UNIVERSIDAD POLITECNICA DE VALENCIA

E S C U E L A P O L I TE C N I C A S U P E R I O R D E G AN D I A
I.T. Telecomunicacin (Sist. de Telecomunicacin)

2.4 GHz MIMO Antenna on Microstrip

Technology

TRABAJO FINAL DE CARRERA

Autor/es:
Jess Escriv Muoz

Director/es:
Ross, Murch

GANDIA, 2009

HONG KONG UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

Technical Telecommunications Engineering

Branch: Telecommunications Systems

2.4 GHz MIMO Antenna on Microstrip

Technology

FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Author:
Jess Escriv Muoz
Exchange Student from
Universitat Politnica de Valncia Spain
Supervisor/s:
Prof. Ross MURCH
HONG KONG, 2009

ii

The following Final Year Project has been carried out in the Department of Electronic and
Computer Engineering of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology within the
Promoe Exchange Program from the Escola Politcnica Superior de Gandia of the Universitat
Politcnica de Valencia.

iii

iv

ACADEMIC CERTIFICATE FOR STUDENTS UNDER

PROMOE PROGRAMME 2008-09

Host University:___Hong Kong University of Science and Technology______

Country:______Hong Kong (SAR PRC)________________________________

Mr./Mrs./Dr Murch, Ross from the above Institution,

HEREBY CERTIFIES:

that the Stutent Jess Escriv Muoz under the INTERUNIVERSITY EXCHANGE
AGREEMENT, from Escola Politcnica Superior de Gandia of the UNIVERSITAT
POLITCNICA DE VALNCIA, has carried out at this Institution during the Spring semester
(January May 2008), his Final Year Project obtaining a final grade of ____ out of 10 points.

On the ______, of May 2009

Signature and Stamp of the Host Institution

vi

INDEX
1. Introduction ................................................................................................... page 1
2. MIMO Wireless Communication Systems ................................................... page 5
2.1 Shannons Capacity Formula .................................................................. page 5
2.2 Extended Capacity Formula for MIMO Channels ................................... page 5
2.3 Remarks on the Extended Shannon Capacity Formula ............................ page 9
2.4 Capacity of SIMO MISO Channels .................................................... page 11
2.5 Stochastic Channels ................................................................................ page 11
2.6 MIMO Capacity and Channel Models ..................................................... page 12
3. Microstrip Antenna Technology ................................................................... page 15
3.1 Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antennas .................................................. page 17
3.1.1 Transmission-line model ............................................................... page 18
3.1.2 Cavity model ................................................................................ page 19
3.1.3 Full-wave models .......................................................................... page 22
3.1.4 Design considerations ................................................................... page 22
3.1.5 Probe-Fed Microstrip Rectangular Patch Antenna for 2.4 GHz...... page 26
3.2 Triangular Microstrip Patch Antennas ..................................................... page 29
4. Dual-Frequency and Broad-Band Triangular MSPA.................................. page 31
4.1 Design .................................................................................................... page 32
4.2 Results.................................................................................................... page 39
5. MIMO antennas ............................................................................................ page 41
5.1 Antenna Simulation ................................................................................ page 41
5.1.1 Two-Port Antenna Configuration .................................................. page 41
5.1.2 Four-Port Antenna Configuration .................................................. page 43
5.1.3 Six-Port Antenna Configuration .................................................... page 45
5.2 Four-Port Antenna Configuration ........................................................... page 48
6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... page 55

References .......................................................................................................... page 57

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2.4 GHZ MIMO ANTENNA ON MICROSTRIP

TECHNOLOGY

ABSTRACT
In this work, we have analyzed triangular and rectangular microstrip patches and their use in
MIMO communication systems. Triangular patches have demonstrated a great capability of
miniaturization due to its geometrical shape. Etching some slots in the patches changes the
antenna frequency response so that dual-band and broadband designs are easily conceived.
Several configurations are analyzed using the HFSS simulation software and a 2.4 GHz four-port
MIMO antenna is fabricated on a FR-4 substrate. Simulation results and some graphics are also
included.

ix

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

Wireless
Com.

Nowadays the most pressing problems in Wireless Communications are spectral

efficiency and interference, problems which are expected to increase its importance in the
near future. Wireless Internet, mobile video and data communication will push the spectrum
to its limitations. In the same way interference with other services will be increased by the
extending use of spectrum. A typical candidate for interference in both directions is, for
example, Ultra-Wide-Band. Taking this into the account the most prominent task for
communication scientists is to increase the spectral efficiency and to introduce measures for
interference reduction.
Smart antenna systems are certainly revolutionizing the communications systems [1]. So
far, only the spectrum, the time and the code domain had been exploited for communications
systems. The resources spectrum and code are very limited. Smart antennas exploit the
spatial domain, which has been almost completely unused so far. For multiplex transmission
within one communications link, i.e. a parallel transmission of several data streams at the
same time and frequency only separated by the spatial domain, multiple transmit and
multiple receive antennas are required. MIMO systems (Multiple Input Multiple Output)
promise to reach very large data rates and therewith high spectral efficiencies.

Communication in wireless channels is impaired predominantly by multi-path fading.

Multi-path is the arrival of the transmitted signal at an intended receiver through differing
Impairments
angles and/or differing time delays and/or differing frequency shifts due to the scattering of
in Wireless
electromagnetic waves in the environment. Consequently, the received signal power
Channels
fluctuates in space (due to angle spread) and/or frequency (due to delay spread) and/or time
(due to Doppler spread) through the random superposition of the impinging multi-path
components. This random fluctuation in signal level, known as fading, can severely affect
the quality and reliability of wireless communication. Additionally, the constraints posed by
limited power and scarce frequency bandwidth make the task of designing high data rate,
high reliability wireless communication systems extremely challenging.
MIMO
Technology

MIMO technology constitutes a breakthrough in wireless communication system design.

The technology offers a number of benefits that help meet the challenges posed by both the
impairments in the wireless channel (multi-path and fading) as well as resource constraints.
In addition to the time and frequency dimensions that are exploited in conventional singleantenna (single-input single-output) wireless systems, the leverages of MIMO are realized
by exploiting the spatial dimension (provided by the multiple antennas at the transmitter and
the receiver) [2].
Therefore, the use of multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver in wireless systems
has rapidly gained in popularity over the past decade due to its powerful capabilities of
enhancing the communication system performance.
1

We can observe in Figure 1.1 the expected performance gains from the use of MIMO
Benefits of technology by plotting the data rate versus the receive signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in a 100
MIMO
kHz channel for an MM (i.e., M receive and M transmit antennas) fading link with M=1, 2,
Technology

4. Assuming a target receives SNR of 25 decibels (dB), a conventional single-input singleoutput (i.e., M=1) system can deliver a data rate of 0.7 Mbps (where Mbps denotes Mbits
per second). With M=2 and 4 we can realize data rates of 1.4 and 2.8 Mbps respectively.
This increase in data rate is realized for no additional power or bandwidth expenditure
compared to the single-input single-output system.

Figure 1.1

Fig. 1.1: Average data rate versus SNR for different antenna configurations.

The benefits of MIMO technology that help achieve such significant performance gains
are array gain, spatial diversity gain, spatial multiplexing gain and interference reduction.
These gains are described in brief below.
Array gain. That is the increase in receive SNR that results from a coherent combining
effect of the wireless signals at a receiver. The coherent combining may be realized through
spatial processing at the receive antenna array and/or spatial pre-processing at the transmit
antenna array. Array gain improves resistance to noise, thereby improving the coverage and
the range of a wireless network.
Spatial diversity gain. As mentioned earlier, the signal level at a receiver in a wireless
system fluctuates or fades. Spatial diversity gain mitigates fading and is realized by
providing the receiver with multiple (ideally independent) copies of the transmitted signal in
space, frequency or time. With an increasing number of independent copies (the number of
copies is often referred to as the diversity order), the probability that at least one of the
copies is not experiencing a deep fade increases, thereby improving the quality and
reliability of reception. A MIMO channel with Mtx transmit antennas and Mrx receive
antennas potentially offers Mtx x Mrx independently fading links, and hence a spatial
diversity order of Mtx x Mrx.
2

Spatial multiplexing gain. MIMO systems offer a linear increase in data rate through
spatial multiplexing, i.e., transmitting multiple, independent data streams within the
bandwidth of operation. Under suitable channel conditions, such as rich scattering in the
environment, the receiver can separate the data streams. Furthermore, each data stream
experiences at least the same channel quality that would be experienced by a single-input
single-output system, effectively enhancing the capacity by a multiplicative factor equal to
the number of streams. In general, the number of data streams that can be reliably supported
by a MIMO channel equals the minimum of the number of transmit antennas and the
number of receive antennas, i.e., min{MT, MR}. The spatial multiplexing gain increases the
capacity of a wireless network.
Interference reduction and avoidance. Interference in wireless networks results from
multiple users sharing time and frequency resources. Interference may be mitigated in
MIMO systems by exploiting the spatial dimension to increase the separation between users.
For instance, in the presence of interference, array gain increases the tolerance to noise as
well as the interference power, hence improving the signal-to-noise-plus-interference ratio
(SINR). Additionally, the spatial dimension may be leveraged for the purposes of
interference avoidance, i.e., directing signal energy towards the intended user and
minimizing interference to other users. Interference reduction and avoidance improve the
coverage and range of a wireless network.
In general, it may not be possible to exploit simultaneously all the benefits described
above due to conflicting demands on the spatial degrees of freedom. However, using some
combination of the benefits across a wireless network will result in improved capacity,
coverage and reliability.

The potential to provide the next major leap forward for wireless communications has led
Situation of this technology to becoming the next frontier of wireless communications. As a result, it has
MIMO
received the attention not only of the international research and development community,
Technology

but also of the wireless communications industry. This is evidenced from the international
standardization efforts in the context of UMTS (e.g., 3GPP) and IEEE 802.11 (for wireless
LANs) and also in the context of proposals for next generation (4G and beyond) wireless
systems [4].

