Introduction

Power generated in power stations pass through large and complex networks like transformers,
overhead lines, cables and other equipment and reaches at the end users. It is fact that the unit of
electric energy generated by Power Station does not match with the units distributed to the consumers.
Some percentage of the units is lost in the distribution network.
This difference in the generated and distributed units is known as Transmission and Distribution
loss. Transmission and Distribution loss are the amounts that are not paid for by users.
T&D Losses = (Energy Input to feeder(Kwh) Billed Energy to Consumer(Kwh)) / Energy Input
kwh x 100
Distribution Sector considered as the weakest link in the entire power sector. Transmission Losses is
approximate 17% while Distribution Losses is approximate 50%.
There are two types of Transmission and Distribution Losses:
1.
2.

Technical Losses
Non Technical Losses (Commercial Losses)

1. Technical Losses
The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors, equipment used fortransmission
line, transformer, subtransmission line and distribution line and magnetic losses in transformers.
Technical losses are normally 22.5%, and directly depend on the network characteristics and the mode
of operation.
The major amount of losses in a power system is in primary and secondary distribution lines. While
transmission and sub-transmission lines account for only about 30% of the total losses. Therefore the
primary and secondary distribution systems must be properly planned to ensure within limits.

The unexpected load increase was reflected in the increase of technical losses above the
normal level
Losses are inherent to the distribution of electricity and cannot be eliminated.

There are two Type of Technical Losses.

1. Permanent / Fixed Technical losses

Fixed losses do not vary according to current. These losses take the form of heat and noise and

occur as long as a transformer is energized

Between 1/4 and 1/3 of technical losses on distribution networks are fixed losses. Fixed losses

on a network can be influenced in the ways set out below

Corona Losses

Leakage Current Losses

Dielectric Losses
Open-circuit Losses

Losses caused by continuous load of measuring elements

Losses caused by continuous load of control elements

2. Variable Technical losses

Variable losses vary with the amount of electricity distributed and are, more precisely, proportional to
the square of the current. Consequently, a 1% increase in current leads to an increase in losses of more
than 1%.

Between 2/3 and 3/4 of technical (or physical) losses on distribution networks are variable

Losses.
By increasing the cross sectional area of lines and cables for a given load, losses will fall. This
leads to a direct trade-off between cost of losses and cost of capital expenditure. It has been

suggested that optimal average utilization rate on a distribution network that considers the cost of
losses in its design could be as low as 30 per cent.
Joule losses in lines in each voltage level
Impedance losses
Losses caused by contact resistance.

Main Reasons for Technical Losses

1. Lengthy Distribution lines
In practically 11 KV and 415 volts lines, in rural areas are extended over long distances to feed loads
scattered over large areas. Thus the primary and secondary distributions lines in rural areas are largely
radial laid usually extend over long distances.
This results in high line resistance and therefore high I 2R losses in the line.

Haphazard growths of sub-transmission and distribution system in to new areas.

Large scale rural electrification through long 11kV and LT lines.

2. Inadequate Size of Conductors of Distribution lines

The size of the conductors should be selected on the basis of KVA x KM capacity of standard
conductor for a required voltage regulation, but rural loads are usually scattered and generally fed by
radial feeders. The conductor size of these feeders should be adequate.

3. Installation of Distribution transformers away from load

centers
Distribution Transformers are not located at Load center on the Secondary Distribution System.

In most of case Distribution Transformers are not located centrally with respect to consumers.
Consequently, the farthest consumers obtain an extremity low voltage even though a good voltage levels
maintained at the transformers secondary.
This again leads to higher line losses. (The reason for the line losses increasing as a result of
decreased voltage at the consumers end therefore in order to reduce the voltage drop in the line to the
farthest consumers, the distribution transformer should be located at the load center to keep voltage
drop within permissible limits.)

4. Low Power Factor of Primary and secondary distribution

system
In most LT distribution circuits normally the Power Factor ranges from 0.65 to 0.75. A low Power Factor
contributes towards high distribution losses.
For a given load, if the Power Factor is low, the current drawn in high And the losses proportional to
square of the current will be more. Thus, line losses owing to the poor PF can be reduced by improving
the Power Factor.
This can be done by application of shunt capacitors.

Shunt capacitors can be connected either in secondary side (11 KV side) of the 33/11 KV power

transformers or at various point of Distribution Line.

