Clinics in Dermatology (2009) 27, 446452

Cosmeceuticals: myths and misconceptions

Amy E. Newburger, MD
Department of Dermatology, St. Luke's Roosevelt Hospital Center, 1090 Amsterdam Avenue, Suite 11D, New York, NY 10025, USA

Abstract Cosmeceuticals, or physiologically active cosmetics, are subject to many misconceptions.

Most consumers mistakenly believe that cosmeceuticals are regulated and tested as drugs. They also
believe that the ingredients and final products have been tested for safety and that the claims made in
advertisements are valid. Although cosmeceuticals and pharmaceutical ingredients have never been
closer together, their regulatory environments are vastly different due to the distinct Congressional
mandates given the Food and Drug Administration. Physicians are in a good position to help patients
and potential cosmeceutical users understand the benefits and realistic limitations of these products.
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No market regulated by the United States (U.S.) Food and

Drug Administration (FDA) is more affected by fashion and
whim than the cosmetic industry. The cosmetic market is big
business, responsible for billions of dollars of consumer
spending in the United States alone.1 It is subject to myths and
misconceptions, in part because of aggressive and competitive
marketing tactics. Implied claims of potency and effectiveness
can easily mislead the consumer and professional, alike.
The term cosmeceutical was coined in 1961 by
Raymond Reed, founding member of the U.S. Society of
Cosmetic Chemists.2 He originally conceived the word to
describe active and science-based cosmetics. The word and
concept were further popularized by Dr Albert Kligman in
the late 1970s, with the development of prescription-strength
tretinoin for the enhanced appearance of ultraviolet (UV)
damaged and wrinkled skin. Common usage has expanded
the definition to include a cosmetic that has or is purported
to have medicinal properties. The cosmetic industry uses the
term to indicate those products that affect the health of skin
or that have a sustained effect on the skin's appearance
Dermatology Consultants of Westchester, 2 Overhill Road, Scarsdale,
NY 10583, USA.
E-mail address: [email protected].
0738-081X/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2009.05.008

beyond the time of application. These definitions imply a

physiologic or pharmacologic action.
With the exception of tretinoin and tazarotene the products
in this class are sold over-the-counter (OTC) and are
regulated as cosmetics, not pharmaceuticals. The government
does not recognize a separate cosmeceutical category. This
fact affects the type of product testing done, the format and
substantiation of claims, and the language used in promotion
of the products. Lack of awareness of this important issue
among physicians, skin care professionals, and consumers
has led to many misunderstandings about cosmeceuticals.
Some of the most common myths and misconceptions, all
of which are false, are:
Cosmeceuticals and cosmetics are regulated as drugs.
Cosmeceutical claims in labeling and advertising are
substantiated and approved before market.
Cosmetic ingredients undergo premarket testing and
review by the FDA for safety.
Cosmetic ingredients undergo premarket testing and
review by the FDA for efficacy.
Natural products are safer than synthetic.
Cruelty-free cosmetics have had no animal testing,
and are a special noble movement.

Cosmeceuticals: myths and misconceptions

Hypoallergenic means that the product has been tested
to remove all allergenic materials and the product will
be tolerated by the allergic or sensitive individual.
The following review of the history cosmetic regulation
and the current regulatory framework will help to clarify
these issues listed above.

History of the FDA mandate

Cosmetics were unregulated in the United States 80 years
ago; however, the 16 cases of blindness associated with the
use of Lash Lure Eyelash aniline dye in the 1930s 3 impelled
Congress to take action to protect the American public. The
resulting passage of the (Copeland-Lea) Federal Food, Drug,
and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (FDCA),4-6 set the regulatory
infrastructure for cosmetics, based on the prevailing knowledge. It was modified in 1960 by the Color Additives
Amendment7 and again in 1966 by the Fed. Fair Packaging
and Labeling Act,8 which set forth further FDA mandates.
At the time that the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act was
passed, not much was known about the normal physiology of
the skin, and far less was known about the effect of topically
applied hygienic or decorative products on the skin. Most of
the study of the structure and function of skin was oriented
towards disease processes. Normal skin was viewed as
having an almost Saran Wrap like function.
Today, we know much more about the function of healthy
skin, partly because of the plethora of research conducted in
cosmetic industry laboratories as well as from industry
support of basic science investigations in university and
other institutional settings. We also now know that many
cosmetics, formulated of ingredients generally recognized
as safe (GRAS), certainly do affect the structure and
function of skin and that there are many well-studied actives
that offer more than just adornment or cleansing of the skin.
These factors, however, were not a consideration in 1938
when Congress defined the words, drug and cosmetic
with a clear-cut distinction. According to the statutory
definition, drugs are articles intended for use in the
diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of
disease in man and articles intended for use as a component
of any such articles. 9a Another part of the statutory drug
definition states that any substance that is intended to alter
the structure or any function of the body of man (including
physiologic processes thereof) is also considered to fall
under the umbrella of drug.9b
Cosmetics are articles intended to be rubbed, poured,
sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced into, or otherwise
applied to the human body or any part thereof for cleansing,
beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance and articles intended for use as a component of any such
article, except that such term shall not include soap. 9c Thus,
drugs were used to treat and prevent disease, and cosmetics