For example, the third-generation cellular system specification (3GPP) currently supports
only an optional two antenna space-time transmit diversity scheme and does not require the
handsets to have more than one antenna element [3]. Sophisticated techniques that employ
spatial multiplexing or support more antenna elements have met with considerable
opposition in 3GPP. While the adoption of MIMO has made headway in the next-generation
wireless local area network (WLAN) standard IEEE 802.11n, which aims to transfer raw
information at rates greater than 100 Mbps over a 20-MHz bandwidth, complexity
considerations are likely to make the adopted MIMO scheme an elementary one that
supports a small number of antenna elements.

In this report, we aim to design and construct a MIMO antenna for wireless
communications by using microstrip technology. In Chapter II, the theoretical aspects of
MIMO communication systems are reviewed. Afterwards, in Chapter III we find an
introduction to the microstrip antenna patch technology and a study of the rectangular and
the triangular patch is carried out. In Chapter IV, the former theoretical introduction allows
us to design a single broadband triangular patch antenna by using slots. This structure is
used in Chapter V for the MIMO antenna, whose performance is then analyzed.

CHAPTER II. MIMO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

This chapter introduces the principles of MIMO systems employing the necessary
mathematical analysis to consider the achieved capacity performance.
The mathematical representation of the MIMO system is performed through a complex
matrix, which depends on the scenario considered each time. The capacity achieved by the
MIMO channel in all the above cases is studied with the use of the Shannon extended
capacity formula. The capacity performance results, developed from the simulations
performed, are related to the number of the multiple antenna elements that the receiver and
the transmitter are equipped with, the distance between them and the degree of correlation
evidenced [4].

2.1 Shannons Capacity Formula

Shannons capacity formula approximated theoretically the maximum achievable
transmission rate for a given channel with bandwidth , transmitted signal power and
single side noise spectrum , based on the assumption that the channel is white Gaussian
(i.e., fading and interference effects are not considered explicitly).
Equation 2.1

In practice, this is considered to be a SISO scenario (single input, single output) and
Equation 2.1 gives an upper limit for the achieved error-free SISO transmission rate. If the
transmission rate is less than C bps, then an appropriate coding scheme exists that could lead
to reliable and error-free transmission. On the contrary, if the transmission rate is more than
C bps, then the received signal, regardless of the robustness of the employed code, will
involve bit errors.

2.2 Extended Capacity Formula for MIMO Channels

For the case of multiple antennas at both the receiver and the transmitter ends, the
channel exhibits multiple inputs and multiple outputs and its capacity can be estimated by
the extended Shannons capacity formula, as described below.

2.2.1 General Capacity Formula

We consider an antenna array with elements at the transmitter and an antenna array
with
elements at the receiver. The impulse response of the channel between the j-th
transmitter element and the i-th receiver element is denoted as
. The MIMO channel
can then be described by the
matrix:

Equation 2.2

The matrix elements are complex numbers that correspond to the attenuation and phase
shift that the wireless channel introduces to the signal reaching the receiver with delay .
The input-output notation of the MIMO system can now be expressed by the following
equation:
Equation 2.3

where denotes convolution,

is a
vector corresponding to the
transmitted
signals,
is a
vector corresponding to the
received signals and
is the
additive white noise.
If we assume that the transmitted signal bandwidth is narrow enough that the channel
response can be treated as flat across frequency, then the discrete-time description
corresponding to Equation 2.3 is
Equation 2.4

Although an estimation of the capacity of a MIMO channel is possible, we can also

perform linear transformations at both the transmitter and receiver converting the MIMO
channel to
SISO subchannels (given that the channel is linear) and, hence,
reach more insightful results. The former estimation proved in [5,6] is as follows
Equation 2.5

where H is the
channel matrix,
is the covariance matrix of the transmitted
vector s,
is the transpose conjugate of the H matrix and p is the maximum normalized
transmit power.

2.2.2 Transformation of the MIMO Channel into n SISO Subchannels

Every matrix
can be decomposed accordingly to its singular values. Suppose
that for the aforementioned channel matrix this transformation is given by Equation 2.6.
Equation 2.6

where the matrices U, V are unitaries of dimensions

D is a non-negative diagonal matrix of dimensions
D are the singular values of the channel matrix H.

and
accordingly, while
. The diagonal elements of matrix

The operations that lead to the linear transformation of the channel into
SISO subchannels are described as follows: First, the transmitter multiplies the
signal to be transmitted x with the matrix V, the receiver multiplies the received signal r and
noise with the conjugate transpose of the matrix U as follows:
Equation 2.7
Equation 2.8
Equation 2.9

Substituting Equation 2.4 into Equation 2.8 gives:

Since U and V are unitary matrices, they satisfy

hence:
Equation 2.10

Each component of the received vector y can be written as:

Equation 2.11

where
above.

are the singular values of matrix H according to the transformation that took place

It was proven in [1] that the total capacity of n SISO subchannels is the sum of the
individual capacities and as a result the total MIMO capacity is:
Equation 2.12

where
is the power allocated to the kth subchannel and
is its power gain. We notice
that according to the singular value decomposition algorithm
are the
eigenvalues of the
matrix, which are always non-negative. Furthermore, regardless of
the power allocation algorithm used,
must satisfy
Equation 2.13

because of the wanted power constraint.

At this point, there are two cases of particular interest that need further consideration: the
knowledge (or not) by the transmitter of the Channel State Information (CSI).

2.2.3 No CSI at the Transmitter

Considering Equation 2.12, we notice that the achieved capacity depends on the
algorithm used for allocating power to each subchannel. The theoretical analysis assumes
the channel state known at the receiver. This assumption stands correct since the receiver
usually performs tracking methods in order to obtain CSI, however the same consideration
does not apply to the transmitter. When the channel is not known at the transmitter, the
transmitting signal s is chosen to be statistically non-preferential, which implies that the
components of the transmitted signal are independent and equi-powered at the transmit
antennas. Hence, the power allocated to each of the subchannels is
. Applying
the last expression to Equation 2.5 gives:
Equation 2.14

or
Equation 2.15

2.2.4 CSI at the Transmitter

In cases in which the transmitter has knowledge of the channel, it can perform optimum
combining methods during the power allocation process. In that way, the SISO subchannel
that contributes to the information transfer the most is supplied with more power.
One method to calculate the optimum power allocation to the n subchannels is to employ
the water-pouring algorithm (a detailed discussion of this algorithm can be found in [7]).
Considering the assumption of CSI at the transmitter, we can proceed to the following
capacity formula.
Equation 2.16

The difference between Equation 2.14 and Equation 2.15 is the coefficient
that
corresponds to the amount of power that is assigned to the kth subchannel. This coefficient
is given by:
Equation 2.17

and satisfies the constraint

Equation 2.18

The goal with the water-pouring algorithm is to find the optimum

capacity given in Equation 2.15.

that maximizes the

2.2.5 Channel Estimation at the Transmitter

As mentioned earlier, the CSI is not usually available at the transmitter. In order for the
transmitter to obtain the CSI, two basic methods are used: the first is based on feedback and
the second on the reciprocity principle.
In the first method the forward channel is calculated by the receiver and information is
sent back to the transmitter through the reverse channel. This method does not function
properly if the channel is changing fast. In that case, in order for the transmitter to get the
right CSI, more frequent estimation and feedback are needed. As a result, the overhead for
the reverse channel becomes prohibitive. According to the reciprocity principle, the forward
and reverse channels are identical when the time, frequency and antenna locations are the
same. Based on this principle the transmitter may use the CSI obtained by the reverse link
for the forward link. The main problem with this method emerges when frequency duplex
schemes are employed.

2.3 Remarks on the Extended Shannon Capacity Formula

In this section we will present the theoretical upper and lower bounds of MIMO capacity.
The algebraic expressions and assumptions considered here were first derived in [1]. After
this, the best case for the MIMO capacity will be analyzed and the concept of the effective
degrees of freedom will be introduced.

2.3.1 Bounds on MIMO capacity

Since the channel is submitted to Rayleigh fading, the channel matrix H is given by ,
which is referred to as spatially white matrix. The elements of
can be modeled as zero
mean circularly symmetric complex Gaussian (ZMCSCG) random variables. The
has
particular statistical properties that can be found in [7, 8].
We consider the transformation
, where Q is a unitary and R is an uppertriangular matrix. This tranformation is referred to as Householder Transformation.
According to this transformation the elements of R above the main diagonal are statistically
independent, while the magnitude of the main diagonal entries are chi-squared distributed
with

degrees of freedom.
9

Using this, the lower capacity bound corresponds to:

Equation 2.19

This equation practically shows that this bound is defined by the sum of the capacities of
independent subchannels with power gains that follow the chi-square distribution with

degrees of freedom.

The upper bound of the capacity is the sum of the capacities of n t independent
subchannels, with power gains chi-squared distributed and with degrees of freedom

). The difference of the mean values of the upper and

lower bounds is less than 1b/s/Hz.
Equation 2.20

2.3.2 Capacity of Orthogonal Channels

It is interesting to study the case where the capacity of the MIMO channel is maximized.
We consider the simple case of
, along with a fixed total power transfer through
the SISO subchannels (i.e.,
, where a is a constant). The capacity in Equation
2.14 is concave in the variables and, as a result, it is maximized when
. The last
equation reveals that the
matrix has n equal eigenvalues. Hence, H must be an
orthogonal matrix, i.e.,
. Therefore:
Equation 2.21

If the matrix H satisfies

, hence, Equation 2.13 becomes:

Equation 2.22

The last equation indicates that the capacity of an orthogonal MIMO channel is n times
the capacity of the SISO channel.

