TrelleborgVibracoustic (Ed.

)
Automotive Vibration Control Technology

TrelleborgVibracoustic (Ed.)

Automotive Vibration
Control Technology
Fundamentals, Materials, Construction,
Simulation, and Applications

Vogel Business Media

iv

We welcome your comments and suggestions regarding the content of this reference book.
Please e-mail [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-8343-3358-2
1st edition, 2015
All rights reserved including translation. No part of this work may be reproduced, processed using
any type of electronic system, duplicated or transmitted in any way or in any form (printing, photocopying, microfilm or using any other process) without the express written consent of the publisher.
The exceptions stated expressly in Para. 53, 54 of the German Copyright Act are not affected.
Printed in Germany
Copyright 2015 by Vogel Business Media GmbH, Wrzburg, Germany
Editorial editors: Peter L. Albrecht and Siegfried Binder
Cover design: 3st kommunikation GmbH, Mainz, Germany

Foreword
Modern vehicles incorporate a host of systems and components enabling safe and comfortable driving. Vibration control technology makes an especially important contribution,
as it helps to isolate and dampen the unwanted noises and vibrations caused by drive
systems and road irregularities. As the worlds leading supplier of automotive vibration
control technology, we know the challenges this poses to the developers and builders of
motor vehicles. Accordingly, a team of experts at TrelleborgVibracoustic have produced
a practical compendium for anyone involved in the field.
As a result of this work, we are pleased to present this reference book, Automotive
Vibration Control Technology. Our aim has been to answer many of the questions concerning vibration control technology in vehicles fundamental as well as topical ones.
What influence do lightweight design, new drive systems and more stringent environmental demands have on vehicles vibration behaviour? What benefits does rubber have
as a material, and for which applications is polyurethane more suitable? How should a
component be designed to work well within a comprehensive system? What intelligent
vibration control technology solutions can meet the demand for more comfort at lower
cost?
In the first part of the book we explain the fundamentals of isolating and damping
vibrations in vehicles, beginning with the development of materials, moving through
research, design and production processes, and ending with durability testing. The second
part discusses fields of application involving powertrain and chassis technology in passenger and commercial vehicles.
We would like to thank all of the authors and their staff, as well as our development
partners and customers who have all contributed to this book with their expertise and
many suggestions.
We hope this book will be both stimulating and useful to our readers.
Darmstadt, July 2015

TrelleborgVibracoustic
The Management Board

vi



vii

Table of Contents
Part 1 Fundamentals
1.
1.1
1.2

Vibration Control Technology for the Automotive Industry . . . . . . 1

Fundamentals and requirements of vibration control technology . . 1
Vibration control technology in automotive engineering . . . . . . . . . 1

2.
Isolation, Damping, and Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 A material becomes predictable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 The principles of vibration isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Four-pole theory: an approach to describing the isolation of high
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
frequencies

2.3.1 Mechanical impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.3.2 Mechanical four-pole systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.3.3 Coupling of four-pole systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.3.4 Isolation calculations using four-pole systems . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.3.4.1 Transmission loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.3.4.2 Transmission loss with reference to velocity . . . . 14

2.3.4.3 Transmission loss with reference to force . . . . . . 15

2.3.4.4 Insertion loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3.4.5 Example: shock absorber top mount for a car
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
suspension
2.4 Effects of damping and friction on isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.4.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.4.2 The effect of speed-proportional damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.4.3 The effect of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Vibration absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.
Vibration Control Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Elastomers an extraordinary class of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2.1 Energy elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2.2 Entropy elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 Base polymer or crude rubber (caoutchouc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.3.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.3.2 Natural and synthetic rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4 Elastomeric materials overview of typical material properties . . . 32

3.4.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.4.1.1 NR natural rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.4.1.2 IR isoprene rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.4.1.3 BR butadiene rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.4.1.4 SBR styrene-butadiene rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.4.1.5 CR chloroprene rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.4.1.6 NBR acrylonitrile butadiene rubber . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.4.1.7 HNBR hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber . . 34

3.4.1.8 IIR isobutene-isoprene rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

 viii
Table of Contents

3.4.1.9 EPDM ethylene propylene diene terpolymer
rubber
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4.1.10 ACM acrylic rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4.1.11 AEM ethylene acrylic rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4.1.12 FKM fluorinated rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4.1.13 ECO epichlorohydrin rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4.1.14 VMQ silicone rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.4.1.15 AU and EU polyester and polyether urethane
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
rubber
3.5
Natural rubber discovery and history, properties and application . . 37

3.5.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.5.2 Crude natural rubber production processes and
properties
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.5.3 TSR technically specified rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.5.4 Synthetic natural rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.5.5 NR compounds and vulcanizates typical properties . . . . . 48

3.5.6 Strength reinforcement self-reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.5.7 Heat resistance aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.5.8 Properties in cold conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.5.9 Applications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.5.10 Future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6 Compounding and vulcanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.6.1 Ingredients of compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.6.1.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.6.1.2 Crosslinking systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.6.1.3 Special case: thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) . . . . 56

3.6.1.4 Fillers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.6.1.5 Plasticizers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.6.1.6 Anti-aging agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.6.1.7 Processing agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.6.1.8 Production of raw compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.6.1.9 Testing and approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.6.1.10 Vulcameter testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7 Molding and vulcanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.7.1 Compression molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.7.2 Transfer molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.7.3 Injection molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.7.4 Rubber-metal bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8 Elastomers for vibration control an overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.8.1 Aging resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.8.2 Cold resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.8.3 Temperature limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.9 Component groups engineered materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.9.1 Materials for chassis components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.9.2 Materials for spring elements and body mounts:

applications for MCU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.9.3 Materials for power train components engine and

transmission mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Table of Contents

3.9.3.1 Material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.9.3.2 Shore hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.9.3.3 Materials for engine mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3.9.4 Materials for torsional vibration dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3.9.5 Materials for couplings and decoupling pulleys . . . . . . . . . . 82

3.9.6 Materials for absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

3.9.7 Materials for airsprings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.9.8 The future of elastomers in vibration control . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.10 Bonding technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.10.1 Substrates for bonded elastomer components . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.10.1.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.10.1.2 Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.10.1.3 Metals and plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

3.10.2 Elastomers for bonded rubber-metal components . . . . . . . 88

3.10.3 Pre-treatment of substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.10.3.1 Cleaning processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