The optimum rating of capacitor banks for a distribution system is 2/3rd of the average KVAR

requirement of that distribution system.

The vantage point is at 2/3rd the length of the main distributor from the transformer.
A more appropriate manner of improving this PF of the distribution system and thereby reduce

the line losses is to connect capacitors across the terminals of the consumers having inductive
loads.
By connecting the capacitors across individual loads, the line loss is reduced from 4 to 9%
depending upon the extent of PF improvement.

5. Bad Workmanship
Bad Workmanship contributes significantly role towards increasing distribution losses.
Joints are a source of power loss. Therefore the number of joints should be kept to a minimum.
Proper jointing techniques should be used to ensure firm connections.
Connections to the transformer bushing-stem, drop out fuse, isolator, and LT switch etc. should be
periodically inspected and proper pressure maintained to avoid sparking and heating of contacts.
Replacement of deteriorated wires and services should also be made timely to avoid any cause of
leaking and loss of power.

6. Feeder Phase Current and Load Balancing>

One of the easiest loss savings of the distribution system is balancing current along three-phase
circuits.

Feeder phase balancing also tends to balance voltage drop among phases giving three-phase
customers less voltage unbalance. Amperage magnitude at the substation doesnt guarantee load is
balanced throughout the feeder length.
Feeder phase unbalance may vary during the day and with different seasons. Feeders are usually
considered balanced when phase current magnitudes are within 10.Similarly, balancing load among
distribution feeders will also lower losses assuming similar conductor resistance. This may require
installing additional switches between feeders to allow for appropriate load transfer.
Bifurcation of feeders according to Voltage regulation and Load.

7. Load Factor Effect on Losses

Power consumption of customer varies throughout the day and over seasons.
Residential customers generally draw their highest power demand in the evening hours. Same
commercial customer load generally peak in the early afternoon. Because current level (hence, load) is
the primary driver in distribution power losses, keeping power consumption more level throughout the
day will lower peak power loss and overall energy losses.
Load variation is Called load factor and It varies from 0 to 1.
Load Factor = Average load in a specified time period / peak load during that time period.
For example, for 30 days month (720 hours) peak Load of the feeder is 10 MW. If the feeder supplied a
total energy of 5,000 MWH, the load factor for that month is (5,000 MWh)/ (10MW x 720) =0.69.
Lower power and energy losses are reduced by raising the load factor, which, evens out feeder demand
variation throughout the feeder.
The load factor has been increase by offering customers time-of-use rates. Companies use pricing
power to influence consumers to shift electric-intensive activities during off-peak times (such as, electric
water and space heating, air conditioning, irrigating, and pool filter pumping).
With financial incentives, some electric customers are also allowing utilities to interrupt large electric
loads remotely through radio frequency or power line carrier during periods of peak use. Utilities can try
to design in higher load factors by running the same feeders through residential and commercial areas.

8. Transformer Sizing and Selection

Distribution transformers use copper conductor windings to induce a magnetic field into a grainoriented silicon steel core. Therefore, transformers have both load losses and no-load core losses.
Transformer copper losses vary with load based on the resistive power loss equation (P loss = I 2R). For
some utilities, economic transformer loading means loading distribution transformers to capacity-or
slightly above capacity for a short time-in an effort to minimize capital costs and still maintain long
transformer life.
Routine General Inspection.

During the running of the diesel generator,

1.

The exhaust system are Proper working,

2.

Day tank & Buffer tank proper Diesel storage.

3.

DC electrical system and engine require close monitoring.

4.

Check the coolant level during shutdown periods at the specified interval. Remove the radiator cap
after allowing the engine to cool, and, if necessary, add coolant until the level is about 3/4 in. Heavyduty diesel engines require a balanced coolant mixture of water, antifreeze, and coolant additives.
Inspect the exterior of the radiator for obstructions, and remove all dirt or foreign material with a soft
brush or cloth with caution to avoid damaging the fins. If available, use low-pressure compressed air or
a stream of water in the opposite direction of normal air flow to clean the radiator.

5.

Diesel is subject to contamination and corrosion within a period of one year, and therefore regular
generator set exercise is highly recommended to use up stored fuel before it degrades. The fuel filters
should be drained at the designated intervals due to the water vapor that accumulates and condenses
in the fuel tank. Regular testing and fuel polishing may be required if the fuel is not used and replaced
in three to six months. Preventive maintenance should include a regular general inspection that
includes checking the coolant level, oil level, fuel system, and starting system. The charge-air cooler
piping and hoses should be inspected regularly for leaks, holes, cracks, dirt and debris that may be
blocking the fins or loose connections.