2.3.3 Effective Degrees of Freedom

Based on Equation 2.14, we can assume that in high SNR regime, capacity can increase
linearly with n. Specifically, for high SNR regime
Equation 2.14 becomes:
Equation 2.23

10

However, this assumption is not always confirmed. For some subchannels

is
much smaller than one, and as a result the information transferred by these channels is
nearly zero. This phenomenon is present in at least three cases:
when the transmission is serviced through a low-powered device
when there is a long-range communication application
when there is strong fading correlation between subchannels
In the last case, the fading induced to a certain subchannel may cause the minimization of
its corresponding .
In practice, the aforementioned cases are very likely to happen, therefore, the concept of
EDoF is introduced. Intuitively, the EDoF value corresponds to the number of subchannels
that actually contribute to the information transfer. In a more mathematical approach, the
EDoF value indicates the non-zero singular values of the channel matrix H. A more detailed
description of the EDoF can be found in [5].

2.4 Capacity of SIMO MISO Channels

Single input, multiple output (SIMO) and multiple input, single output (MISO) channels
are special cases of MIMO channels. In this paragraph we discuss the capacity formulas for
the case of SIMO and MISO channels. We will consider
then
or
depending on SIMO or MISO analysis.
For a SIMO channel
does not affect the SIMO channel capacity:

; hence, the CSI at the transmitter

Equation 2.24

For a MISO channel

capacity formula can be expressed as:

. With no CSI at the transmitter, the

Equation 2.25

Comparing Equation 2.24 and Equation 2.25 we can see that

. This is
because the transmitter, as opposed to the receiver, cannot exploit the antenna array gain
since it has no CSI and, as a result, cannot retrieve the receivers direction.

2.5 Stochastic Channels

In order to use the aforementioned capacity formulas, it is necessary to obtain the channel
matrix expression. There are many spatial channel models that are used for this purpose. In
most cases, the simulations usually consider a stochastic channel approach, mainly the
Rayleigh and the Rice models are used.

11

Consequently, under the stochastic channel consideration, the capacity achieved becomes
a random variable, and in order to study its behavior, we use stochastic quantities, as
described below.

2.5.1 Ergodic Capacity

The ergodic capacity of a MIMO channel is the ensemble average of the information rate
over the distribution of the elements of the channel matrix H, and it is given by:
Equation 2.26

When there is no CSI at the transmitter, we can substitute Equation 2.13 into Equation
2.26, so the ergodic capacity is given by
Equation 2.27

Whereas with CSI at the transmitter we use Equation 2.15, and the ergodic capacity is
given by:
Equation 2.28

2.6 MIMO Capacity and Channel Models

It is the radio propagation channel that determines crucially the characteristics of the
entire MIMO system [10]. Therefore, accurate modeling of MIMO channels is an important
requisite for MIMO system design, simulation, and deployment. Moreover, the
multidimensional statistical behavior of the MIMO fading channel is of foremost
significance to the system performance (e.g., the influence of the spatial fading correlation).
Therefore, it is important for the designer of a MIMO communication system to have an
appropriate MIMO channel simulation model.
There are many different channel models. When the wireless environment is
characterized by strong multipath activity, then the received signal follows the Rayleigh
distribution. However, in other cases when the location of buildings leads to the street
waveguide propagation phenomenon, and in areas near the base station where a line of sight
(LOS) component may dominate, the Ricean distribution is more suitable. The receiver in
that scenario sees a dominant signal component along with lower power components
caused by multipath. The dominant component that reaches the receiver may not be the
result of LOS propagation, e.g., the dominant component may be the mean value of strong
multipaths caused by large scatterers.

12

Both before-mentioned channels are stochastic narrowband MIMO channel models.

However, we should keep in mind the existence of a large diversity of models: both
deterministic, such as the recorded impulse response and ray-tracing techniques, and
stochastic (Ricean, Rayleigh, parametric, correlation based).

13

14

CHAPTER III. MICROSTRIP ANTENNA TECHNOLOGY

In this section, we deal with the microstrip antenna technology which will be used for our
MIMO antennas design. We present the basis of microstrip technology to finally tackle the
analysis of rectangular and triangular microstrip patches.
The challenge for radiofrequency engineers is mainly to understand the complex systems
starting with the transmitter and ending with the receiver. It is not enough to investigate only
single components of the communications link. The antennas are an integral part of the
MIMO system. MIMO systems exploit the multipath structure of the propagation channel.
The antennas are adapted to the propagation channel. Correlations among channel
coefficients are influenced by the antenna properties. As the antennas are collocated in a
MIMO array, mutual coupling effects may occur. All these effects should be considered
when designing an antenna array for MIMO systems.
Therefore, a major concern in MIMO systems is the integration of several antennas into
small handheld devices. Finding feasible antenna configurations is an integral part of
enabling the MIMO technology.
Microstrip geometries which radiate electromagnetic waves were originally contemplated
Background in the 1950's where size, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profile
of
were constraints, such as in the case of high-performance aircrafts, spacecrafts, satellites and
Microstrip
missile applications. Presently, there are other government and commercial applications,
Antennas
such as mobile radio and wireless communications, which have similar specifications.
The realization of radiators which are compatible with microstrip transmission line is
nearly contemporary with its introduction in 1952 by Grieg and Englemann [11]. The
earliest known realization of a microstrip like antenna integrated with microstrip
transmission line was developed in 1953 by Dschamps [12]. By 1955 Gutton and Baissinot
patented a microstrip antenna design [13].
Although there are many different varieties of microstrip patch antennas (MSPA), their
common feature is that they basically consist of four parts (Figure 1.1):
A very thin flat metallic region often called the
patch;
A dielectric substrate;
A ground plane, which is usually larger than
the patch; and
A feed, which supplies the element power.

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Typical MSPA

15

The reasons why this class of antennas has become so popular include the following [14-15]:
Characteristics
of MSPA

They are low-profile antennas.

They are easily conformable to non planar surfaces.
They are easy and inexpensive to manufacture in large quantities using modern printedcircuit techniques.
When mounted to a rigid surface, they are mechanically robust.
They can be designed to produce a wide variety of patterns and polarizations, depending
on the mode excited and the particular shape of patch used.
Other microwave devices realizable in microstrip may be integrated with a microstrip
antenna with no extra fabrication steps (e.g. branch-line hybrid to produce circular
polarization or corporate feed network for an array of microstrip antennas).
Disadvantages of the original microstrip antenna configurations include narrow
bandwidth, spurious feed radiation, poor polarization purity, limited power capacity, and
tolerance problems. Much of the development work in microstrip antennas has thus gone
into trying to overcome these problems, in order to satisfy increasingly stringent systems
requirements. This effort has involved the development of novel microstrip antenna
configurations, and the development of accurate and versatile analytical models for the
understanding of the inherent limitations of microstrip antennas, as well as for their design
and optimization.
A large number of commercial needs are met by the use of microstrip and printed

Applications
of MSPA antennas. The most popular microstrip antenna is certainly the rectangular patch. The

Global Positioning System (GPS) has become ubiquitous in its applications. GPS
applications such as the asset tracking of vehicles as well as marine use have created a large
demand for antennas. The majority of these are rectangular patches which have been
modified to produce right hand circular polarization (RHCP) and operate at 1.575 GHz.
Numerous vendors offer patches designed using ceramics with a high dielectric constant ( =
6, 20, 36) to reduce the rectangular microstrip antenna to as small a footprint as possible for
a given application. The patches are provided ready for circuit board integration with low
noise amplifiers. Rectangular patch antennas are also used for Bluetooth automotive
applications (2.4GHz) with RHCP.
In recent years Satellite Digital Audio Radio Services (SDARS) have become a viable
alternative to AM and FM commercial broadcasts in automobiles. The system has strict
radiation pattern requirements which have been met with a combination of a printed
monopole and TM21 mode annular microstrip antenna which has been altered with notches
to produce left hand circular polarization at 2.338 GHz [16].
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) provide short range high-speed data connections
between mobile devices (such as a laptop computer) and wireless access points. The range
for wireless data links is typically around 100 to 300 feet indoors and 2000 feet outdoors.
Wireless data links use the IEEE Standards 802.11a,b,g. The majority of WLANs use the
16

unlicensed 2.4 GHz band (802.11b and 802.11g). The 802.11a standard uses the 5 GHz
unlicensed frequency band. We can find several variations of the WLAN antenna such as
multiband printed antennas which are integrated into ceiling tiles use a microstrip diplexer to
combine the signal from GSM cell phones (860 MHz band), PCS cell phones (1.92 GHz
band) and 802.11a wireless LAN service (2.4 GHz band) provided by two integrated
microstrip dipoles [17].

3.1 Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antennas

Geometry
of
Rectangular
MSPA

The rectangular microstrip patch antenna (RMSPA) is by far the most widely used
configuration. Figure 3.2 shows the geometry of this antenna type. A rectangular metal
patch of width
and length
is separated by a dielectric material from a ground
plane by a distance h. The two ends of the antenna (located at 0 and b) can be viewed as
radiating edges due to fringing fields along each edge of width
. The two radiating
edges are separated by a distance
. The two edges along the sides of length L are often
referred to as non-radiating edges.

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 Geometry of a RMSPA

Methods of
Analysis

There are many methods of analysis for microstrip antennas, which can be divided into
three categories:
Line-transmission model: it is the easiest of all, it gives good physical insight but is less
accurate and it is more difficult to model coupling.
Cavity model: it is more accurate but also more complex. However, it also gives good
physical insight and is rather difficult to model coupling.
Full-wave models: these are very accurate, very versatile, and can teat single elements,
finite and infinite arrays, stacked elements, arbitrary shaped elements and coupling and
thus they are the most popular and practical. However, they are the most complex models
and usually give less physical insight.