3.10.3.2 Blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.10.3.3 Phosphating process for steel parts . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3.10.3.4 Conversion processes for aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . 98

3.10.4 Bonding agents for composite elastomer parts . . . . . . . . . 100

3.10.4.1 Historical development of bonding agents . . . . . 100

3.10.4.2 Physical and chemical principles of bonding . . . . 100

3.10.4.3 Bonding agent manufacturers and their products . . 102

3.10.4.4 Future trends in bonding agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

3.10.5 The bonding mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

3.10.5.1 Composition of bonding agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

3.10.5.2 Reactions of bonding agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

3.10.5.3 Reactions during vulcanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

3.10.5.4 Crosslinking reactions in bonding systems . . . . . . 105

3.10.6 Application of bonding agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.10.6.1 Application methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.10.6.2 Measuring the thickness of bonding agent layers . . 110

3.10.7 Bonding tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

3.10.7.1 Bonding tests on finished components . . . . . . . . 113

3.10.7.2 Tests on specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

3.10.7.3 Non-destructive testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.10.8 Ruptures of bonded rubber-metal components . . . . . . . . . 114

3.10.8.1 Typical failure types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.10.8.2 Possible causes of failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

3.10.8.3 Damage analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3

From System Knowledge to a Better Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

From system description to component specification . . . . . . . . . . . 117
From specification to component design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Component design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.3.1 Spring design using finite element analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.3.2 Service life prediction and spring optimization . . . . . . . . . 125
4.3.3 Weight reduction by automatic contour optimization . . . . 127

ix

x
Table of Contents
5.
5.1
5.2

Component Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

The single-loop development approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
From component drawing to sample production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.1 Divergent requirements for component and mold design . . 133
5.2.2 Mold flow simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.3 The first sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.4 The production process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.2.5 Production parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

6.
Testing in the Single-Loop Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.1 Fatigue strength testing history and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2 Fatigue strength of elastomeric mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3 Virtual endurance test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4 Statistical basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.5 Reducing test duration by omission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.6 Assessment of temperature effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.7 Conclusion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Part 2 Applications
7.
Engine and Transmission Mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.1 Mounting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

7.1.1 System design objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

7.1.2 Mount configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

7.1.2.1 Basic principle of separation of functions . . . . . . 158

7.1.2.2 Front-wheel drive with transverse engine . . . . . . . 158

7.1.2.3 Four-point mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

7.1.2.4 Pendulum mounting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

7.1.3 Standard drivetrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

7.1.3.1 Three-point mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

7.1.3.2 Four-point mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

7.1.4 Mounting system design tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

7.1.4.1 Modeling with multibody systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

7.1.4.2 Vehicle tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

7.1.5 Notes on the practical design of mounting systems . . . . . . 176

7.1.5.1 Static behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

7.1.5.2 Eigenfrequencies
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

7.1.5.3 Idling
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

7.1.5.4 Transient events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.2 Basic principles of mounting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

7.2.1 Definitions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

7.2.2 Functions of engine and transmission mounts . . . . . . . . . . 181

7.2.3 Elastomeric springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

7.2.4 Metal and plastic parts for engine and transmission
mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

7.2.5 Fluids for mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.3 Elastomeric compounds for engine and transmission mounts . . . . 190

Table of Contents

7.3.1 Requirements for elastomeric compounds and related
materials
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

7.3.1.1 Requirements
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

7.3.1.2 Rubber varieties for elastomers, and their
properties
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

7.3.2 Damping and dynamic hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

7.3.3 Creep and high-temperature behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.4 Elastomeric mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

7.4.1 Compression mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

7.4.1.1 Circular mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

7.4.1.2 Rectangular mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

7.4.2 Bushings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

7.4.2.1 Crush tube bushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

7.4.2.2 Rotationally symmetric bushing with internal

and external bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

7.4.2.3 Bushings as adapted mount elements . . . . . . . . . 200

7.4.3 Symmetrical angled mounts

(roof-shaped or wedge mounts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

7.4.4 Modular mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

7.4.5 Torque rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

7.4.6 Special rubber-metal designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.5 Conflicting objectives of elastomeric mount elements . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.6 Engine and transmission mounts with hydraulic damping . . . . . . . 212

7.6.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

7.6.2 Effects of diaphragm travel on damping with decoupling

by a loose diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

7.6.3 Acoustic optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

7.6.4 Semi-decoupled nozzle-diaphragm systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

7.6.5 Cavitation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

7.6.6 Examples of mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

7.6.6.1 Mount with stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

7.6.6.2 Hydromount with torque stabilization and stops 229

7.6.6.3 Hydromount with tension restraint . . . . . . . . . . . 231

7.6.6.4 Box-type mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

7.6.6.5 Modernized and cost-optimized box-type
hydromount
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

7.6.6.6 Hanging engine mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.7 Hydrobushings
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.8 Air-damped mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

7.8.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

7.8.2 Theory of air damping (practical approach) . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

7.8.3 Comparison between air damping and hydraulic damping . . 244

7.8.4 Parameter study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

7.8.4.1 Variation of pneumatic diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

7.8.4.2 Variation of enclosed air volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

7.8.4.3 Variation of static stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

7.8.4.4 Variation of excitation amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

7.8.4.5 Variation of nozzle diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

xi

xii
Table of Contents

7.8.5 Switchable mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.9 Switchable engine mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

7.9.1 Electrically switchable engine mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

7.9.2 Pneumatically switchable hydromounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

7.9.3 Switchable mounts with automatic diaphragm travel
adjustment
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
7.10 Active Vibration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

7.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

7.10.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

7.10.3 AVC system options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

7.10.3.1 Open-loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

7.10.3.2 Closed-loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

7.10.4 AVC system components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

7.10.4.1 The actuator (options) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

7.10.4.2 The electrodynamic actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

7.10.4.3 The electronic control unit (ECU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

7.10.4.4 The error sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

7.10.5 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

7.10.6 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.11 Responses to market requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

7.11.1 Functional improvements and cost reduction for engine

and transmission mounts in connection with vehicle
development
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

7.11.2 Modular toolkits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.11.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.11.2.2 Further development of a toolkit with simple

and unconventional solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.11.3 Special customized solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

7.11.3.1 Hydromount with integrated absorber . . . . . . . . 278

7.11.3.2 Hydromount/switchable hydromount with

double isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

7.11.3.3 Hydromount with automatic hydraulic idle
absorber
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

7.11.3.4 Hydromount with silicone supporting spring

and local silicone protective cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