Testing Batteries
Weak or undercharged starting batteries are a common cause of standby power system failures. The battery
must be kept fully charged and well-maintained to avoid dwindling by regular testing and inspection to know the
current status of the battery and avoid any start-up hitches of the generator. They must also be cleaned; and
the specific gravity and electrolyte levels of the battery checked frequently.
Testing batteries: Merely checking the output voltage of the batteries is not indicative of their ability to deliver
adequate starting power. As batteries age, their internal resistance to current flow goes up, and the only
accurate measure of terminal voltage must be done under load. On some generators, this indicative test is
performed automatically each time the generator is started. On other generator sets, use a manual battery load
tester to attest the condition of each starting battery.
Cleaning batteries: Keep the batteries clean by wiping them with a damp cloth whenever dirt appears
excessive. If corrosion is present around the terminals, remove the battery cables and wash the terminals with
a solution of baking soda and water ( lb baking soda to 1 quart of water). Be careful to prevent the solution

from entering the battery cells, and flush the batteries with clean water when finished. After replacing the
connections, coat the terminals with a light application of petroleum jelly.
Checking specific gravity: In open-cell lead-acid batteries, use a battery hydrometer to check the specific
gravity of the electrolyte in each battery cell. A fully charged battery will have a specific gravity of 1.260. Charge
the battery if the specific gravity reading is below 1.215.
Checking electrolyte level: In open-cell lead-acid batteries, verify the level of the electrolyte at least every 200
hr of operation. If low, fill the battery cells to the bottom of the filler neck with distilled water.
Keep your Generator Clean
Oil drips and other issues are easy to spot and take care of when the engine is nice and clean. Visual
inspection can guarantee that hoses and belts are in good condition. Frequent checks can keep wasps and
other nuisances from nesting in your equipment.
The more a generator is used and relied on, the more it needs to be taken care of. However, a gen set that is
rarely used might not need a lot of care.
Operation of Vacuum Circuit Breaker
The main aim of any circuit breaker is to quench arc during current zero crossing, by establishing high dielectric
strength in between the contacts so that reestablishment of arc after current zero becomes impossible.

What is Circuit Breaker?

Definition of circuit breaker : - Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated
manually as well as automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. As the
modern power system deals with huge currents, the spacial attention should be given during designing of
circuit breaker to safe interruption of arc produced during the operation of circuit breaker. This was the
basic definition of circuit breaker.

Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal "on" condition of circuit
breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to applied mechanical pressure on the
moving contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating mechanism of circuit
breaker which is realized if switching signal given to the breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the
circuit breaker by different ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air, or by hydrolic pressure. But
whatever the source of potential energy, it must be released during operation. Release of potential energy
makes sliding of the moving contact at extremely fast manner. operation of circuit breaker.

Let's have a discussion on electrical principle of circuit breaker. The circuit breaker has to carry large rated
or fault power. Due to this large power there is always dangerously high arcing between moving contacts and
fixed contact during operation of circuit breaker. Again as we discussed earlier the arc in circuit breaker can be
quenching safely if the dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts of circuit breaker increases
rapidly during every current zero crossing of the alternating current. The dielectric strength of the media in
between contacts can be increased in numbers of ways, like by compressing the ionized arcing media since
compressing accelerates the deionization process of the media, by cooling the arcing media since cooling
increase the resistance of arcing path or by replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses. Hence a
numbers of arc quenching processes should be involved in operation of circuit breaker.
Types of Circuit Breaker
According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker. According to their arc quenching
media the circuit breaker can be divided as1.

Oil circuit breaker.

2.

Air circuit breaker.

3.

SF6 circuit breaker.

4.
Vacuum circuit breaker.
According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can be divided as1.

Spring operated circuit breaker.

2.

Pneumatic circuit breaker.

3.
Hydrolic circuit breaker.
According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit breaker are referred as1.

High voltage circuit breaker.

2.

Medium voltage circuit breaker.

3.

Low voltage circuit breaker.