17

3.1.1 Transmission-line model

The rectangular patch microstrip antenna (RMSPA) has a physical structure derived from
a microstrip transmission line. Therefore, the transmission line model is the first and obvious
choice for the analysis and design of a rectangular patch. In this model, the MSPA is
modeled as a length of transmission line of characteristic impedance
and propagation
constant
. The fields vary along the length of the patch, which is usually a halfwavelength, and remain constant across the width. Radiation occurs mainly from the
fringing fields at the open ends. The effect of radiation is accounted for by the radiation
admittance called self-admittance , attached at the open ends of the transmission line.

TL
model of
a
RMSPA

Consider a rectangular patch of dimensions

as shown in figure. The periphery of
this patch is described by four edges at
and
. The four edges are classified
as radiating or non-radiating depending on the field variation along their length. The
radiating edge shows a slow field variation along its length, while the non-radiating edge
should have an integral multiple of half-wave variations along the edge, so that there is an
almost complete cancellation of the radiated power from the edge.
Should we consider the TM10 mode in the patch, the edges at
are radiating types
because the electric field is uniform along these, while the walls at
are nonradiating types because of half-wave variation of the field along these edges. The radiating
edges are characterized by load admittances
, where
is the conductance
associated with the power radiated from the edge or wall, and
is the susceptance due to
the energy stored in the fringing field near the edge. Therefore:

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.3 TL model of a RMSPA

Fringing
Fields

It should be considered that because of dimensions of the patch are finite along the length
and width, the fields at the edges of the patch undergo fringing, i.e. the field exists outside
the dielectric thus causing a change in the effective dielectric constant. It is a function of the
ratio of the dimensions of the patch and the height of the substrate. A typical microstrip line
is a non-homogeneous line of two dielectrics (substrate and air). Most of the electric field
lines reside in the substrate but parts of some lines exist in air. Fringing in this case makes
the microstrip line look wider electrically compared to its physical dimensions. Since some
of the waves travel in the substrate and some in air, an effective dielectric constant
is
introduced to account for fringing and the wave propagation in the air.

18

Effective
dielectric
constant
and length

This effective dielectric constant is defined as the dielectric constant of the uniform
dielectric material so that the line inserted in this dielectric behaves the same way as it does
in the actual microstrip line with two dielectrics. Therefore, the microstrip line behaves more
like a homogeneous line of one dielectric (only the substrate), and the effective dielectric
constant approaches the value of the dielectric constant of the substrate.
Equation 3.1

Because of the fringing effects, the patch of the microstrip antenna looks electrically
greater than its physical dimensions. The extension width can be computed as follows:

Equation 3.2

Therefore, the effective length is:

Equation 3.3

The resonant frequency and associated modes will be analyzed in the next section, but we

Resonant
Frequency can already assert that for the dominant TM010 mode, the resonant frequency of the

microstrip antenna is a function of its length. It is usually given by,

Equation 3.4

By using this model, we can derive other characteristic, such as the parallel equivalent
admittance for the slots or the resonant input impedance.

3.1.2 Cavity model

Microstrip antennas resemble dielectric loaded cavities, and they exhibit higher order
resonances. The normalized fields within the dielectric substrate can be found more
accurately by treating that region as a cavity bounded by electric conductors (above and
below it) and by magnetic walls (to simulate an open circuit) along the perimeter of the
patch.
Let us attempt to present a physical interpretation into the formation of the fields within

Physics of
the cavity and radiation through its side walls. When the microstrip patch is energized, a
the Cavity
charge distribution is established on the upper and lower surfaces of the patch, as well as on
Model

the surface of the ground plane, as shown in Figure 3.4. The charge distribution is then
controlled by two mechanisms: an attractive and a repulsive mechanism. The attractive
mechanism is between the corresponding opposite charges on the bottom side of the patch
and the ground plane, which tends to maintain the charge concentration on the bottom of the
patch. The repulsive mechanism is between like charged on the bottom surface of the patch,

19

which tends to push some charges from the bottom of the patch, around its edges, to its top
surface.

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.4. Charge distribution and current density creation on microstrip

patch

The movement of these charges creates corresponding current densities and , at the
bottom an top surfaces of the patch, respectively. Since the height-to-width ratio is very
small, the attractive mechanism dominates and most of the charge concentration and current
flow remain underneath the patch. A small amount of current flows around the edges of the
patch to its top surface. However, this current flow decreases as the height-to-width ratio
decreases. In the limit, this would allow the four side walls to be modeled by perfect
magnetic conducting surfaces which ideally would not disturb the magnetic or electric field
distributions.
If the microstrip antenna were treated only as a cavity, it would not be sufficient to find
the absolute amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields. In fact, by treating the walls of
the cavity and the material within it as lossless, the cavity would not radiate and its input
impedance would be purely reactive. Also, the function representing the impedance would
only have real poles. To account for radiation, a loss mechanism has to be introduced: the
radiation and loss resistance, which are taken into account by the effective loss tangent.
Because of the thickness of the microstrip is usually very small, the waves generated

TM modes
within the dielectric substrate undergo considerable reflections when they arrive at the edge
in
rectangular of the patch. Thus only a small fraction of the incident energy is radiating (a very inefficient
antenna). The fields beneath the patch form standing waves that can be represented by
MSPA

sinusoidal wave functions. Since the height of the substrate is very small compared to the
wavelength within the dielectric, the field variations along the height will be considered
constant. In addition, because of the very small substrate height, the fringing of the fields
along the edges of the patch are also very small whereby the electric field is nearly normal to
the surface of the patch. Therefore, only TM field configurations will be considered (no
magnetic field in the direction of propagation).
Due to all this considerations, the volume beneath the patch can be treated as a
rectangular cavity loaded with a dielectric material truncated and not extended beyond the
edges of the patch.
A complete analysis implies the resolution of the vector potential that satisfies the
homogeneous wave equation in order to find the electric and magnetic fields subject to the
boundary conditions.

20

Therefore, the wave numbers

equation,

and

are obtained and are subject to the constraint

Equation 3.5

The resonant frequencies for the cavity are thus given by

Equation 3.6

To determine the dominant mode, we need to examine the resonant frequencies. For
all microstrip antennas
and
. Then, if
, the mode with the lowest
frequency (dominant mode) is the TM010 whose resonant frequency is given by
Equation 3.7

In addition, the next higher order resonant mode is

Equation 3.8

Equation 3.9

If, however,
, the dominant mode is the TM010 whose resonant frequency is given
by Equation 3.8 while if
, the second order mode is the TM020. The distribution of
the tangential electric field along the side walls of the cavity for the TM 010, TM001, TM020
and TM002 is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.5 Modes for rectangular microstrip patch

21

By using this approach, we can also obtain other parameters, i.e., the equivalent current
densities, directivity, fields radiated, quality factor of the resonator

3.1.3 Full-wave models

The approximate models of MSPA above-described models make a number of
simplifying assumptions that limit their validity:
The models are accurate for thin substrates (
) only because of the
assumption
.
These models are not accurate when applied to narrow width microstrip dipoles.
Some of the feed configurations such as proximity-coupled and aperture-coupled
microstrip feeds are difficult to model.
Cross-polarized radiation from a patch antenna has not been predicted using the
transmission line model or the multiport network mode because only a single-mode
analysis has been carried out.
Types of
Full-wave
Models

Most of the limitations listed here can be overcome in the full-wave techniques, which
maintain rigor and accuracy at the expense of numerical simplicity. The three most
popular full-wave techniques are called the spectral-domain full-wave solution, the
mixed-potential electric field integral equation approach, and the finite-difference timedomain technique. Their principal assumption of the integral equation is that the substrate
and ground plane are infinite in lateral dimensions. The formulation of the solution is based
on rigorously enforcing the boundary conditions at the air-dielectric interface by using the
exact Greens function for the composite dielectric.
In the first approach, the integral equation is written and solved in the spectral approach.
In the other approach, the spectral domain is used for calculating the Greens function, but
inverse transforms are taken at this stage and the integral equation is solved in the space
domain.

3.1.4 Design considerations

The effective design and analysis of microstrip antennas presupposes the quantitative
knowledge of the effects of the physical and mechanical properties of the patch, the ground
plane, and the substrate material on electromagnetic properties of the antenna.
A microstrip patch antenna may be of any geometrical shape and any dimension. In
practice, the rectangle is a very common shape. The selection of a particular patch shape
depends on the parameters one wishes to optimize: antenna size, bandwidth, efficiency,
radiation pattern, side-lobes, polarization, and gain.
Substrate properties. The consistency of any substrate is of critical importance: its
and its thickness determine the dimensions and operational properties of
the MSPA. For example, a thick substrate of low permittivity results in a wider bandwidth

Substrate
permittivity
properties

22

and lower efficiency than a thin substrate of high permittivity. A high permittivity reduces
the patch size and the extent of the fringing fields. Consequently, the radiation is due to a
narrow magnetic current ring around the patch periphery. A thicker substrate, on the other
hand, does not reduce the patch size significantly, but extends the zone of the fringing fields,
thus resulting in a broad a radiation ring. The most popular substrate materials are
honeycomb (
), Duroid (
), quartz (
), FR-4 (
) and
aluminia (
).

Antenna
losses

Antenna losses. We can identify three types of losses in MSPA. In the first place, the
existence of a dielectric substrate over a conducting ground plane can cause the excitation of
surface waves along the air-dielectric interface and within the substrate. These surface
waves propagate parallel to the interface without attenuation and radiate some of their
energy as the reach the microstrip discontinuity. A grounded dielectric layer always supports
a finite number of surface wave modes, but since the lowest order TM-type mode has a zero
cutoff frequency, a MSPA will, in general, always excite some surface-wave power. Except
for very thin substrates, conductor and dielectric losses are quite small. The dielectric loss
displays strong dependence on frequency and is independent of surface roughness, and can
be minimized by choosing a low-loss substrate. The conductor losses, however, depend on
frequency and substrate surface roughness, and are more difficult to control.