7.11.4 Innovation: active mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.12 Summary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.13 Guiding principles for engine and transmission mount design . . . . . 289
8.
8.1



8.2

Chassis Mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Ride comfort or driving safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.1.1 The sports car chassis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.1.2 Definition of ride comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.1.3 The definition of safe handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Rubber-metal suspension components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.2.1 Rubber-metal parts allow wheel spring travel . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.2.2 Rubber-metal elements allow maintenance-free axles . . . . 296
8.2.3 Rubber-metal components control suspension kinematics . . 297

8.2.4
8.2.5
8.2.6

Table of Contents

Rubber-metal mounts support demanding specifications . 298

Rubber-metal mounts absorb bumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Rubber-metal elements isolate vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

9.
Rubber-to-Metal Mounts for Commercial Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.1 Engine mounts for medium and heavy trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

9.1.1 Design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

9.1.1.1 Systems
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

9.1.1.2 Fixation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

9.1.1.3 Bump Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

9.1.1.4 Characteristic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

9.1.1.5 Available space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

9.1.1.6 Rubber-to-metal body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

9.1.2 Materials
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

9.1.2.1 Elastomers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

9.1.2.2 Bracket materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

9.1.2.3 Conclusion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.2 Chassis mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

9.2.1 Chassis with leaf springs (front/rear axle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

9.2.2 Chassis with air springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.3 Cab mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

9.3.1 Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

9.3.2 Functions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

9.3.3 Technical requirements for component development . . . . 316

9.3.4 Component design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

9.3.5 Service life and functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
9.4 Special mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

9.4.1 Battery case suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

9.4.1.1 Loads and requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

9.4.1.2 Component design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

9.4.1.3 Component configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

9.4.2 Control box mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10. Air Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
10.1 The use of air springs in vehicle technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

10.1.1 Fields of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

10.1.2 Comparison of different spring systems for

passenger cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

10.1.2.1 Air spring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

10.1.2.2 Level control with secondary air springs . . . . . . . 323

10.1.2.3 Hydropneumatic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

10.1.2.4 Nivomat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

10.1.2.5 Adjustable suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

10.1.2.6 Active Body Control (ABC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

10.1.2.7 Active Electromagnetic Body Control . . . . . . . . . 326

10.1.3 Advantages of air spring systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

10.1.4 The configuration of an air spring system in the vehicle . . . 327

10.1.5 Air supply system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

xiii

 xiv
Table of Contents

10.1.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

10.1.5.2 Control units for air suspension systems . . . . . . . 329

10.1.6 Passenger car air spring requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
10.2 Function and physical principles of air springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

10.2.1 The gas cushion as a spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

10.2.2 The function of the air spring bellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

10.2.3 Force and spring rate as design parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

10.2.4 How can the characteristic curve of an air spring

be modified? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10.3 Design and characteristics of air spring bellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

10.3.1 Convoluted air springs, type 1B and 2B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

10.3.2 Convoluted air springs type 1A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

10.3.3 Rolling air springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

10.3.4 Sleeve-type air springs bellows and connections

(push-on, crimping, clamping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

10.3.5 Thread orientation: Comparison of axial and cross-ply
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
bellows

10.3.6 Bellows properties and their effects on the vehicle . . . . . . 344
10.4 Configuration and design of air springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

10.4.1 Suspension strut or separate air spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

10.4.2 Special requirements and designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

10.4.3 Example of a passenger car application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

10.4.4 Example of a commercial vehicle application . . . . . . . . . . . 351

10.4.5 Example of a railway rolling stock application . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.5 Production of air springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

10.5.1 Components of air spring bellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

10.5.2 Semi-finished products rubber and fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

10.5.3 Bead inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
10.6 Reinforcing layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

10.6.1 Nylon cord fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

10.6.2 Thread specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

10.6.3 Thread structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

10.6.4 Selection of thread structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

10.6.5 Structure of the bellows wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

10.6.6 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
10.7 Responses to specific market requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
11. Torsional Vibration Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
11.1 Cranktrain

11.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

11.1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

11.1.3 Types of rubber torsional vibration dampers . . . . . . . . . . . 361

11.1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

11.1.3.2 Pressed torsional vibration damper . . . . . . . . . . . 362

11.1.3.3 Vulcanized torsional vibration dampers . . . . . . . 363

11.1.4 Design of torsional vibration dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

11.1.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

11.1.4.2 Multibody simulation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Table of Contents

11.1.4.3 Solution of the differential equation system . . . 366

11.1.4.4 Validation of the simulation model . . . . . . . . . . . 369

11.1.4.5 Assessment of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

11.1.5 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
11.2 Damper isolator pulleys for auxiliary devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

11.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

11.2.2 Structure of a damper isolator pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

11.2.3 Design of damper isolator pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

11.2.3.1 The belt drive as a rotational vibration system . . 375

11.2.3.2 Design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

11.2.3.3 Validation of the simulation model . . . . . . . . . . . 379

11.2.4 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
12. Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
12.1 Linear absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

12.1.1 Mode of operation and applications of linear absorbers . . 383

12.1.1.1 Transmission absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

12.1.1.2 Steering wheel absorber/airbag absorber . . . . . . 385

12.1.1.3 Chassis absorbers/convertible absorbers . . . . . . . 385

12.1.1.4 Active linear absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

12.1.1.5 Hydraulic absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

12.1.2 Design and sizing principles for linear absorbers . . . . . . . . 388

12.1.2.1 Spring stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

12.1.2.2 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

12.1.2.3 Inertia mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

12.1.2.4 Resonant frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

12.1.3 Design and structure of linear absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

12.1.4 Responses to market-specific requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
12.2 Rotational vibration absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

12.2.1 Mode of operation and applications of rotational

vibration absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

12.2.2 Design principles for rotational vibration absorbers . . . . . 396

12.2.3 Design and structure of rotational vibration absorbers . . . 397

12.2.4 Response to market-specific requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
12.3 Driveshaft mounting, centering, and torque transmission
components
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

12.3.1 Mode of operation and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

12.3.2 Design principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
13. Fundamentals of Polyurethane (PUR) as a Springing and

Damping Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
13.2 Basic chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

13.2.1 Isocyanates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

13.2.2 Polyols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

13.2.2.1 Polyethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

13.2.2.2 Polyesters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
13.3 Catalysts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

xv

 xvi
Table of Contents
13.4 Comparison
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
13.5 MCU elastomers in automotive applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
14. Microcellular Polyurethane (MCU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.1 Principles of MCU applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.2 Development examples of automotive components . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
14.3 Component behavior prediction through FEA

(Finite Element Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

14.3.1 Poissons ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

14.3.2 Polynomial fit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
14.4 Body mounts and suspension mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
14.5 Application examples for MCU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

14.5.1 Noise reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

14.5.2 Impact transmissibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

14.5.3 Weight reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14.6 Summary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Index of chapters and authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Illustration credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

Part 1 Fundamentals
1.

