speeds with most or all of the thrust being provided by the
propellers, the rotor receives power only sufficient to overcome the profile drag and maintain
lift. The effect is a rotorcraft operating in a more efficient manner than the freewheeling rotor
of an autogyro in autorotation, minimizing the adverse effects of retreating blade stall of
helicopters at higher airspeeds.

Rotor kite

A rotor kite or gyroglider is an unpowered rotary-wing aircraft. Like an autogyro or

helicopter, it relies on lift created by one or more sets of rotors in order to fly. Unlike a
helicopter, autogyros and rotor kites do not have an engine powering their rotors, but while an

autogyro has an engine providing forward thrust that keeps the rotor turning, a rotor kite has
no engine at all, and relies on either being carried aloft and dropped from another aircraft, or
by being towed into the air behind a car or boat.

Rotor configuration
Number of blades
A rotary wing is characterised by the number of blades. Typically this is between two and six
per driveshaft.

Number of rotors
A rotorcraft may have one or more rotors. Various rotor configurations have been used:

One rotor. Powered rotors require compensation for the torque reaction causing yaw,
except in the case of tipjet drive.

Two rotors. These typically rotate in opposite directions cancelling the torque reaction
so that no tail rotor or other yaw stabiliser is needed. These rotors can be laid out as
o Tandem - One in front of the other.
o Transverse - Side by side.
o Coaxial - One rotor disc above the other, with concentric drive shafts.
o Intermeshing rotors - Twin rotors at an acute angle from each other, whose
nearly-vertical driveshafts are geared together to synchronise their rotor blades
so that they intermesh, also called a synchropter.

Three rotors. An uncommon configuration; the 1948 Cierva Air Horse had three rotors
as it was not believed a single rotor of sufficient strength could be built for its size. All
three rotors turned in the same direction and yaw compensation was provided by
inclining each rotor axis to generate rotor thrust components that opposed torque.

Four rotors. Also referred to as quadcopters/quadrotors, they typically have two rotors
turning clockwise and two counter-clockwise.

More than four rotors. These designs (referred to generally as multirotors, or

sometimes individually as hexacopters[4] and octocopters[5]), have matched sets of
rotors turning in opposite directions, and uncommon in full-size manned aircraft, but
commonly seen in unmanned aerial vehicle.

AIRCRAFT
An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the
force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few
cases the downward thrust from jet engines.
The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Crewed aircraft are flown by an
onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by
onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft
propulsion, usage and others.
Methods of lift
Lighter than air aerostats

A hot air balloon in flight

Main article: Aerostat

Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water.
They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively lowdensity gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air.
When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same
weight as the air that the craft displaces.
Small hot-air balloons called sky lanterns were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd
century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of

aircraft to fly, the first being kites which were first invented in ancient China over two
thousand years ago.
A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered
aircraft designs usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as
referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts." [8] In the 1930s,
large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or
"flying-ships". Though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called
dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change
the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer
framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the
Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or nonrigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with
these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the
demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship" is a
powered one.
A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only to
non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship
(which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a
moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known
as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was widely adopted for tethered
balloons; in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the
balloon. The nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small
dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered.
Heavier-than-air aerodynes

Heavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas
downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft
upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There
are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust: aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of
engine thrust.
Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in
the air by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors
sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in crosssection as an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate lift. A flexible wing is
a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is
tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be
flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary.
With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward. V/STOL aircraft,
such as the Harrier Jump Jet and F-35B take off and land vertically using powered lift and
transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.

A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air
for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been
powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift
at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case.
Fixed-wing

An Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger airliner, flown at the 2007 Air Expo.
Main article: fixed-wing aircraft

The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on
its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies
on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly,
and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites
before test aircraft, wind tunnels, and computer modelling programs became available.
The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders. A glider
designed by Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853.
Practical, powered, fixed-wing aircraft (the aeroplane or airplane) were invented by Wilbur
and Orville Wright. Besides the method of propulsion, fixed-wing aircraft are in general
characterized by their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are:

Number of wings Monoplane, biplane, etc.

Wing support Braced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible.

Wing planform including aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along the span
(including the important class of delta wings).

Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.

Dihedral angle positive, zero, or negative (anhedral).

A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.
A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this
is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control
surfaces.

Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are not considered aircraft. They "fly" efficiently close to the
surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the
Russian ekranoplan (nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster"). Man-powered aircraft also rely
on ground effect to remain airborne with a minimal pilot power, but this is only because they
are so underpowered in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.
Rotorcraft

An autogyro
Main article: Rotorcraft

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary
wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such as
gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.
Helicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to
create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing
thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors
turned by gas jets at the tips.
Autogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is
tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it
spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites
are unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static
anchor in high-wind for kited flight.
Cyclogyros rotate their wings about a horizontal axis.
Compound rotorcraft have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They
are nowadays classified as powered lift types and not as rotorcraft. Tiltrotor aircraft (such as
the V-22 Osprey), tiltwing, tailsitter, and coleopter aircraft have their rotors/propellers
horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.

Other methods of lift

X-24B lifting body, specialized glider

A lifting body is an aircraft body shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they are too
small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are
not efficient: they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at high speed to generate
enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as the Martin-Marietta X-24, which
led up to the Space Shuttle, were lifting bodies (though the shuttle itself is not), and some
supersonic missiles obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body.

Powered lift types rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL). Most
types transition to fixed-wing lift for horizontal flight. Classes of powered lift types include
VTOL jet aircraft (such as the Harrier jump-jet) and tiltrotors (such as the V-22 Osprey),
among others. A few experimental designs rely entirely on engine thrust to provide lift
throughout the whole flight, including personal fan-lift hover platforms and jetpacks. VTOL
research designs include the flying Bedstead.