Dimensions. The proper selection of patch dimensions of a rectangular MSPA is

important in the design, because the antenna performance characteristics depend firmly on
Dimensions
the physical dimensions. RMSPA radiates efficiently when it resonates, which means that
the patch length is approximately one-half of the wavelength in the substrate medium.
However, the fringing capacitance effect should always be considered. Besides, the patch
length affects the resonant resistance and the E-plane radiation pattern. The patch width
affects the resonant frequency, the efficiency, the bandwidth, the H-plane radiation pattern,
and the cross polarization. To select the patch width properly, it must be considered that, due
to the excitation of surface waves, a small width result in a large bandwidth, and low
antenna efficiency and gain. However, a large width results in the excitation of higher order
modes, which may distort the radiation pattern, decrease the bandwidth, and increase the
efficiency.
In the literature, we can find several CAD formulas for the dimensions. Kara [23-25] has
carried out a number of experimental investigations on the resonant frequency for the TM 10
mode of a RMSPA. The length was calculated as seen before, which fits the measured
resonant frequency of practical antennas within 1.6%. The value of the patch width W,
necessary to obtain 50 input impedance, was found to be given by
Equation 3.10

23

Guney [27] analyzed the dependence of the patch length and width on antenna parameters.
A model for the patch length and width expressions is chosen first, then the unknown
coefficient values of the model are obtained by using a curve-fitting technique (CFT). The
theoretical patch length and width results obtained using the expressions derived in his study
agree well with the measured results:

Equation 3.11

Equation 3.12

Furthermore, in Ali Akdagli s work [28-29] the formulas are developed by utilizing a
differential evolution, which is a simple, fast, and robust evolutionary algorithm that has
proven effective in determining the global optimum for general type of numeric
optimization. His formulas provide < 0.16% and 0.22% error on average for the patch length
and patch width, respectively:
Equation 3.13

Equation 3.14

The Feed. Power can be coupled into or out of the antenna element by two primary
methods, namely, the direct contact and the electromagnetic induction. The first method uses
a transmission line contact either by a microstrip line or by a coaxial probe from underneath
the substrate. In the electromagnetic induction or the noncontact method, there is no direct
physical or electrical contact between the patch and the feeding structure, and the coupling
to the antenna element is made strictly by electromagnetic induction, either directly from the
feeding microstrip or through an intermediate aperture.

Coaxial
Feed

The coaxial feed, also called the probe feed, can be used to feed patch elements through
the ground plane from a parallel feed substrate. Its location is usually selected to provide a
perfect match between the antenna and the transmission line. The resonant resistance
increases as the feed moves away from the center of the patch. The variation of input
resistance at resonance with feed position essentially follows that of the cavity field. For the
lowest mode, it is usually large when the feed is near the edge of the patch, and decreases as
the feed moves inside the patch. The 50- input resistance point may be obtained by varying
the distance from the radiating edge of the antenna element to the feed location, as shown in
24
Equation 3.15

Equation 3.15. The input impedance at the center of a patch is zero because the voltage is
zero and the current is a maximum. If the feed is located at
and
, the
input resistance at resonance for the dominant TM10 mode can be expressed as

Microstrip
Line Feed

For the case of a microstrip line feed, the patch can be notched to provide an inset feed
point. Such direct conducting feeding methods have the advantage of simplicity, but also
have several disadvantages. These configurations suffer from the bandwidth feed radiation
tradeoff, where an increase in substrate thickness for the purpose increasing of bandwidth
leads to an increase in spurious feed radiation, increased surface wave power, and possibly
increased feed inductance.
In Basilios work [26], the impedance was measured for the inset microstrip fed patches.
As with the probe-fed case, the maximum input resistance occurs at the edge of the patch
and decreases as the inset distance is increased toward the center of the radiator, while the
reactance remains reasonably constant. However, the rate at which the resistance decreases
with changing feed position is seen to be much more rapid, and the resistance is also seen to
rise slightly as the inset approaches the center of the patch. The latter behavior is in contrast
to the probe-fed case, where the resistance became essentially zero near the center.
Empirically, a
would seem to be the best fit for the experimental data, but
there is no real theoretical justification.

Ground
Plane, Input
Impedance
and
Bandwitdth

Ground Plane. Microstrip antennas are shielded by a ground plane which limits the
radiation to a half plane and combined with an effective two-slot radiation from adjacent
edges. Its size controls the back radiation, and also affects the excitation efficiency of nonresonant modes. The thickness of the ground plane affects the reflection coefficients of
various modes, at its terminal edge, and also their excitation efficiency.
Input Impedance. The input impedance of an antenna directly affects the efficiency of
energy transfer to or from the antenna. It varies according to the antenna properties such as
the excitation frequency, the permittivity and thickness of the substrate, patch length and
width, and the location of the feed point. Owing to its effects on the efficiency of energy
transfer, it should be determined accurately in order to provide a good match between the
patch and the feed.
Due to the resonant nature of the investigated antenna element, its resonant input
resistance is related to the quality factors associated with the system losses. A properly
chosen patch shape may result in an impedance versus frequency behavior that approximates
a parallel RLC circuit. The operating frequency is determined when the impedance becomes
purely real.
Bandwidth. Since the cavity under the patch is basically a resonator, the total quality
factor Q and the impedance bandwidth are dependent on the thickness of the substrate and
its permittivity. This implies that the quality factor of a patch antenna on a thin substrate is

25

large, and that the bandwidth is small. Bandwidth improves as the substrate thickness is
increased, or as the permittivity of the substrate is reduced.
Radiation
Patterns,
Efficiency
and
Polarization

Radiation Patterns. Radiation from a rectangular microstrip antenna operating in the

TM10 mode occurs mainly from the fringing fields between the edge of the patch conductor
and the ground plane. These fields can be resolved into normal and tangential components
with respect to the ground plane. The tangential components (those parallel to the ground
plane) are in phase, and are combined to give a maximum radiated field normal to the
ground plane. The patch is linearly polarized with the electrical field lying in the same
direction as the patch length. The E-plane is the plane perpendicular to the radiating edges,
and lies along the patch length. This plane widens mainly with increasing permittivity but it
is not affected by patch width. Furthermore, for angles very near the horizon, the pattern
depends strongly on the truncation of the dielectric substrate. Because the patterns are broad,
they can also be affected by finite size ground planes, ridges, and bumps. For very small
ground planes, ripples can be introduced into the pattern over a wide range of angles, and
also some of the radiation can spill over onto the backside of the ground plane. However, by
using an appropriate size of the ground plane, the ripples in the main pattern can be
diminished. Note that the half-power beamwidth in the E-plane decreases with increasing
substrate thickness. The beamwidth can also be increased by choosing a small patch size.
The H-plane lies parallel to the patch width, and its beamwidth is a function of patch
width. The H-plane patterns are independent of the substrate permittivity.
Efficiency. The efficiency of an antenna depends on the shape and size of the patch and
on the electric size of the patch and on the electric size and consistency of the dielectric
substrate. Antennas printed on high-permittivity dielectric materials exhibit a low efficiency
due to the excitation of surface waves.
Polarization. Normally, conventional rectangular MSPA are linearly polarized radiating
structures. But they can be designed to radiate with two orthogonal linear polarizations or
with circular polarization.

3.1.5 Probe-Fed Microstrip Rectangular Patch Antenna for 2.4 GHz

Antenna
Design

A probe-fed microstrip rectangular patch antenna functioning at 2.4 GHz is design with
HFSS software, printed on a FR4 board and its performance is tested and discussed in
comparison with the software simulation.
Using the above-presented equations, we have designed the patch antenna with
mm (Equations 2.10-14) and
mm.
It has been shown that similar results for finite and infinite ground plane can be obtained
if the size of the ground plane is greater than the patch dimensions by approximately six
times the substrate thickness all around the periphery.
26

Hence, for this design, the ground plane dimensions would be given in Equations 16 and
17:
Equation 3.16
Equation 3.17

A coaxial probe type feed is to be used in this design. As shown in Figure 4.1, the center
of the patch is taken as the origin and the feed point location is given by the co-ordinates
from the origin. The feed point must be located at that point on the patch, where
the input impedance is 50 ohms for the resonant frequency. Although the feed point can be
selected anywhere along the patch width, it is better to choose
so that other
modes are not excited along with the TM10 mode. Determination of the exact feed point
requires an iterative solution but it has been suggested [6-8] an approximation as shown in
Equation 18:
Equation 3.18

where

is obtained the same way as in Equation 3.1 but substituting L for W.

Therefore, the point search is

Results

For this configuration we have obtained a center frequency of 2.55 GHz. By increasing
the patch width W until 28.12 mm we have reached the 2.4 GHz. Broader bandwidth (2.372.43 GHz) and impedance approximately 50-60 have been achieved by tuning the patch
length to 30.4 mm. The simulation shows the following:

Figure 3.6. Return Loss

Figure 3.7. Real and Imaginary Impedance

The last modification introduced has been increasing the ground in order to achieve a
better return loss (14 mm have been added to both ground width and length in order to
obtain -29 dB return loss).

27

Once the patch antenna has been fabricated, a network analyzer has been used to measure
the antenna return loss characteristic. We have can see a shift in the frequency of the
fabricated antenna in comparison with the simulation (see Figure 3.8).
Most fabrication errors arise because of inaccuracy in etching; etching accuracy depends
on the process and the materials used in the photo-etching process, the substrate surface
finish, and metallization thickness. Because of fabrication errors, tolerances and other
effects, the electromagnetic characteristics of a microstrip antenna may deviate from the
Errors,
Corrections design specifications. Dimensional tolerances and substrate inhomogeneitites can result in
and Final amplitude and phase errors, and also in variation in the resonant frequency of the antenna.
Results

Deviations in effective electrical dimensions caused by slight variations in finished

antenna length, variations in the relative permittivity of the substrate material, or nonuniformity in the substrate thickness can lead to discrepancies between the designed and
actual resonant frequencies.
The data obtained from the network analyzer settles the center frequency in 2.459 GHz
with a return loss of -30.47 dB. Since an increase in the patch length causes a decrease in the
resonant frequency we have added an extra copper strip in the patch to increase the length
(Figure 3.10). The final return loss results are shown in Figure 3.11.