Vibration Control Technology for the

Automotive Industry

1.1

Fundamentals and requirements of vibration control

technology

Reduced fuel consumption with improved vehicle performance, improved comfort and
safety without added cost this multifaceted challenge has motivated the automotive
industry for years. Customers demand vehicles offering operating economy and value for
their money, yet at the same time, vehicles that are dynamic and comfortable. Simultaneously, regulatory emissions limits become ever more stringent. The task of automotive
manufacturers is to simultaneously satisfy multiple, conflicting goals. Manufacturers must
produce energy-efficient, comfortable, safe and dynamic vehicles, at competitive prices.
To this end, the supplier industry supports manufacturers with single-source vibration
control technology solutions. Alongside engineering requirements such as lightweight
design, downsizing, downspeeding, engine start-stop systems, engine cylinder deactivation and alternative propulsion technologies, rising cost pressures add another challenge
to the vibration engineers mission. Lighter vehicle structures demand special solutions,
for example by integrating the masses on hand within vibration-relevant components.
Downsizing of engines, downspeeding, start-stop systems and cylinder deactivation reduce weight and fuel consumption, but demand optimized engine mounting concepts,
transmissions or starters and in some cases even require additional measures such as
balance shafts, dual-mass flywheels, or adaptive vibration control.
Alternative propulsion systems also demand additional measures to isolate high-frequency drivetrain noises emanating from electric motors, or annoying vibrations and
noises generated by a range extender. The buyer of a premium luxury sedan does not
expect to detect a difference between a four- or six-cylinder engine in terms of comfort
and noise level. Beyond engineering advancements, vibration control technology is also
subject to new challenges in development and production in response to market changes. In the future, volume growth will be driven more strongly by vehicles in the so-called
A and B segments (US EPA minicompact and subcompact classes). And increasingly, these smaller vehicles will no longer be built in Europe. The development of innovative components for this market demands consistent application of Design to Cost
methods, and a well grounded understanding of the needs and requirements in new
markets with high growth potential, e.g. Asia. Expansion of regional development capacities will become even more important in the future.

1.2

Vibration control technology in automotive engineering

When the conversation is about ride comfort, everyone claims to know what is meant.
Yet describing this comfort is a very complex task. Among other objectives, this volume
is intended to provide the foundation to give us a better grasp of the concepts that will

2
Part 1 Fundamentals
appear repeatedly in connection with vibration control technology. Modern passenger
cars offer a high level of driving safety, combined with outstanding ride comfort. In everyday use, we are hardly aware of this we have come to take it for granted. We would
have to go back 25 years to experience anew a vehicle of that era, to evaluate the
development progress that has been achieved since then. This progress is the end result
of a steady stream of small improvements. If we could go back in time, we would once
again encounter our old friends, the idiosyncrasies of those vehicles of a bygone time.
After starting, the engine reports for duty with idle shudder. Upon setting the vehicle in
motion, we experience drive-off and load change bucking annoying, impulse-like vibrations, described by some at the time as the Bonanza effect for its similarity to the
Cartwright clan bouncing along in their saddles in the television Western series of the
same name.
Today, all of these so-called NVH (noise, vibration, and harshness) phenomena have
been largely eliminated. The acronym NVH describes the totality of all occurring disturbances and their subjective perception by the vehicle occupants. These phenomena are
classified according to their frequency, source, and disturbing effect, into the categories
noise, vibration, and harshness (Figure 1-1). Undesirable vibrations and noises originate
primarily from the combustion engine and are transmitted to the vehicle cabin as structureborne noise and airborne noise. The suspension, too, transmits road irregularities through
elastokinematic connecting elements rubber and metal components. These are perceptible as vibrations felt at the steering wheel, seat rails, or floorpan, or in the form of
undesirable noises.
Vibration

Harshness

Noise

(low frequency)

(transition)

(high frequency vibration)

100%
Audible
vibration

80%
60%
40%

Perceptible
vibration

20%
0%
1 Hz

10 Hz

100 Hz

1 kHz

10 kHz

Body vibration 0.5 to 5 Hz

Jitter 15 to 40 Hz

Rolling noise 30 to 300 Hz

Freeway hop 2 to 5 Hz

Body drone 30 to 70 Hz

Rumble 70 to 800 Hz

Bucking 2 to 5 Hz

Micro-shudder 10 to 30 Hz

Hissing 2 to 8 kHz

Shudder 5 to 15 Hz

Body vibration 20 to 45 Hz

Figure 1-1. Relationship between vibration frequency and subjective perception as vibration,
harshness, and noise.

For noises, the bandwidth of unpleasant effects ranges from making verbal communication difficult, to detrimental effects in listening to music, all the way to dizziness and
hearing damage. The effects of more powerful and sustained vibration may range from
numbness, dizziness, and loss of equilibrium to visual impairment and, in extreme cases,
for example long-term exposure to construction equipment, cellular damage.

1. Vibration Control Technology for the Automotive Industry

Physically perceptible, unpleasant vibrations arise in the automotive body structure

and are propagated strictly as structure-borne noise in other words, they may be felt,
but are not audible. On poor road surfaces, engine shudder a periodic vertical oscillation
of the engine mass is especially annoying. This induces a continuous shaking of the
front end, which was often (erroneously) attributed to a badly tuned shuddery front
suspension.
Subjective perception becomes problematic when vibrations can be felt as well as
heard. Therefore, such disturbances should be avoided if at all possible. One example is
high engine speeds, which could lead to body drone. At frequencies between 80 and
100 Hz, these are perceived as very unpleasant.
The transition regime from tactile to audible vibration or noise is designated as harshness. This encompasses the frequency range from 15 to 100 Hz. Such disturbances are
created by the road itself, and torsional vibration of the combustion engine. In the lower
frequency range, perception is dominated by the tactile components; above 100 Hz,
however, the audible components govern the disturbing effect.
Audible vibration at frequencies above 100 Hz are designated as noise. Examples
include rolling noise from the tires, or the high-frequency hum of an electrical machine,
reminiscent of the sound made by a streetcar or tram.
In order to improve the noise comfort level, it is not sufficient to focus only on the
noise range. Rather, an expanded frequency range, encompassing the entire harshness
band, must be considered in order to capture all significant disturbances and eliminate
them through targeted measures.
In the past few years, development engineers and vehicle acoustic experts have
largely solved these vibration problems, and rubber, as an engineering material, continues
to play a critical role. Vehicle acousticians have improved interior sound insulation; electronically controlled suspensions incorporating air springs permit the highest possible ride
comfort without sacrificing vehicle dynamics or safety (Figure 1-2). Development engineers
have optimized the engines and their mounts. Today, idle shudder or the characteristic
knock of a diesel engine are things of the past. Acoustically, the modern diesel is hardly
distinguishable from a gasoline engine.
0.500