The Flettner airplane uses a rotating cylinder in place of a fixed wing, obtaining lift from the
magnus effect.

The ornithopter obtains thrust by flapping its wings.

Vno (Maximum Structural Cruising Speed)

In short, VNO doesn't provide any protection, it just tells that flying that fast puts you in a
regime where structural damage will occur before increased load factor will cause a stall -regardless of weight.
For part 23 airplanes that are not turbine powered and V D has not been established,
23.1505(b) establishes VNO must be established such that it is between VC,min and 0.89*VNE.
Section 23.335 defines VC as a multiplying factor of the square root of wing loading at design
maximum takeoff weight. For normal and utility category airplanes, VC is design cruising
speed and is be between 33 (W/S) and 0.9 V H where W/S is wing loading at the design
maximum takeoff weight. The factor 33 may be scaled as low as 28.6 based on W/S values
greater than 20 (the regs do not provide units on any of these numbers...). V H is the maximum
forward airpseed in level flight at maximum continuous power at sea level.
Section 23.335 also defines VA and the only relation to VC is that VA need not exceed VC.
We can see from this information that establishing V NO is a design choice based ultimately
upon maximum possible wing loading as a guideline and unlike V A stall speeds are not
involved in the calculation.
What you can take from this is that VA will vary by weight (because this affects the stall
speed) but VNO is based upon wing loading at max gross takeoff weight and is constant with
actual weight.
Flying slower than VA you will stall before causing structural damage. Flying faster than V A
you will cause structural damage before stalling the airplane. VNO will be at least the VA or
higher. Flying below this speed doesn't really tell us anything (VA is better for that), but flying
above this speed lets us know the design margins for load factor induced structural damage
are such that we don't want bumps or abrupt control deflections because we can damage the
airplane.

RATING
An aircraft rating is a flight crew qualification that authorises the holder to operate particular
aircraft.
Under the Civil Aviation Regulations (CAR) 1988 aircraft ratings were referred to as aircraft
endorsements which were specified in Civil Aviation Orders. The change harmonises
Australian terminology with that used by the International Civil Aviation Organization and
other countries.

Every type of aircraft, including all of its models, has a type certificate. The type certificate
specifies whether it is a single-pilot or multi-pilot aircraft (or in a few cases, both). Different
aircraft rating systems are used depending on the purpose such as flight crew licensing,
airworthiness, maintenance and flight operations. In Part 61, there are two kinds of aircraft
ratings for flight crew:

Aircraft class ratings which include different but similar types of aircraft

Pilot and flight engineer type ratings which are limited to one type of aircraft,
although a type rating can include models that are variants of each other.

1. Aircraft Class Rating

A class rating is an allowance to fly a certain group of aircraft that require training common
to all aircraft within the group. A type rating is specified if a particular aircraft requires
additional specialized training beyond the scope of initial license and aircraft class training.
What aircraft require a type rating is decided by the local aviation authority. Almost all single
engine piston (SEP) or multi engine piston (MEP) single pilot aircraft can be flown without a
type rating, but are covered by a class rating instead. An exception to this under Joint
Aviation Authorities (JAA) regulations is the piston version of the Piper Malibu.
There are seven categories of aircraft, which may be further subdivided into two or more
classes:

airplane category
o single-engine land class
o multi-engine land class

Multi-engine class aircraft are more commonly known as "multis," and

their pilots are called "multi pilots" or "multi-engine pilots."

Pilots of larger multi-engine aircraft are sometimes called transport

pilots, although mostly in the realm of military aviation (see the article
on military transport aircraft). The term transport pilot can be
ambiguous in civil aviation, since the Airline Transport Pilot License is
a very specific civil qualification.

o single-engine sea class - Pilots of all sea class aircraft are usually called
"seaplane pilots" or "float-plane pilots"
o multi-engine sea class

rotorcraft category
o helicopter class
o gyroplane class

powered lift category

glider category

lighter than air category

o airship class
o balloon class

powered parachute category

o powered parachute land class
o powered parachute sea class

weight-shift-control aircraft category

o weight-shift-control aircraft land class
o weight-shift-control aircraft sea class

2. Pilot and Egineer Type Rating

A type rating is a regulating agency's certification of an airplane pilot to fly a certain
aircraft type that requires additional training beyond the scope of the initial license and
aircraft class training. What aircraft require a type rating is decided by the local aviation
authority. In many countries pilots of single-engined aircraft under a certain maximum weight
(5,700 kg or 12,500 lb, typically) do not require a type rating for each model, all or most such
aircraft being covered by one class rating instead. There are exceptions to this, e.g. under
Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) regulations the piston version of the Piper Malibu does
require its own type rating. In New Zealand and South Africa there is no class rating, each
aircraft model requiring its own rating. Countries which have adopted the class rating system
for small aircraft typically require additional training and license endorsement for complexity
features such as conventional undercarriage (tailwheels), variable-pitch propellers, retractable
undercarriage, etc.
Starting in 2006, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States requires
co-pilots (second-in-command, or SIC) to have a 'SIC Type Rating' for aircraft requiring a
crew of two, and otherwise requires a type rating to act as pilot-in-command (PIC) to fly
internationally, or over international airspace. This is in order to remain compliant with the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). This is outlined in Code of Federal
Regulations Title 14 61.55 (14 CFR 61.55). Such a type rating is not required for operations
completely within the United States. Obtaining a SIC Type Ratings is significantly less
rigorous than obtaining a 'full' or Pilot in command (PIC) type rating. An instrument rating is
required for some type ratings.

In the United States some type ratings can be issued with a "visual flight rules (VFR)
only" limitation when the type rating checkride was conducted without instrument flight rules
(IFR) approaches or operations, but only VFR maneuvers and procedures. This is most
typical in older aircraft (i.e. Ford Trimotor, N-B25, B17, etc.