-5

-15
HFSS simulation
-20

Network Analyzer

-25

-30

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

f (GHz)

Figure 3.8 Return Loss Comparison

Figure 3.9 HFSS Antenna Gain

Figure 3.10 Final Antenna

Figure 3.11 Return Loss Comparison

-5

-10

R.L. (dB)

R.L. (dB)

-10

-15
Modificated Antenna
Initial HFSS Simulation
-20
X: 2.4
Y: -21.2

-25

28

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

f (GHz)

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

3.2 Triangular Microstrip Patch Antennas

The triangular geometry of the microstrip patch (TMP) drew the attention of the researchers in
investigating the structure as planar circuit components and as radiating elements in conventional
and multilayered configurations [30]. Compared to other patch geometries, the triangular microstrip
is physically smaller having radiation properties similar to the rectangular patch but has a lower
radiation loss [31]. In recent years, the TMP has found several new applications as broadband
radiators, dual frequency and multiband antennas, circularly polarized antennas and in designing
arrays. Several new modified configurations due to its easy conformability have also been reported
in literature [30].
Promising use of the triangular patch as array is recently reported in [32]. It is used for the
Engineering Test Satellite VIII (ETS-VIII) launched by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency to
support the next generation of mobile satellite communications. The antenna comprises of three
equilateral triangular patches operating at 2.50 and other 3 patches at 2.65 GHz having 5 dBi gain.
This is not the only design carried out using arrays of triangular patches, since the conformal shape
and geometry makes this patch an attractive element to be used for array designs.

The field distribution in a triangular patch can be found using the cavity model, in which the
triangle
is surrounded by a magnetic wall along the periphery as was done for the rectangular
Field
Distribution configuration.
and Resonant
Frequencies

Consider a triangular resonator with magnetic side walls filled with a dielectric material of
relative permittivity and thickness h. Since
there is no variation of the fields along the z
direction (normal direction to the patch surface), therefore, the structure supports TM modes.
The resonant frequency corresponding to the various modes is:
Equation 3.19

where m,n,l cannot be zero at the same time and satisfy the condition that
velocity of light in the free space, and a is the side length of the equilateral triangle.

, c is the

The above expression is valid when the triangular resonator is surrounded by a perfect magnetic
wall. The effect of a non-perfect wall on the resonant frequency has been widely discussed. Most of
the suggestions are about replacing the side length a by an effective value
and leaving the
substrate dielectric constant unchanged. The other set of suggestions proposes replacing both a and
with their effective values. An expression for
has been arrived at by curve fitting the
experimental and theoretical results for the resonant frequency for TM 10 mode, which corresponds to
the dominant mode [33]. It is given by
Equation 3.20

29

Knowing

from above, the resonant frequency for higher modes is calculated as follows
Equation 3.21

Effective
Side
Length

Dahele and Lee [34] proposed a value for

frequencies

that are within 2 per cent of the measured

Equation 3.22

Chen and Lee [33] proposed a value for the effective side length that is claimed to be within 0.5%
when compared with the value obtained from the moment method analysis:
Equation 3.23

Among the solutions that propose replacing both a and with their effective values, Gang [35]
suggested that the side length in should be replaced by the same effective value given in Equation
4 but he replaced with the following effective value:
Equation 3.24

where
Equation 3.25

with
Equation 3.26

Gney [36], used the last Equations 6-8 to calculate the effective side length as follows:
Equation 3.27

This new effective side length has been found to be the measured and theoretical data closely [36].
By using the same cavity model, the input impedance of an equilateral triangular patch antenna
has been determined using the cavity model and integral equation approach and has been seen to
vary sharply with frequency, indicating a high value of resonator Q.

30

CHAPTER IV. DUAL-FREQUENCY AND BROAD-BAND TRIANGULAR MSPA

Patch antennas are popular for their well-known attractive features, such as low profile,
light weight, and compatibility with monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs).
Their main disadvantage is an intrinsic limitation in bandwidth, which is due to the resonant
nature of the patch structure.
In the design following, we place two resonant frequencies near each other in order to
obtain a broadband antenna functioning at 2.4GHz with a final bandwidth of 110 MHz
(4.58%). This has been achieved using a technique characteristic in dual-frequency patch
antennas.
Modern communication systems, such as those for satellite links (GPS, vehicular, etc.), as
well as emerging applications, such as wireless local networks (WLAN), often require
antennas with compactness and low-cost, thus rendering planar technology useful, and
sometimes unavoidable. From this applications, a new motivation is given for research on
innovative solutions that overcome the bandwidth limitations of patch antennas, an a valid
alternative to the broadening of total bandwidth is represented by dual-frequency patch
antennas. Dual-frequency antennas exhibit a dual-resonant behavior in a single radiating
structure [38].
There are three main approaches to design dual-frequency antennas, which will be
identified as 1) orthogonal-mode dual-frequency patch antennas, 2) multi-patch dualfrequency patch antennas, and 3) reactively-loaded dual-frequency patch antennas.
The most popular technique for obtaining the dual-frequency behavior is to introduce a
reactive loading to a single patch. A kind of reactive loading can be introduced by etching
slots on the patch. This allows for a strong modification of the resonant mode of the patch,
particularly when the slots are oriented to cut the current lines of the unperturbed mode.
In the designed we are concerned with, we start creating a single-feed triangular patch
antenna working at around 2.40 GHz. Afterwards, we load the antenna with two pairs of
narrow slots in the triangular patch, with one pair of the slots embedded close to the side
edges of the patch and the other pair inserted at the bottom edge of the patch. The two
operating in this case are associated to the resonant modes of TM10 and TM20. It is found
that due to the slots embedded close to the side edges, the radiation pattern of the TM 20
mode, which usually exhibits a slight dip in the broadside direction [36-37], is removed and
become similar to that of the TM10 mode. As for inserting the pair of slots at the bottom
edge of the patch, various frequency ratios of the two operating frequencies can be obtained
by varying the length and position of the inserted slots.
Moreover, it is found that by further protruding a narrow slot out of the embedded slots
close to the side edges, the frequency ratio of the two frequencies can be adjusted to be close
to unity, which means broad-band radiation is obtained. This broad-band operation is
especially important for the triangular microstrip antenna. This is because although the
31

conventional triangular microstrip antenna has the advantage of physically smaller for
operating at a given frequency, as compared to the rectangular or circular microstrip
antennas, it also exhibits a smaller antenna bandwidth than the rectangular or circular ones.
With the present design technique, the proposed triangular microstrip antenna can have a
wider operating bandwidth with a smaller antenna size as compared to the conventional
rectangular or circular microstrip antennas. Details of the proposed antenna designs are
described and experimental results for the obtained dual-frequency and broad-band
performance are presented and discussed.

4.1 Design
The initial patch consists of a equilateral triangular patch of a=36.5 mm of side length
mounted on a FR-4 substrate board of
and
mm. According to the equations
seen in last chapter, this should provide a resonant frequency of approximately 2.5GHz for
the TM10 mode and around 5GHz for the TM20 mode.

Next, the feed location d is calculated such that the input resistance of the antenna
matches the characteristic impedance of the feed line. The patch is feed by a coaxial probe
situated in the median of the triangle. Different feed positions are investigated for better
matching. The simulations show that varying the feed position only causes a change in
impedance and return loss, but not in the resonant frequencies.

32

First and second slots: dual-frequency design

The geometry of the dual-frequency antenna is depicted in Figures 4.1 and 4.2. The
proposed design in Fig. 4.1 is denoted here as a simple slot-loaded triangular microstrip
antenna and can be treated as a special case of the design in Fig. 4.2.

Figure 4.1 Initial Triangular Patch

Figure 4.2 Patch with Slots 1 and 2

For both cases, the pair of slots (denoted as slot 1 in this study), having dimensions
, are placed in parallel to the side edges of the triangular patch, with a small distance
away from the side edges and separated with a distance between them. In Fig.4.2, another
pair of slots (denoted as slot 2 here) with dimensions
are inserted at the bottom edge
of the triangular patch and centered with respect to the center line of the patch with a
spacing of . These two pairs of slots are also of narrow width. The length of slot 1 is
selected to be about 0.8 times the side length of the patch, and the distance between slot 1
and the side edge is chosen to be 1 mm approximately in this study.
Due to the presence of these slots, the fundamental resonant frequency of the triangular
patch is found to be slightly affected, because slot 1 is mainly in parallel to the excited patch
surface current density of the TM10 mode and slot 2 is placed near the bottom edge of the
patch, where the patch surface current distribution of the TM10 mode is relatively very weak
(see the related simulated results shown below).

Figure 4.3 Current Distribution at the First R.F.

Figure 4.4 Current Distribution at the Second R.F.

33

The TM10 frequency first decreases with the introduction of the slot 1 with
but it
increases again as does. This had already been foreseen since the main single triangular
patch has been designed initially for working at 2.5 GHz so that the decrease introduced in
the first resonant frequency helps to reach the 2.4 GHz or even better, slightly less.
However, with the presence of slot 1, the surface current distribution of the TM20 mode
is modified such that the small dip in the broadside direction of the radiation pattern is
removed [36-37].

-2

s=0
s=1

-4

s=2
s=3
s=3.5
s=4

R.L.(dB)

-6

-8

-10

-12

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.2

3.4

f (GHz)

Graphic 4.1. Return Loss for Different Slot-1 Separations (s1)

Once chosen the separation between the two type-1 slots, any change in the feed position
will: 1) not change the first resonant frequency but only its impedance, and 2) sometimes
change slightly the second resonance (depending on the separation). This latter effect will
have to be considered when we discuss the more complicated arrays of triangular antennas.