170 D

645 rpm

190 D Fintail 750 rpm

200 D W123

915 rpm

E-220 cdi W211 750 rpm

Amplitude [m/s2]

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.010
20.00 Hz

30.00 Hz

Figure 1-2. Seat rail acceleration at idle for Mercedes-Benz vehicles of various epochs.

2.

Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

2.1

A material becomes predictable

Rubber is black and sticky. It has an unpleasant odor and its properties change from
batch to batch. For more than 40 years, prejudices like these were used to explain
both successes and failures in the rubber industry. It was difficult to make predictions,
many phenomena could not be precisely explained, and there was little hope of reliably
calculating the properties of a rubber mount, such as its isolation potential or its service
life.
Good design solutions could only be produced by experienced old hands who used
an empirical approach, their experience and perseverance to achieve success. Often, the
physical effects of rubber in vibration isolation could only be explained on the basis of
vague observations. No clear distinctions were drawn between terms such as isolation
and damping. This uncertainty led to the assumption that a large rubber volume would
be conducive to effective isolation. As a result, vehicle designers made considerable efforts
to provide space for bulky mounts.
An engine mount from a 1985 Volkswagen Golf (Figure 2-1) is a good example: As
the illustration shows, there is a large space between the inner metal sleeve, the core,
and the outer steel ring. Designers expected that vibrations would be reduced on their
way through the rubber; at least, this was what was hoped. Small connecting legs between the main body and the outer metal part, and a large exposed area of rubber, were
intended to improve the balance between vibration energy reaching the mount and vibration transferred to the vehicle body.

Figure 2-1. Engine mount of a Volkswagen Golf II, 1985.

6
Part 1 Fundamentals
We now know that these conceptions of the physical principles of isolation were erroneous. Rubber does not isolate noise and vibration in some sort of magical way, but is
a normal material that behaves in accordance with precise physical laws. Admittedly,
these laws are complex. It took some time to understand the behavior of the material
and to ensure that it could be described in mathematical terms. Now we are in a position
to explain the term isolation and to predict this effect using simulation calculations
with a high degree of precision at an early stage in a project.

2.2

The principles of vibration isolation

When installed, every rubber mount acts as a spring. However, a spring alone cannot
provide an isolating effect. This can be explained using a simple example. A spring is
positioned on a foundation and a force is applied to its loose end. The force compresses
the spring which then transfers it to the foundation without any amplification or attenuation. The spring rate (i.e. whether the spring is hard or soft) is immaterial. Nor does
it matter whether the load on the spring is changed gradually or suddenly. The load
applied to the top of the spring is transferred to the base. A spring therefore does not
have an isolating effect. At most, it can only delay the transfer of a force.
Vibration can only be created by a dynamic system consisting of a spring and a mass.
In the case of an engine mount, it is easy to identify the two elements. The engine is the
mass and the mounts, irrespective of whether three, four or five are installed, represent
the elastic springs. The result is a spring-mass system. In the case of the chassis, the situation is considerably less clear. Masses in this case may include the hub carrier, suspension struts and control arms, the subframe or the differential.
An oscillating system only needs excitation in order to oscillate with different displacements (amplitudes) or speeds (frequencies). Physicists were able to give a mathematically precise description of the oscillation phenomenon more than 100 years ago. The
solution is presented in terms of transmission behavior (Figure 2-2) and may be explained
as follows: A harmonic force of alternating direction is applied to the mass, first pulling
the mass upwards and then pushing it downwards, extending or compressing the spring.
The product of spring travel and stiffness is the response force transmitted to the foundation. If the force transmitted is lower than the force applied, the system has an isolating
effect; if a higher force is transmitted, the system amplifies the oscillation. In other words,
an oscillating system can have a damping effect without any additional damping elements;
on the other hand, it can just as easily have an amplifying effect.

2. Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

10

-10

20

20 dB isolation

20 dB amplif.

Transmissibility

40

Frequency
80

-20

Mass m

Spring rate k
Stiffness

-30
-40
-50

Figure 2-2. Transmission behavior of an oscillating system.

Which of the two possibilities occurs depends on the speed at which the force
changes direction. If the direction is changed very rapidly, the mass will be unable to
follow, due to inertia. It will react too slowly and will only oscillate with scarcely perceptible amplitude. Multiplied by the spring rate, these very low amplitudes result in the
transmission of very low forces to the foundation (such as the body of a vehicle). If the
magnitude of the exciting force remains constant but the speed at which it changes direction is reduced in very small steps, the oscillation amplitude will increase. Multiplied by
the same spring rate, this means that the response force of the spring also increases. In
the event that the exciting frequency matches the eigenfrequency of the oscillating system, the response force may even be many times higher than the exciting force. In this
case, the spring-mass system no longer isolates the exciting force but amplifies it. With
reference to an automobile, the forces that change direction at varying speed may be the
combustion forces of the engine; the frequency of direction changes depends on the
engine speed. Figure 2-3 gives a mathematically correct presentation of this situation.
The vibration frequency is plotted on the horizontal axis, while the vertical axis above
zero indicates amplification and the vertical axis below zero attenuation of the exciting
force. The example shows a spring-mass system (schematically representing a simple
engine mount) which has been tuned to an eigenfrequency of 10 Hz at the mass of the
engine by selecting appropriate spring stiffness.

8
Part 1 Fundamentals

Transmissibility

5
10
Soft spring: 5 dB isolation

Stiff spring: 10 dB amplification

20

40

Frequency
80

-10
-20

Mass m

Spring rate k
Stiffness

-30
-40
-50

Loss of 6 dB isolation with

double spring rate

Figure 2-3. Doubling the spring rate results in a 6 dB loss in isolation.