447
were used to clean or change the appearance of the skin by
adornment or ornamentation.
Congress specifically put more stringent controls on the
manufacture and preparation of foods and drugs than on
cosmetics because of the potential greater hazard from
ingestion of substances than from the application of products
used for personal grooming or beautification. Through the
FDCA and its amendments, the FDA was authorized to
regulate aspects of cosmetic safety, manufacture, ingredients,
labeling, and advertising. An overview of the current state of
affairs of regulation of cosmetics follows.

Product safety
Product safety is difficult to ensure because the FDCA did
not mandate premarket approval of cosmetics, which is in
sharp contrast to the tightly controlled marketing of drugs.
Congress did not discuss how the FDA should ascertain
cosmetic product safety; there are no defined measures for
safety testing. The FDA requires that if the product
incorporates untested ingredients or if the final product is
untested, a safety warning must be placed on the products
that states: Warningthe safety of this product has not been
determined.10 The actual types of testing, and the adequacy
and rigor of testing, are left to the discretion of the
manufacturer.11a,b

Good manufacturing practice

The FDA is empowered to prevent adulteration and
misbranding of the product. To facilitate safe product
manufacturing practice, because it has not been mandated
to issue definitive regulations, the FDA has issued good
manufacturing practice (GMP) guidelines, which are patterned after the food GMP regulations. These guidelines state
that products must be prepared in a clean environment under
sanitary conditions and must not contain any poisonous,
filthy, putrid, decomposing, or otherwise deleterious substances in order to avoid adulteration.12
The FDA refers to both the Bacteriologic Analytical
Manual, published by the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, and the Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance
Association (CTFA) guidelines for its guidance documents.
Misbranding refers to misleading or incomplete information
on package labeling, improper labeling of ingredients, or
improper packaging.13

Ingredients and product composition

According to FDA guidelines, any component ingredient
may be used as long as it is safe. A precise review of
selected ingredients is done by the Cosmetic Ingredient

448
Review (CIR) Expert Panel. The CIR was established by
the CTFA and the Consumer Federation of America in
1976. The panel meets frequently to assess cosmetic
ingredients in an unbiased, open, and expert manner, after
which the results are published. The review list is
prioritized by the extent to which the public is exposed
to the ingredient and its potential biologic activity.
Thousands of ingredients are used in modern cosmetic
manufacturing that are GRAS substances, based on industry
testing many years ago and historical usage.14 Thus far, the
CIR has only been able to definitively review hundreds of
them. Ingredient safety remains an issue both in the United
States and internationally.
Some companies that promote their products as
cruelty-free or not tested on animals do not display
the warning label that the safety of the product has not
been established. They either rely on the suppliers of
ingredients or contract with outside laboratories to do the
animal testing. Others may use historical studies of similar
products, or may use the literature, raw material safety
testing, or perform clinical human safety testing to satisfy
the safety requirement.15 Most raw materials used by these
companies were tested in animals years ago, which has
been recognized as the gold standard.
Unlike other ingredients, the FDA exerts strict regulatory
control over coloring agents used in cosmetics as well as a
small number of banned or restricted ingredients.16 Of all the
ingredients in use, colors are the only ones that must be
preapproved. All batches of petroleum-derived color additives (except for hair dyes) must be tested and certified in the
FDA Color Certification Branch Laboratories before being
sold. Particular colors are approved for specific end uses, for
example, for coloring the final formulation vs making a
colored decorative cosmetic.17 Of particular note is that none
are approved by the FDA for tattoos.18