-2

-4

-6
-2
-1
initial feed position
+1
+2

-8

-10

-12

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.2

Graphic 4.2. Return Loss for Different Feed Positions

34

3.4

By inserting slot 2 at the bottom edge of the patch, the excited surface current paths of the
TM20 modes are lengthened, which effectively lowers the resonant frequency of the TM20
mode. This suggests that by varying the positions and lengths of slot 2, the frequency ratio
of the two operating frequencies can be adjusted. A single probe feed for the excitation of
the TM10 and TM20 modes can also be easily located along the center line of the patch in
this design.
In all the simulations, the slot-2 width has remained constant and we have changed the
separation and lengths of the slots. It has been shown that as both the separation and
length increase, the first resonant frequency decreases a little, but this effect can be almost
neglected with some exceptions. On the other hand, this really affects the second resonant
frequency, decreasing it much faster than in the latter case. As for the relation between the
slot length and the separation between slots, we can assert that the bigger the is, the
more quickly the decrease isof the second resonant frequency due to the increase of . Some
graphics are included for reference:

R.L. for different slot lengths l when w=6

R.L. for different slot lenghts l when w=10

-2
0
-4

-6

-8

-10

l=0
l=4
l=5
l=6
l=7
l=8

R.L. (dB)

R.L. (dB)

-5
l=0
l=5
l=6
l=7
l=8

-10

-12
-15
-14

-16
2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8
f (GHz)

3.2

3.4

2.2

2.4

R.L. for different slot lenghts when w=14

2.6

2.8
f (GHz)

3.2

3.4

R.L. for different slot lengths when w=16

-2

0
-4

-6

R.L. (dB)

-5

-8

l=0
l=3
l=4
l=5
l=6
l=7
l=8

-10

-15

l=4
l=5
l=6
l=7
l=8
l=9

-10

-12

-14

-16

-20

-18

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8
f(GHz)

3.2

3.4

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

Graphic 4.3. Return Loss for Different Slot-2 Dimensions

35

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

R.L. for different slot lenghts when w=18

R.L. (dB)

-5

l=0
l=4
l=5
l=6
l=7
l=8

-10

-15

-20

-25
2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6
f(GHz)

2.7

2.8

2.9

Graphic 4.4. Return Loss for Different Slot Lengths when w2=18

As we can see in the figures, dual-frequency triangular antenna can be achieved by using
this technique.
Third slot: broad-band design
The next step is to make the first two broadside-radiation modes (TM10 and TM20) of
the triangular patch [36-37] to be excited at frequencies close to each other to form a wider
operating bandwidth. For this purpose, as referred to the antenna structure in Fig. 4.5, a pair
of slots (denoted as slot 3 here) with dimensions
is protruded from slot 1 at a distance
away from the bottom edge of slot 1. When is selected to be less than 0.2 times the
patchs side length , the perturbation of slot 3 on the fundamental resonant frequency can be
greatly reduced, because in this case slot 3 will be in the region near the bottom edge of the
patch where the patch surface current distribution of the TM mode is relatively very weak.

Figure 4.5 3-slotted Patch

On the other hand, it is expected that with the presence of slots 1, 2, and 3, the equivalent
patch surface current path of the TM mode is strongly meandered and, thus, the resonant
frequency can be significantly lowered and it occurs at a frequency close to the first resonant
frequency.

36

After designing this antenna, we can compare the patch current distributions in the
models with and without the slot 3 for the two resonant frequencies. The final results are
also shown in the graphics below.

Figure 4.6 Current Distribution at the First R.F.

Figure 4.7 Current Distribution at the First R.F.

Figure 4.7 C.D. at the Second R.F. with slot 3

Figure 4.8 C.D. at the Second R.F. with slot 3

Graphic 4.5 R.L. of the three-slotted patch

37

As we can see in the above figure, theres been an unwanted shift in the response in
frequency in the triangular antenna, in such a way that the broadband extends from 2.41
until 2.52 GHz. In the case we want to fix this without redesigning the entire antenna we
will have to consider the different approaches which can be applied.
In the first place, the easiest way to decrease the first resonant frequency is to increase the
patch side length. Doing this by 2 mm, we manage to decrease the first resonance frequency
which was settled in 2.44 GHz down to 2.38 GHz while the second resonant frequency
remains at around 2.52 GHz.

Graphic 4.6 R.L. of the modified three-slotted patch

Now, the bandwidth is 2.36 2.50 GHz but there is a part from 2.42-2.46 where the
antenna stops resonating properly (Graphic 4.6). This is because the two resonant
frequencies are too far apart from each other. In order to reduce the second resonant
frequency we can change the dimension and position of slot 2. A graphic will show this
effect better.
0

-5

-10

s2=16
s2=17
s2=18
s2=18.5

-15

-20

-25
2.2

2.25

2.3

2.35

2.4

2.45

2.5

2.55

Graphic 4.7 R.L. for different slot-2 positions

38

2.6

4.2 Results
Choosing a separation of
match the input impedance.

mm, we only need to adjust the feed position to

Graphic 4.8 R.L. for the final triangular patch

As we can observe in Graphic 4.8, the final antenna has a bandwidth of 4.6% (110 MHz)
which extends from 2.36 GHz (marker 1) until 2.47 (marker 2). The first resonance
frequency occurs at 2.385 GHz (marker 4, R.L -48.67 dB). The second resonance frequency
occurs at 2.445 GHz (marker 4, R.L. -31.93 dB). In the worst case, that is, the transition
between both resonant frequencies, a return loss of -15.85 dB is achieved (at 2.42 GHz,
marker 5). Other results are depicted below.

Smith Chart 4.1Patch Input Impedance

39

Figure 4.9: Radiation Pattern

40

CHAPTER V. MIMO ANTENNAS

Until now, we have been analyzing rectangular and triangular patch antennas, as well as a
brief introduction to MIMO systems. In this last chapter, the design of MIMO antenna
configurations is carried out by using the broadband triangular patch from the previous
chapter.
In the first part of the chapter, different designs are simulated. In particular, 2, 4 and 6port MIMO antennas are designed and the simulation results are included. After that, some
of the simulations are chosen for construction and test.
For MIMO antenna design, two kinds of measurements need to be considered. They are
conventional antenna performance characteristics and the potential channel capacity. For
MIMO communications, the two main impairments that an antenna can imply are related to
the effect of the mutual coupling and small antenna size.

5.1 Antenna Simulation

All designs are simulated with HFSSTM v10 as in previous cases in this work. We have
analyzed arrays of 2, 4 and 6 element.

5.1.1 Two-Port Antenna Configuration

In the beginning, two different configurations for the 2-array antenna configuration were
taken into account (Fig. 4.1 and 4.2). However, only the second configuration was further
analyzed mainly because of the reduction in space that the latter implies.

Figure 5.1 First 2-Port Antenna Configuration

Figure 5.2 Second 2-Port Antenna Configuration

41

It is interesting to study the coupling between the two patches as we vary the separation
between them.
-15
15 mm
16 mm
17 mm
18 mm
19 mm
20 mm

-20

coupling S12, S21 (dB)

-25

-30

-35

-40

-45
2.3

2.35

2.4

2.45

2.5

2.55

f (GHz)

Graphic 5.1 Return Loss for Different Patch Separations

As we can infer from the graphic, coupling deteriorates by 0.6 dB per each millimeter
both patches are nearer (Graphic 5.1). In the extremes, we reach a coupling of -16.61 dB and
-18.38 when the separation is 15 and 20 mm, respectively.
A comparison between the coupling in the case of an array of two rectangular patches and
the triangular case has been performed. As it can be seen in Graphics 4.2 and 4.3, in terms of
coupling there is no particular reason for choosing a triangular design instead of a
rectangular design. Nevertheless, we should consider the fact that a triangular patch implies
less space and it is easier to place in an array configuration.
-15
Triangular 15 mm
Triangular 20 mm
Rectangular 15 mm
Rectangular 20 mm

coupling S12, S21 (dB)

-20

-25

-30

-35

2.3

2.35

2.4

2.45

2.5

f (GHz)

Graphic 5.2 Return Loss for Different Patches

42

Finally, the best design achieved corresponds to such of two triangular patches inverted
and separated 15 mm between them. However, a shift between the patches return loss
performance has been detected, which would not fit the initial supposition of the array being
completely symmetric.

Graphic 5.3 Return Loss

Smith Chart 5.1 Input Impedance

5.1.2 Four-Port Antenna Configuration

As for the four-port antenna, a simple approach has been used: repeating the beforediscussed two-patch structure twice.

Figure 5.3 Four-Port Antenna

Let us number the patches from left (1) to right (4). Frequency responses of patches 1 and
4 are quite similar (
), while those of patches 2 and 3 are very related to each other
(
). Return losses are around -40 dB in the resonant frequencies, except from patch 1
that only reaches -30 dB. In the worst case, that is, 2.42 GHz (in the middle of both resonant
frequencies), the return loss does not deteriorate beyond -15 dB.
Three different coupling rates can be identified in Figure 5.4. The first coupling rate is
produced by patches 2 and 3 as a result of their contact with their neighboring patches
(
and
). This is set at -16 dB. The opposite pairs show the same results
43

(
). The second coupling rate is set at around -24 dB and it is due to the interference
between the same patches 2 and 3 with their non-neighboring patches (
). Again,
same results are shown for their opposites (
). Finally, the most efficient couplings are
found to be in the patches which are most remote from each other. Thus,
and
are
around -32 dB.

Graphic 5.4 Four-Port Antenna S-Parameters

The input impedance remains constant at about 50 in all the bandwidth as we can
observe in the Smith Chart.

Smith Chart 5.2 Four-Port Antenna Input Impedance

44

It is also interesting to analyze the radiation patterns. All the related figures are referred
to port number one. As it can be noticed from the 3-D radiation pattern, the total gain
achieved is not high at all (only -0.26 dB). Besides, the radiation pattern shows to be quite
uniform and pointing in the vertical direction and the back lobe is found to be quite small.