Depending on the design of the engine (number and configuration of cylinders) and
the operating speed, the engine excites a number of different frequencies across a wide
range. At an idling speed of 600 rpm, a single-cylinder four-stroke engine generates five
pulses per second, as against 20 pulses per second for a four-cylinder inline engine at the
same speed.
If we assume that the engine masses are the same, the same spring (i.e. the same
engine mount) would provide 2 dB amplification in the case of a single-cylinder engine
and 10 dB isolation in the case of a four-cylinder engine. However, the situation is even
worse: As engine speed increases, the main exciting force of the singe-cylinder engine
increases, finally reaching the eigenfrequency. In our example, this effect leads to massive
resonance at 1,200 rpm before the isolation range is finally reached at 1,700 rpm. In
contrast, the isolating effect becomes more pronounced for the four-cylinder engine,
making it more refined.
As a second example, consider two engines of different mass but identical configuration,
mounted on identical springs. In the case of the first engine, its mass and elastic mounting
lead to an eigenfrequency of 15 Hz. For the second engine, with half the mass of the first,
this frequency slips to 21 Hz. At an idle speed of 600 rpm, the mounts of the first engine
are at the limit of isolation, while for the lighter engine, the same mounting, i.e. identical
mounting elements, would result in unacceptable idle shudder. The actual conditions in a
car are considerably more complicated than those considered in these examples.
In its elastic mounts, an engine can move in all three directions and rotate about three
axes, resulting in pitching, rolling and yawing. An engine does not have just one eigenfrequency, as assumed in the examples above for the sake of simplicity, but six different
eigenfrequencies with completely different vibration modes, which may be coupled with
each other. The springs (or mounts) are not installed on a rigid foundation but on elastic
body structures. As a result, the vibration amplitude of the engine does not necessarily
result in corresponding travel in the rubber mounts. The spring travel of the base of the
mount must be taken into account with the appropriate sign, depending on the excitation
frequency and the phase configuration.
The situation is further complicated by the fact that, in practical applications, a rubber
mount does not react with a single spring rate. In simulations, the properties of a
mount are not normally characterized by a single parameter but by six measured values.

2. Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

In addition to the three displacement values, key rotational values plus the torsional and
flexural stiffness values must be taken into account in the case of chassis bushings. The
measurement of these values calls for complex instrumentation and fixtures, and represents the main challenge. It is only in a few exceptional cases that measurements produce
linear force/travel characteristic curves. Typically, the measurement curves are nonlinear
and measurements indicate different spring rates as a function of pre-load, test velocity,
test amplitude and loading history. The spring rates of a rubber supporting spring after
a few load cycles will be completely different from the values measured prior to conditioning. It may also be significant to observe that a spring element with preload in one
direction will react with completely different properties in other directions. For example,
a mount may become stiffer in the direction of travel if it is bearing the weight of the
engine or has to support torque at different engine speeds and with different transmission
ratios. Radial preload on a chassis bushing may affect the spring properties in the torsional and flexural directions.
Precise, detailed test specifications are essential for systematic component development
and for comparison measurements by suppliers and customers. However, there is one
complex question that a test specification cannot answer: Will this component achieve
perfect results as regards safety, comfort and durability when it is installed in the vehicle?
This question is difficult to answer. In many applications, it is not possible to make a
reliable prediction. The objective of this book is to assist in finding solutions to this problem.

2.3

Four-pole theory: an approach to describing the isolation

of high frequencies

This section lays the theoretical foundations required for describing vibration transmission
and isolation effects. Mechanical impedances and four-pole networks can describe the
dynamic behavior of components and interfaces. On this basis, it is possible to derive a
number of isolation values that are useful for the analysis and assessment of designs. The
following section deals with mechanical impedances. Instead of these impedances, it is
also possible to consider dynamic or apparent masses or input stiffness; the parameters
can be converted into each other. Sell [2-1] gives a comprehensive description of the
theory with examples.

2.3.1

Mechanical impedance

The mechanical impedance is the resistance of a linear elastic body to an external force.
Impedance is defined as the ratio of the force applied, F to the velocity of the point to
which it is applied v:
Z =

F
,
v

Eq. (2-1).

If two bodies (e.g. masses) are moved at the same velocity at a connected point, the force
applied is opposed by the sum of the impedances of the two bodies.
Ztotal = Z1 + Z2,

Eq. (2-2).

10
Part 1 Fundamentals
If the same force is applied via two bodies (e.g. springs), the effective impedance is given
by:
1
=
Z total

1
1
,
+
Z1 Z 2

Eq. (2-3).

Often, other parameters are considered instead of impedance. Within the frequency
range, all these parameters can be converted into each other. For the determination of
impedance, it is normal practice to measure force and acceleration a. The impedance can
then be calculated using the angular frequency w by:

=
Z

F
=
v

F
j ,
a

Eq. (2-4).

This formula is very useful if the input impedance of a structure is to be determined experimentally using an impulse hammer or shaker. Some formulas for calculating the
impedance of ideal components are given in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1. Impedances of idealized components.
Component

Impedance

Symbols

Mass

Zm = jwm
k
Zk =
m
Zc = c

m : mass

Spring
Viscous damper

k : spring constant
c : damping coefficient

The formulas indicate that impedance is a function of frequency. To better illustrate

this relationship, Figure 2-4 shows characteristic plots of impedance and dynamic mass.
The expressions in parentheses indicate the relevant proportionality factors, i.e. the extent
to which the value is dependent on frequency.

Figure 2-4. Characteristic curves: a) impedances, b) dynamic masses.

2.3.2

Mechanical four-pole systems

Mechanical four-pole systems were derived in the mid-20th century from the frequently
used electrical four-pole system models. They represent a convenient approach to the
simple presentation of relationships between mechanical components. Two inputs and

2. Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

two outputs are always considered. Each of the pairs consists of one force value and one
displacement, velocity or acceleration value. The index 1 is used for inputs and the index
2 for outputs. Indices 12 and 21 represent transmission values. In the following paragraphs, as in the case of impedances, velocities are considered.

Figure 2-5. Mechanical four-pole systems in chain form (left) and impedance form (right).