Product labeling
Labeling laws were established to help the consumer
make value and function comparisons. They were also
created to enable the consumer to avoid potential allergens.
Accurate labeling includes clear placement on the product
label of its identity, the name and address of the
manufacturer, the distributor, the quantity of the product
contained therein, and the ingredients listed in rank order,
using specific nomenclature, to 1%. Trade secrets and
specific flavorings or fragrances are exempt from this and
may be listed as other ingredients or may be listed in any
order at concentrations of less than 1%. All safety warnings
related to the use of the product must also be placed
prominently on the label.19

Truth in advertising
Truthful advertising is coregulated by the Federal Trade
Commission (FTC)20 and the FDA. The FTC regulates

A.E. Newburger
print and electronic advertising; the FDA regulates the
package labeling, which includes the product package, any
insert and instructions, and the Web site, under certain
circumstances, so there is considerable overlap. The FDA
is mandated to prohibit misbranding. This means that
the label must not be misleading or false, must contain the
accurate product identity and all the other labeling
information, and must not contain any nonapproved
color additive.21

FDA activities
Today, cosmetics are regulated by the FDA's Center for
Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN). OTC drugs
that may also have a cosmetic function are regulated jointly
through the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research and
CFSAN. CFSAN fulfills its broad responsibilities by issuing
guidelines and performing field inspections, surveillance,
and registration of manufacturers through the Voluntary
Cosmetic Registration Program, which registers the sites of
manufacture as well as the formulation and raw material
composition of the products.22 CFSAN also keeps product
experience reports, which are reported to the CFSAN
Adverse Experience Reporting System. Much of its regulation of cosmetics involves postmarket enforcement because,
as has been emphasized, it does not have the premarket
statutory authority to approve cosmetic products, cosmetic
ingredients, or cosmetic labeling.
Time is allocated each year by the field staff for routine
inspections and investigations of the regulated products. The
resources devoted to its enforcement efforts are somewhat
limited, however, because of higher-priority obligations,
including concerns about drugs, devices, biologics, food
defense, and safety, Thus, the field offices are directed to
inspect the cosmetic firms with the greatest potential for
health hazard, such as producers of eye area products or
those that have had past violations. Inspections may be
triggered for other reasons, such as notification to the FDA of
a complaint or adverse event from a consumer, health
professional, or industry. In addition, a voluntary recall of a
product, ongoing compliance situations, and follow-up to
product promotion or scientific studies, may all lead to an
onsite inspection by the FDA.
Violators of the adulteration and misbranding provisions
of the FDA may be subject to a variety of enforcement
tools, including formal correspondence such as warning
letters, which may be on the FDA Web site, and
publication in the press, product recalls and seizures,
targeted establishment inspections, and sampling programs.23 If a product has been misbranded or adulterated,
the FDA may request a voluntary recall. 24 The product
may be seized if there is a serious violation, and an
injunction may be issued against further commercial
operations. Rarely, criminal prosecution ensues.

Cosmeceuticals: myths and misconceptions

Recent examples of warning letters on the FDA Web site
include products that have been found to have bacterial
contamination and incorrect ingredient listings. A well-known
example of a seizure is case from the 1990s of Rio Hair
Relaxer, imported from Brazil. It was removed from the U.S.
market because its use resulted in hair loss, severe dermatitis,
and hair discoloration for more than 3000 people.25,26
Another, more complex case and recent seizure is that
of Age Intervention Eyelash, manufactured by Jan Marini
Skin Research, San Jose, California. The product, which
was promoted as a cosmetic that increased eyelash growth,
contained bimatoprost, a prostaglandin analog drug that is
FDA-approved to treat glaucoma. Bimatoprost has well
known side effects of darkening and lengthening lashes,
the iris, and periocular skin. Potential side effects could
also include compromised vision in those already receiving
the drug for medical purposes. It was seized by the FDA
for the unapproved use of a drug active ingredient (ie, as
an adulterated cosmetic) as well as for misbranding
because it was promoted to alter the structure of a tissue
in the body.27 Subsequently, a bimatoprost solution product
has received FDA approval for this same purpose, but as a
drug, not a cosmetic. Studies were submitted to the FDA
with the rigor required for drug approval.