Figure 5.4 3-D Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.5 XY Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.6 ZY Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.7 ZX Radiation Pattern

5.1.3 Six-Port Antenna Configuration

The last configuration that has been simulated and analyzed is a six-port antenna
configuration. All the patches are placed in a way they are all pointing to the center of the
antenna. In this way, the triangular patch has thus demonstrated its capability of high
integration.
The six-port antenna functions from 2.38 GHz until 2.45 GHz, which is the range the
return losses for each individual patch ( ) goes below -10 dB. Concerning the coupling,
two rates are mainly differentiated. In the first place, the coupling rate which occurs because
45

of the proximity of a patch with its neighbors is at around -12 dB (

with i=1,2,3,4,5,6).
The other coupling rate located at around -25 dB is produced by the interference between
more distant elements (
).

1
6
5

2
4

Figure 5.8 Six-Port Antenna Design

Figure 5.9 Six-Port Antenna Frequency Response (R.L. and Couplings)

46

The input impedance is also maintained during all the bandwidth of the antenna, although
it has deteriorated a little in respect of the four-port case:

Smith Chart 5.3 Six-Port Antenna Input Impedance

With respect to the radiation patterns, all the characteristics found in the four-port
configuration have been maintained. Again, the most remarkable characteristic is the low
gain attained.

Figure 5.10 3-D Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.11 XY Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.12 ZY Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.13 ZX Radiation Pattern

47

5.2 Four-Port Antenna Configuration

The first antenna which has actually been constructed is the four-port antenna.
The chosen substrate has been the FR-4. This material for PCBs faces a number of
limitations. These are due to the treater-based manufacturing process used to produce the
substrate from which PCBs are manufactured. Specifically, treaters tend to produce material
which suffers from inclusions (air bubbles) and striations (longitudinal air bubbles) as well a
deformation of the glass cloth. These imperfections can lead to conductive anodic filaments
(CAFs) (caused by electrochemical migration), problems with consistent dielectric constant
(dK) (due to resin-rich resin-poor areas) and yield issues (broken connections on the PCB)
when a PCB and its components is re-flow soldered. FR-4 is acceptable for signals up to
around 2 GHz, depending on the application. (Loss and crosstalk will increase, especially if
the same FR-4 board carries multiple high-frequency signals.) Other materials, such as the
Rogers 4003 board, provide superior electrical characteristics at higher frequencies.
Therefore, choosing FR-4 is mainly a balance of cost and performance. On the other hand,
this material will suppose a low antenna efficiency.

Figure 5.14 Four-Port Antenna in comparison with a one-HK$ coin

For MIMO antenna design, two kinds of measurements need to be considered. They are
conventional antenna performance characteristics and also the potential channel capacity.
The measured S-parameters of the proposed antenna structure are shown in Fig.5.15.
They were obtained with a four-port Vector Network Analyzer (Rohde & Schwarz, ZV8)
and therefore, the mutual couplings between all 4 ports are all measured simultaneously. The
results are in good agreement with the HFSS simulations. The antennas operate from 2.39
GHz to 2.49 GHz, if the impedance bandwidth requirement is less than -10 dB.

48

The measured radiation patterns of the proposed antenna are given in Figure 5.16, which
are measured in an Anechoic Chamber. During each measurement, only one port is
connected to the Vector Analyzer, while the other three ports are terminated by 50 . The
measured gain is, as commented before, really low (-1.14 dB). However, we should add
some 0.5-1 dB to the mentioned gain as the cable introduced to make the measurements is
not included in the initial calibration.
Only the data related to the first and second patches are included, since patches three and
four are supposed to be equal to ports two and one, respectively.
Trc17
Trc18
Trc19
Trc22

S22
S33
S44
S11

dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag

5 dB /
5 dB /
5 dB /
5 dB /

Ref -20 dB
Ref -20 dB
Ref -20 dB
Ref -20 dB

Cal int
Cal int
Cal int
Cal int

1 of 16 (Max)

M 1 2.397725 GHz -9.9783 dB

M 1 2.491610 GHz -10.009 dB

S44
0

Trc2
Trc28
Trc31
Trc34

dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag

Trc26
Trc29
Trc32
Trc35

S13
S23
S32
S42

dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag

Trc27
Trc30
Trc33
Trc36

S14
S24
S34
S43

dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag
dB Mag

2 of 16 (Max)

M 1 2.465000 GHz -16.301 dB

M 1 2.472500 GHz -16.204 dB

S23
10

-5

M1

M1
-10

-10

-15

-20

-20

-30

-25

-40

-30

-50

-35

-60

-40

-70

Ch1

S12
S21
S31
S41

Start 2.3 GHz

Pwr 0 dBm

Stop 2.6 GHz

4/20/2009, 3:24 PM

Ch1

M1
M1

Start 2.3 GHz

Pwr 0 dBm

Stop 2.6 GHz

4/20/2009, 3:21 PM

Figure 5.15 3-D Return Loss

Figure 5.16 Coupling

Figure 5.17 Impedance

Notable Markers:
Trc6
Trc23
Trc24
Trc25

S11
S22
S33
S44

Smith
Smith
Smith
Smith

Ref 1 U
Ref 1 U
Ref 1 U
Ref 1 U

Cal int
Cal int
Cal int
Cal int

6 of 16 (Max)

M 1 2.421500 GHz

S11

0.2

0.5

M1

MM12

Ch1

Start 2.3 GHz

Pwr 0 dBm

50.310
j383.24
25.189
M 2 2.409500 GHz 43.001
-j14.018
4.712
M 1 2.421500 GHz 50.801
-j87.513
751.04
M 1 2.402000 GHz 40.890
-j13.094
5
5.060

m
pH

pF

m
pF

pF

Stop 2.6 GHz

4/20/2009, 3:25 PM

49

Fig.5.15:
- M1: -10 dB @ 2.39 GHz
- M1: -10 dB @ 2.49 GHz
Fig.5.16
- M1: -16.3 dB @ 2.465 GHz
Fig.5.17
- M1: 50.30 + j383 m @ 2.42 GHz
- M1: 43.00 j14.01 @ 2.40 GHz
- M1: 50.80 + j87.51 m @ 2.42 GHz
- M1: 40.89 j13.09 @ 2.40 GHz

Figure 5.18 Port 1 ZX-Plane

Figure 5.19 Port 1 ZY-Plane

Figure 5.20 Port 2 ZX-Plane

Figure 5.21 Port 2 ZX-Plane

Figure 5.22 Port 1 Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.23 Port 2 Radiation Pattern

50

Figure 5.24 Port 1 Gain

Figure 5.25 Port 2 Gain

Figure 5.26 Port 1 Efficiency

Figure 5.25 Port 2 Efficiency

One application for this antenna is in MIMO wireless communication systems. It is

therefore important to try and measure or estimate the capacity that is possible for our fourport antenna so that the effect of the mutual coupling and small antenna size can be observed.
Here we experimentally measure the capacity using our
testbed. The testbed design is
described in [40] and provides us with an accuracy of approximately 2% at 2.48 GHz.
From these estimates we can then determine the actual flat fading MIMO capacity.

The procedure is laid out in the following steps:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Allow testbed to warm up for at least 5 min.

Synchronize signal sources with a cable
Number cables so the same ones are used with each Rx-Tx pair every time
Number female through connectors

51

5.
6.
7.
8.

Long end of female through connector is connected to Rx side

Set Tx signal source power to 0dBm
Push button to synchronize transmitter m-sequences
Setup acquisition board
a. +/-0.2V range
b. 400KS/s samples per second
c. Collect 1 second sets at 400 KS samples (8x400 KS)
9. Calibrate the system by first connecting the 4 transmit outputs to the 4 receive inputs
by the 4-to-1 and 1-to-4 combiner and splitter arrangement.
10. Acquire measurements for 0.1 second and save as start calibration
11. The MIMO measurement system is now ready use after connecting back the antennas
12. After all measurements are complete perform a final calibration so that we can make
certain the testbed has been operating correctly before and after the measurement
program

After getting the results from MIMO test bed we export the data to MATLAB program
for better analysis and comparison on Tx, Rx co-relation coefficients, power (dB) and most
importantly the channel capacity. The above measurements are carried out in a
comparatively fast fading channel with the designed antenna connected to MIMO
transmitter (similar results are expected for transmitter and receiver positions) and the
receivers are simple dipole antennas. To ensure these channel conditions, the measurements
have been taken while the transmitter antenna was in movement.
The most interesting results we obtain with this method are the correlation matrix and the
graphic that shows the capacity improvement that the MIMO system offers:

52

Finally, we can easily observe the increase in the channel capacity in the next figure:

50
SISO
2x2 iid
3x3 iid
4x4 iid
Measurement

45

40

Mean Capacity in b/s/Hz

35

30

25

20

15

10

10

15

20
SNR[dB]

25

30

Figure 5.27 Capacity achieved vs. SNR

53

35

40

54

CHAPTER VI. CONCLUSION

As we have seen, multiple-input multiple-output wireless communications provides
significant increases in capacity without requiring increases in transmitting power or
spectrum. Furthermore, microstrip technology has demonstrated its capability of creating
small-size antenna array which can be used for MIMO communications.
In this report, we aimed to show a method to implement a MIMO communication
system using microstrip technology. To show this, we reviewed aspects of MIMO
communication systems, studied different aspects of the microstrip patch antenna, especially
regarding the rectangular and triangular patches. Finally, we designed different antennas:
dual-frequency, broad-band and array configurations, all of them based on the triangular
patch.
The finalized design corresponds to an array of broad-band triangular patches working at
2.4 GHz with a bandwidth of around 100 MHz, which can be used in MIMO systems. It has
been demonstrated that the capacity of the array configuration is far better than the SISO
system.
However, we should consider future developments:
Dual frequency behavior to adapt the antenna to any kind of WLAN 802.11.
Gain increase.
Further antenna dimension reduction.

55

56

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