As we will see, the chain form is especially well-suited for the calculation of series
connections. Expressed as matrices, the following equations apply to the four-pole system
shown in Figure 2-5:
F1 a11 a12 F2
v = a
= A
1 21 a22 v2

F2
( chain form ) ,
v2

F1 z11 z12 v1
v1
= Z ( impedance form ) ,
F = z

2 21 z22 v2
v2

Eq. (2-5).

Eq. (2-6).

Table 2-2 shows the four-pole parameters in chain form for certain ideal components or
assemblies.

Table 2-2. Four-pole parameters of idealized components.

Component

Impedance

Symbols

Mass

1
A = 0

j m
1

Spring

A = j
k

Viscous damper

1 0

A = 1

Oscillator
(design, see below)

A = 1

k
c +
j

m : mass

k : spring constant

c : damping coefficient
j m

k
j m + c +
j

k
c+

11

12
Part 1 Fundamentals
Table 2-2(continued).
Component

Impedance

Absorber
(design, see below)

A =

Symbols
j m

k
j m + c +

j
k

c+

The mechanical configuration of the oscillator and the absorber is shown by the following two diagrams (Figures 2-6 and 2-7).

Figure 2-6. Four-pole representation of an oscillator.

Figure 2-7. Four-pole representation of an absorber.

2.3.3

Coupling of four-pole systems

One of the major advantages of four-pole modeling is that is allows easy mathematical
treatment of an entire network of mechanical components. In order to take coupling
within the network into account, each subsystem may be described in terms of a fourpole system. These are combined mathematically to form an overall four-pole system,
allowing the modeling of complex structures. It is then possible to calculate the effectiveness of absorbers or other structures more easily than using differential equations.

2. Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

In the case of parallel connections, all the interconnected components must be exposed
to the same vibration frequency. If subsystems are connected in series, the appropriate
four-pole systems must be presented in chain form as the output variables of each
four-pole system in the series are also the input variables for the next four-pole system.
The subsystems are exposed to the same flow of force and the overall chain matrix
Atotal is given by
A

total

Ai ,

Eq. (2-7).

i =1

If the input values of several subsystems are rigidly linked, they have identical velocities
and the sum of the forces on the input and output side represents the total force in each
case (parallel configuration); therefore the overall impedance matrix Z
is given by
total

total

Z i ,

Eq. (2-8).

i =1

Molloy [2-2] has developed a set of equations allowing n four-pole systems to be connected in parallel in chain form. This means that it is not necessary to switch between
chain form and impedance form:
total
=
a11
A
=
total
a total
=
21
=
where A

A
AC
total
a12
=

B
B
1
C
total
=
a22
B
B

ai

Eq. (2-9),

ai

11
22
=
=
i , B
i , C i .

a
a
a

i 1=
i 1
=i 1=
21
21

21

Figure 2-8 shows two four-pole systems A1 and A connected via force F2 and velocity
v2.

Figure 2-8. Two mechanical four-pole systems connected in series.

The two four-pole systems are available in chain form and can therefore be combined to
form an overall chain matrix Atotal using equation (2-7):
total
F1 a11
=
v a total
1 21

total
a12

total
a22

F3
,
v3

Eq. (2-10).

13

14
Part 1 Fundamentals
In explicit form, the following equation applies to the overall chain matrix:
total
total
1 a 2 + a1 a 2
1 a2
1 2
a12
a11
a11
a11
11
12 21
12 + a12 a22
A
,
=
=

total
total
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
total
a22 a21a11 + a22 a21 a21a12 + a22 a22
a21

2.3.4

Eq. (2-11).

Isolation calculations using four-pole systems

The modeling method presented above using mechanical four-pole systems is especially
well-suited for calculating isolating effects.
In general, it is beneficial to take vibration control action as near as possible to the
source of the vibration. The action may reduce the sound energy emitted by the source
or reflect the sound energy back to the source with a view to increasing damping by
causing the sound to pass repeatedly through sound-absorbing structural elements.
Structural elements suitable for reducing vibration may include heavy masses and soft
springs with and without damping, as well as combinations of such components. In order
to quantify the isolating effect of individual elements, two main loss parameters are
used. The transmission loss is the ratio of power or speed upstream from and downstream
from an isolating element. The insertion loss is a far more effective parameter for describing the effect of isolating elements. It is the ratio of the power and velocity at the receiving end of a structure with the isolating element in place to the same value without the
isolating element. This value gives a direct indication of the effects of the change in
isolation on the dynamics of the overall system.

2.3.4.1 Transmission loss

The following equations for loss values may be derived from the basic equation for mechanical four-pole systems:
=
F1 a11F2 + a12v2

Eq. (2-12);

=
v1 a21F2 + a22v2

Eq. (2-13).

In the case of transmission loss, it is necessary to distinguish two values.

2.3.4.2 Transmission loss with reference to velocity

With the terminating impedance
Zt :=

F2

v2

Eq. (2-14),

the transmission loss with reference to velocity may be derived from equation (2-13)
D dv=:

v1
=
a22 + a21Z t ,
v2

Eq. (2-15).

2. Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

Loss is often expressed as a level (in decibels):

v1
dB,
v2

Ldv : =
20 log

Eq. (2-16).

If transmission loss is used to describe isolation properties, the fact that the insertion of an
oscillating element may lead to a significant increase in velocity v1 compared with the situation
with non-elastic mounting is ignored. As a result, the values which are calculated or measured
are often too favorable, depending on the measurement configuration. Nevertheless, as the
transmission loss is easy to measure and calculate, it is often used for assessment.

2.3.4.3 Transmission loss with reference to force

With the terminating impedance, the transmission loss with reference to force may be
derived from equation (2-12) as follows:
DdF=:

F1
a
= a11 + 12 ,
F2
Zt

Eq. (2-17).

The loss expressed as a level is given by

LdF : =
20 log

F1
dB,
F2

Eq. (2-18).

In contrast to the transmission loss with reference to velocity, it is difficult to make direct
measurements of the transmission loss with reference to force, because instruments need
to be inserted into the flow of force. For the calculation of transmission loss, only two
four-pole parameters and the terminating impedance are needed, However, for the calculation of values with reference to velocity and force, all the four-pole parameters and
the terminating impedance are required. In this case, the source impedance is irrelevant.

2.3.4.4 Insertion loss

Where vibration control measures are taken, level values upstream and downstream from
the isolator are of secondary importance. It is more important to know what vibration
arrives at the receiving end with an isolating component, compared to the situation
without the isolating component. This is the only way of assessing whether the use of
the isolating component is actually beneficial. If the velocity at the output of the original
system is designated as v2 and the velocity at the output of the system with isolation is
designated as v'2, the insertion loss is given by
D=
e :

F2
=
F2'

v2
=
v2'

' Z + a' Z Z + a' + a' Z

a22
i
21 i t
12
11 t
,
a22 Zi + a21Zi Z t + a12 + a11Z t

Eq. (2-19).