Cosmetic or drug?
Data now show that many cosmetic products, previously
thought to be inert, have an effect on the structure or function
of skin. The classification of a product has tremendous
ramifications on its production and marketing. In general, the
FDA reviews the types of product claims made to determine
whether it is a cosmetic or a drug.
The FDA is guided by the intended use, which is inferred
from promotional materials such as the labeling, advertisements, oral and written statements, and testimonials.28 These
can be used as evidence of drug intent, even if the
manufacturer issues a disclaimer. In many cases, however,
no clear line of differentiation exists between cosmetic and
drug claims. The cases are reviewed individually based on all
of the involved facts, not on a simple phrase taken out of
context, but instead on how the product in total is labeled and
promoted. This is similar to Supreme Court Justice Potter
Stewart's statement regarding pornography, I shall not
today attempt further to define the kinds of material I
understand to be embraced but I know it when I see it.29
Manufacturers have some latitude to engage in hyperbole
and creative marketing about the benefits of the product,
but they cannot engage in misrepresentation or impute
physiologic or therapeutic properties to a product. If they
make physiologic (eg, disease prevention) or pharmacologic
claims, they must then comply with the drug or device
provisions of the FDCA. Most manufacturers would like to
prevent their products from being labeled drugs.

449
The primary reason companies try to avoid a drug claim is
economic. There are multiple regulatory interfaces within the
drug approval process and, in contrast, few hurdles in
bringing a cosmetic to the market.
An example is the time and expense required to bring
Renova to the market. Its active ingredient, tretinoin, was
already legally marketed for decades as a treatment for acne
vulgaris (as Retin-A), with a well-established safety profile.
It took almost a decade and millions of dollars before the
approval was granted this drug for cosmetic use in wrinkle
smoothing and for treatment of tactile roughness, mottled
hyperpigmentation, and correction of photodamage indications. The important distinction is that although the product
was marketed for cosmetic indications, it was never
marketed as a cosmetic.30

Going to market: drug vs cosmetic

To legally market a drug, a manufacturer must submit to
the FDA a premarket application (PMA). The PMA includes
defined clinical studies documenting safety and efficacy for a
specific indication, with statistical significance (P b .025).
The efficacy is determined by a specified end point (eg,
microbiologic cure, cancer remission), depending on the
class of drug.31 In contrast, no preapproval is necessary to
market a cosmetic,32 and no predetermined end point is
necessary for efficacy or product claims.
For a pharmaceutical drug, safety studies are required to
generally include animal, toxicology, pharmacokinetics,
pharmacology, drug-drug interaction, and other relevant
data. In comparison, a cosmetic must be safe for intended
use, but there is no definition of safety and there is great
latitude for its documentation.
Another important aspect of marketing a product is its
label. A drug has extremely complex labeling requirements,
with an extensive package insert that includes a description
of the chemical structure of the active ingredient, formulation, strength, additives, clinical pharmacology, mechanism
of action, indications for use, contraindications, precautions,
warnings, adverse reactions, dosage, and forms. The
requirements for labeling of a cosmetic are well defined by
regulation, but are far less complex, as previously noted.
Pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities have a mandatory
registration and inspection requirement that may be repeated
every 2 years. GMP regulations apply. The cosmetic facility
should follow the GMP guidelines and should comply with
the Voluntary Cosmetic Registration Program, but can expect
infrequent surveillance.
All drug ingredients must be preapproved, including active
ingredients and fillers, which are often from the GRAS list.
Any change in formulation must be reviewed by the FDA. This
is clearly distinct from the cosmetic ingredient regulations,
where a change in formulation is a matter of coursea
business decisionand not reviewed with the FDA.

450

A.E. Newburger

The FDA closely monitors the language of drug marketing claims to ensure that approved indications are correctly
promoted in advertisements and labeling. The adept drug
manufacturer consults with the FDA before issuing labels
and launching advertising because it understands the level of
regulatory scrutiny is high and the consequences are costly.
In contrast, cosmetics claims are seldom monitored and are
only investigated if brought to the attention of the
appropriate agency. There is no statutory mandate allowing
the FDA to monitor performance advertisements and no
approval process for claims.
The time and cost for drug development are in sharp
contrast to those of cosmetics. The average time for drug
development is from 7 to 15 years from the laboratory to the
pharmacy shelf. The time for cosmetic development of a
breakthrough technology is 3 to 5 years. The average cost of
research and development for a new drug is $800 million.31
In contrast, the cost of creating and developing a breakthrough cosmetic technology is between $2 and $3 million
(personal communication: Maria Corbiscello, January 22,
2007 Studio MC2). The costs, time, and effort expenditures
are why the drug classification is avoided by the cosmetic
industry and why it actively works to prevent the imposition
of further regulation of their products.

3.

4.

5.