Circuit Breaker Maintenance

For maintenance of circuit breaker or circuit breaker maintenance, it must be first switch off and then
isolated from both sides by opening concerned electrical isolator. At this no isolated condition the circuit
breaker must be operated for local and remote condition yearly and when required. The circuit breaker should
be operated electrically from local and remote then mechanically from local. This type of operation makes the
breaker more reliable by removing any coating developed between sliding surfaces.
Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker Maintenance
For bulk oil circuit breaker, we should check contact burning. If burning is very light, remove the burn beads
and polish the surface. If burning is quite heavy, replace the tips and arcing ring by new set. We should loose
and tight the tips few times before final tightening is done. In addition to that we should also check the
extinguishing chamber. It must be removed from the breaker unit and after washing the chamber by insulating
oil it is kept as upside down. If the condition of any part indicates severe burning, we should dismantle the
chamber and replace the burned/ damaged parts. Next point is cleaning and lubricating CB mechanism. The
rust on the mechanism and also from metal mechanism box surface should be removed by non fluffy cotton
cloths. The mechanism including gear wheel should be lubricated by high grade grease. But it should be
remembered that the friction clutch must be lubricated. In case of minimum oil circuit breaker, insulator must be
cleaned and carbon deposition if any should be removed by Trichloro Ethylene or Acetone. The manual
provided by manufacturer for greasing and lubricating should also be followed beside this general instruction.
The locking pins of tie rods should be checked half yearly . All the foundation bolts electrical terminal
connections at CB power circuit must be tighten properly after removing oxide coating if nay. This must be done
half yearly. The proper adjustment of auxiliary switch by ensuring correct NO NC contacts at breaker OFF and
ON condition must be checked half yearly and in addition to that the auxiliary switchs contacts should be clean
properly with help of hard brushes. The spring charging motor and mechanism should also be cleaned and
associated bearing should also be lubricated half yearly.
Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker Maintenance

In case of MOCB, the breaker should be checked monthly for oil leakage and oil level. If oil leakage is found it
must be attended and for low oil level top up oil up to desire level. Visual inspection of circuit breaker and its
operating mechanism along with quality of painting, mechanism kiosk door gasket should be carried out
quarterly if any damaged found take proper action. The oil dash pot in operating mechanism must be checked
for oil leakage quarterly if leakage found replace the defective and damaged O rings. It is also highly
recommended to ensure the prescribed duty cycle of operation of the breaker including reclosing annually.
Maintenance of Air Blast Circuit Breaker
For air blast circuit breaker there are some special cares to be taken in addition to general instruction of
maintenance of operating mechanism. Actually for operating mechanisms and for other some features the
maintenance processes and schedules are same for all oil circuit breaker, air circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker
and vacuum circuit breaker. In air circuit breaker, the air leakage should be checked as and when it is required.
If leakage found, plug the leakage. The grading capacitors must be checked for oil leakage monthly. If leakage
found plug it. Yearly, dew point of the operating air at the outlet of air dryer should be measured with the help of
Dew Point Meter or Hygro Meters
SF6 Circuit Breaker Maintenance
As we said earlier for operating mechanisms and for some other features the maintenance processes and
schedules are same for all oil circuit breaker, air circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker and vacuum circuit breaker.
In addition to that in SF6 CB some extra care to be taken. SF6 circuit breaker must be checked for SF6 gas
leakage, if unwanted SF6 low gas pressure alarm comes. This is efficiently done by gas leakage detector. If the
circuit breaker is provided with gradient capacitors, these must be checked for oil leakage monthly. If leakage
found plug it. Dew point of SF6 should be checked with the help of dew point meter or hygro meters in every 3
to 4 years interval. Maintenance of Vacuum Circuit Breaker In case of vacuum circuit breaker there is
nothing special all the processes and schedules are same as in case of other circuit breaker.

However, since peak generation is usually the most expensive, total cost of ownership (TCO)studies
should take into account the cost of peak transformer losses. Increasing distribution transformer capacity
during peak by one size will often result in lower total peak power dissipation-more so if it is overloaded.
Transformer no-load excitation loss (iron loss) occurs from a changing magnetic field in the
transformer core whenever it is energized. Core loss varies slightly with voltage but is essentially
considered constant. Fixed iron loss depends on transformer core design and steel lamination molecular
structure. Improved manufacturing of steel cores and introducing amorphous metals (such as metallic
glass) have reduced core losses.

9. Balancing 3 phase loads

Balancing 3-phase loads periodically throughout a network can reduce losses significantly. It can be
done relatively easily on overhead networks and consequently offers considerable scope for cost
effective loss reduction, given suitable incentives.