In equation (2-19), the primed variables represent the velocity with isolation or the fourpole parameters of the isolating element. The unprimed variables represent the velocity

15

16
Part 1 Fundamentals
without isolation and the four-pole parameters of the original configuration. In the event
that the original situation corresponds to a short circuit between the source and terminating impedance, e.g. with non-elastic machine mounting, equation (2-19) is reduced
to
D=
e :

F2
=
F2'

v2
=
v2'

' Z + a' Z Z + a' + a' Z

a22
i
21 i t
12
11 t
,
Zi + Z t

Eq. (2-20).

Zi designates the input impedance of the source structure and Zt the input impedance of
the receiving structure. Zi is also referred to as source impedance and Zt as terminating
impedance. Another advantage of using insertion loss is that there is no difference between the loss with respect to force and to velocity, because there is a fixed ratio between
the output force and velocity as a result of the terminating impedance. In order to calculate the insertion loss, it is necessary to have full information, including all four-pole
parameters and the source and terminating impedances. In contrast, it is very easy to
determine the insertion loss by measuring the velocities at the receiving end with the
original configuration and the isolating component inserted and then dividing the two
values. Seidel [2-3] also uses the reciprocals of the loss values. The reciprocal of the insertion loss is the insertion transmission ratio:
T=
e :

1
=
De

F2'
=
F2

v2'
,
v2

Eq. (2-21).

The advantage of this approach is that critical points with low isolation appear as peaks
in the curve and can therefore easily be identified.

2.3.4.5 Example: shock absorber top mount for a car suspension

In addition to springs, car chassis are equipped with shock absorbers intended to reduce
movement at the eigenfrequencies of the body and the wheel. This is necessary in order
to improve safety. To optimize the acoustics of the vehicle interior, elastic mounts or top
mounts are installed above the shock absorber. The following paragraphs give an insertion loss calculation based on a simple model to indicate the change in the vibration
transmitted to the vehicle body as a result of the use of this component (Figure 2-9). It
should be pointed out that this is a highly simplified model. For example, non-linear
damping behavior, especially friction in the shock absorber, which is acoustically relevant,
is not taken into consideration.

2. Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

Figure 2-9. Modeling of a car suspension.

In Figure 2-9, the model for a suspension strut is shown on the left-hand side. In
parallel to the suspension spring kt, which bears the weight of the vehicle, the shock
absorber and top mount ks are installed in series. The shock absorber is modeled by a
bottom mass, mdu, an ideal damper, c, and a top mass, mdo, (piston rod). The overall
system of the suspension strut is calculated with and without the top mount. The source
impedance Zi is calculated from the wheel stiffness kr and the mass of the wheel carrier
and wheel moving with the strut mm. For the terminating impedance Zt plate behavior
instead of the behavior of the vehicle body is assumed.
The results of the calculation are shown in Figure 2-10. In the bottom graph it can be
seen that the acoustic benefits from about 30 Hz upwards are made possible by significantly reduced isolation at and around the eigenfrequency of the wheel (14 Hz). In this
range, vibration levels are higher with the top mount than if the shock absorber were
rigidly connected to the body. The insertion loss values are lower than 0 dB. As an undesirable effect, less energy is dissipated in the shock absorber as a result of the softer shock
absorber connection. If wheel hop is to be avoided, it is important to ensure that the top
mount is not too soft. This severely simplified model already indicates the conflicting
objectives faced in the design of top mounts. In practice, a non-linear stiffness plot is
produced by using stops. As a result, the mount is very soft at acoustically relevant small
displacement values. In the event of severe displacement, for example as a result of wheel
hop, the top mount becomes harder, ensuring that as much energy as possible is dissipated in the shock absorber. The top half of Figure 2-10 shows a phase plot of insertion
loss. The phase position at the body input is changed by the top mount as the shock
absorber assembly with the mount is dominated by this component. Without a top mount,
the phase angle of the shock absorber, which has a maximum shift of 90, is established.

17

18
Part 1 Fundamentals

Figure 2-10. Insertion loss of a top mount.

2.4

Effects of damping and friction on isolation

2.4.1 Introduction
The preceding section demonstrates the approach of describing the vibration isolation of
a rubber mount using an idealized spring-mass system. This approach assumes ideal spring
properties and a rigid environment. The mathematical description based on this approach
results in the transmission of vibration excitation shown in the graph in Figure 2-11.
Depending on the tuning of the spring-mass system and the frequency of the oscillating
exciting force, the result is the amplification or isolation of harmonic excitation. The example shows an eigenfrequency of 10 Hz set via the spring rate and the mass. In the
frequency window between 10 and 20 Hz, vibration transmission is sensitive to fluctuations in the spring characteristics. Even small changes can determine whether the vibration is isolated or amplified and may even bring the system close to resonant excitation.
Only higher excitation frequencies with a greater margin from the eigenfrequency, from
20 Hz upwards in this example, result in stable isolation with a curve that falls off
steadily as a straight line.
In this frequency range, each doubling of the frequency (octave) results in a constant
gain of 12 dB in isolation on the basis of an idealized mathematical analysis.

2. Isolation, Damping, and Absorption

Figure 2-11. Transmission behavior of a spring mass system (isolation increase 12 dB per octave,
i.e. doubling of frequency).

On the same theoretical basis, this simplified mathematical approach also describes
the effect of different spring rates on the isolation effect. A stiffer spring leads to a shift
in the eigenfrequency towards higher values while a reduction in spring stiffness has the
opposite effect. The left-hand section of the transmission graph is stretched or compressed
in the X direction, while the continuous linear increase in isolation on the right-hand side
is shifted in parallel (Figure 2-12).

Figure 2-12. A stiffer spring increases the eigenfrequency. In the critical frequency window, this
results in a dramatic isolation loss; in the supercritical range, isolation is reduced to 6 dB.

The depiction gives some orientation: Each doubling of the spring rate (from
5,500N/mm to 11,000 N/mm in the example) results in an isolation loss of 6 dB. At

the same time, the eigenfrequency rises by a factor of 1.41 (= 2). In this frequency
range, the isolation losses may be dramatically higher.
Up to this point, the analysis is based on the behavior of an idealized spring.

19