Product claims
Product claims are the cornerstone of effective marketing
in the cosmetic industry. To support their product performance claims, cosmetic companies rely on a variety of
methods of substantiation33,34:
1. Clinical evaluation is meaningful when it is
blinded, controlled, and when clinical grading is
done by an expert, unbiased evaluator. Antiwrinkle, shinier hair, and smoother skin are
examples of the claims that may be made from
this type of study.
2. Instrumental assessment can provide insights into
the mechanism of action of the product and can
objectively measure its physiologic effects. Instrumentation found in the industrial laboratory
commonly includes techniques to determine transepidermal water loss, barrier function, surface
irregularities, wrinkle depth, skin firmness, elasticity, and epidermal turnover. These tests are often
performed in volunteers, but may include animal
and in vitro studies. The latter are interesting but
have less real-world application. A limitation of
both in vivo and in vitro studies is that one cannot
do a placebo control. Because even bland substances have an effect on the structure and function
of skin, controls are generally obtained from the
vehicle. A major limitation of both animal models

6.

7.
8.

9.

10.
11.

12.

and in vitro systems is the inability to accurately

assess percutaneous penetration in humans. The
claims obtained from these studies focus on
physical properties.
Subjective assessment is generally a sensory
evaluation. It is valuable, because the consumer
may perceive changes before they are clinically
evident to the observer. Types of claims from this
testing include statements like feels softer,
smoother, looks more radiant and also includes
appears to reduce the appearance of or helps
to heal.
Product formulation claims, such as contains
X, contains 5% of aloe vera, more concentrated,
relate to the constituents of the product. Of
course, the active ingredient must be stable in the
final formulation, able to penetrate the corneum,
and be biologically active at the target site for
clinical benefits to ensue. The consumer may be
unaware of the effectiveness of the ingredient in
the final formulation.
Performance characteristics may be assessed with
use tests such as the 28-day repeat insult patch test
or open patch testing. These may generate claims
such as gentler, milder, and noncomedogenic.
Unscented is a straightforward performance
claim. Hypoallergenic has no federal definition
or standard and can mean whatever the manufacturer wants it to mean.35
Endorsement claims include testimonials by citizens and celebrities, tested by dermatologists, and
developed by dermatologists. Increasing numbers
of physician named or associated brands are
promoted for the marketplace. Many of these
physicians are actually paid spokesdoctors. Products are also labeled with various institutional seal
of approval emblems.
Cultural claims include 100% natural ingredients
and no animal testing.
Superiority claims include milder than, more
soothing than..., more hydrating.... etc. The
manufacturer must be prepared to substantiate the
claim, under normal use conditions.
Emotive claims such as Because I'm worth it
(L'Oreal) or you'll look like a million dollars do
not require substantiation.
Preference claims should be documented with a
fair comparison study
Mind claims are a new area relating to how the
product makes one feel. Some may consider them a
subclass of subjective assessment claims, but they
are based on innovative assessment tools, including
detailed questionnaires and instrumentation such as
functional magnetic resonance imaging.36
Puffery claims are those which make fanciful or
outrageous claims.37 Puffery is a legal term that

Cosmeceuticals: myths and misconceptions

refers to promotional statements and claims that
express subjective rather than objective views, such
that no reasonable person would take literally. The
FTC Policy Statement on Deception states, The
commission generally will not pursue cases involving obviously exaggerated or puffing representations, i.e., those that the ordinary consumers do not
take seriously.38
Nongovernmental controls also exist on product promotional claims. The National Advertising Division (NAD) of
the Council of the Better Business Bureaus is a selfregulating organization that evaluates claims for truth and
accuracy. If a promotional claim is found to be questionable
and cannot be satisfactorily resolved by the NAD Case
Report Process, it is referred to the National Advertising
Review Board (NARB), and if it is not settled there, the
NAD/NARB will refer it to the FTC.39

Conclusions
The cosmetics industry today holds a unique position.
Cosmetic companies are permitted to create and market
products that are known to have an effect on the structure and
function of skin, with little regulation. Most consumers
believe that cosmeceuticals are regulated and tested as drugs.
Consumers trust that ingredients have been tested for safety
and that claims made in advertisements are real. Consumers
also believe that natural, cruelty-free, and hypoallergenic claims are truthful and substantiated. The reality is that
active cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical ingredients have
never been closer together than today. This evolving field was
inconceivable to lawmakers decades ago when the regulatory
structure for cosmetics was mandated.
To press the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries to
put their best feet forward and bring to market products that
safely and efficaciously benefit consumers, it behooves all
of us to educate ourselves on the reality of the regulator and
marketing process. An informed public is the best audience
to guide the science and art of cosmeceuticals toward more
formal substantiation, if not regulation. Perhaps professional and consumer education would better protect
consumers who are trying to make sense of this billiondollar industry. Physicians are in an especially good
position to help patients and potential cosmeceutical users
understand that, although skepticism holds value, we may
yet find hope in a jar.