10. Switching off transformers

One method of reducing fixed losses is to switch off transformers in periods of low demand. If two
transformers of a certain size are required at a substation during peak periods, only one might be
required during times of low demand so that the other transformer might be switched off in order to
reduce fixed losses.

This will produce some offsetting increase in variable losses and might affect security and quality of
supply as well as the operational condition of the transformer itself. However, these trade-offs will not be
explored and optimized unless the cost of losses are taken into account.

11. Other Reasons for Technical Losses

Unequal load distribution among three phases in L.T system causing high neutral currents.

leaking and loss of power

Over loading of lines.

Abnormal operating conditions at which power and distribution transformers are operated
Low voltages at consumer terminals causing higher drawl of currents by inductive loads.

Poor quality of equipment used in agricultural pumping in rural areas, cooler air-conditioners and
industrial loads in urban areas.

6. As with any internal combustion engine, proper maintenance is essential. Diesels are no
exception, and the most important maintenance is oil changes at every 100 hours of
operation for a long and trouble-free life assurance.
Cooling System
Check the coolant level during shutdown periods at the specified interval. Remove the radiator
cap after allowing the engine to cool, and, if necessary, add coolant until the level is about 3/4
in. Heavy-duty diesel engines require a balanced coolant mixture of water, antifreeze, and
coolant additives. Inspect the exterior of the radiator for obstructions, and remove all dirt or
foreign material with a soft brush or cloth with caution to avoid damaging the fins. If available,
use low-pressure compressed air or a stream of water in the opposite direction of normal air flow
to clean the radiator.
Fuel System
Diesel is subject to contamination and corrosion within a period of one year, and therefore
regular generator set exercise is highly recommended to use up stored fuel before it degrades.
The fuel filters should be drained at the designated intervals due to the water vapor that
accumulates and condenses in the fuel tank. Regular testing and fuel polishing may be required if
the fuel is not used and replaced in three to six months. Preventive maintenance should include a
regular general inspection that includes checking the coolant level, oil level, fuel system, and
starting system. The charge-air cooler piping and hoses should be inspected regularly for leaks,
holes, cracks, dirt and debris that may be blocking the fins or loose connections.
Testing Batteries

Weak or undercharged starting batteries are a common cause of standby power system failures.
The battery must be kept fully charged and well-maintained to avoid dwindling by regular testing
and inspection to know the current status of the battery and avoid any start-up hitches of the
generator. They must also be cleaned; and the specific gravity and electrolyte levels of the
battery checked frequently.
Testing batteries: Merely checking the output voltage of the batteries is not indicative of their
ability to deliver adequate starting power. As batteries age, their internal resistance to current
flow goes up, and the only accurate measure of terminal voltage must be done under load. On
some generators, this indicative test is performed automatically each time the generator is
started. On other generator sets, use a manual battery load tester to attest the condition of each
starting battery.
Cleaning batteries: Keep the batteries clean by wiping them with a damp cloth whenever dirt
appears excessive. If corrosion is present around the terminals, remove the battery cables and
wash the terminals with a solution of baking soda and water ( lb baking soda to 1 quart of
water). Be careful to prevent the solution from entering the battery cells, and flush the batteries
with clean water when finished. After replacing the connections, coat the terminals with a light
application of petroleum jelly.
Checking specific gravity: In open-cell lead-acid batteries, use a battery hydrometer to check
the specific gravity of the electrolyte in each battery cell. A fully charged battery will have a
specific gravity of 1.260. Charge the battery if the specific gravity reading is below 1.215.
Checking electrolyte level: In open-cell lead-acid batteries, verify the level of the electrolyte at
least every 200 hr of operation. If low, fill the battery cells to the bottom of the filler neck with
distilled water.
Routine Engine Exercise
Regular exercising keeps the engine parts lubricated and thwart oxidation of electrical contacts,
uses up fuel before it deteriorate, and helps to provide reliable engine starting. Engine exercise is
recommended to be executed at least once a month for a minimum of 30 min. loaded to no less
than one-third of the nameplate rating.
Cleaning of the DG Set - Oil drips and other issues are easy to spot and take care of when the
engine is nice and clean. Visual inspection can guarantee that hoses and belts are in good
condition. Frequent checks can keep wasps and other nuisances from nesting in your equipment.
The more a generator is used and relied on, the more it needs to be taken care of. However, a
gen set that is rarely used might not need a lot of care.