References
1. Prestige beauty industry reaches record $8 billion high. NPD press
release. April 13, 2006. Available at: www.NPD.com/press/releases/
press_060413.html. Accessed January 21, 2007.

451
2. Reed R. The definition of cosmeceutical. J Soc Cosmet Chem
1962;13:103-6.
3. Riordan T. Inventing beauty. New York: Broadway Books; 2004.
p. 19-24.
4. Swann J. History of the FDA. In: Kurian G, editor. A historical guide to
the US government. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998.
5. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 21 U.S.C. Sec. 301
et seq.
6. Milestones in U.S. food and drug law history. FDAWeb site. Available at:
www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/Milestones/ucm128305.
htm. Accessed June 16, 2009.
7. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 21 U.S.C. 379e.
8. Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA), 15 U.S.C. Sec. 1451 et seq.
FDA Web site. Available at: www.fda.gov/RegulatoryInformation/
Legislation/ucm148722.htm. Accessed June 16, 2009.
9. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), a. 21 U.S.C. 321(g);
b. 21 U.S.C. 201(g)(1)(c); c. 21 U.S.C. 321(i).
10. Code of Federal Regulations. 21 C.F.R. 740.1.
11. a. Schmidt A. food drug and cosmetic products, warning statements.
Federal Register, 40(42):8912-8929 (1975); b. 21 C.F.R. 740.10.
12. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 21 U.S.C. 361.
13. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 21 U.S.C. 362.
Cosmetic Ingredient Review. Available at: www.cir-safety.org.
Accessed June 16, 2009.
14. Cruelty freenot tested on animals. FDA Web site. Available at: www.
fda.gov/cosmetics/CosmeticLabelingLabelClaims/LabelClaimsandExpirationDating/ucm2005202.htm. Accessed June 16, 2009.
15. Code of Federal Regulations. 21 C.F.R. 250.250; 21 C.F.R.
700.11-700.35.
16. Berdick M. Coping with the color additive regulations. In: Estrin N,
editor. The cosmetic industry, scientific and regulatory foundations.
New York (NY): Marcel Dekker Inc.; 1984. p. 385-414.
17. FDA. Tattoos and permanent makeup. Available at: www.fda.gov/
Cosmetics/ProductandIngredientSafety/ProductInformation/ucm108530.
htm. Accessed: June 16, 2009.
18. Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA), 15 U.S.C. 1454(c)(3); 21 C.
F.R. 701.3.
19. Federal Trade Commission Act, 15 U.S.C. 45 and 55.
20. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 21 U.S.C. 362(a-(f)).
21. 21 C.F.R. 710-730.
22. Milstein S, Halper A, Katz L. Regulatory requirements for the
marketing of cosmetics in the United States. In: Paye M, Barel A,
Maibach H, editors. Handbook of cosmetic science and technology.
New York: CRC Press; 2006. p. 838-9.
23. 21 C.F.R. 7.40-7.59.
24. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 21 U.S.C. 331-334.
25. Kurtzweil, Paula. Hair relaxers destroyed after consumers complain products sold by World Rio Corp. FDA Consumer Magazine March
1994
26. Meadows M. Heading off hair care disasters. FDA Consumer Magazine
2001;35. Available at: vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fdahdye.html. Accessed
June 16, 2009.
27. FDA News: approximately $2 million of potentially harmful cosmetic
eye product seized. Available at: www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/
PressAnnouncements/2007/ucm109028.htm. Accessed June 16, 2009.
28. Greff J. Regulation of cosmetics that are also drugs. Food Drug Law J
1996;51:243-72.
29. Jacobellis V. Ohio. 378 U.S. 184, 197. 1964.
30. Drugs approved by the FDA. Available at: www.centerwatch.com/
patient/drugs/dru31.html. Accessed June 16, 2009.
31. DiMasi J, Hansen R, Grabowski H. The price of innovation: new
estimates of drug development costs. J Health Econ 2003;22:151-85.
32. FDA authority over cosmetics. FDA Web site. Available at: www.cfsan.
fda.gov/~dms/cos-206.html. Accessed June 16, 2009.
33. Paye M, Barel A. Introduction to the proof of claims. In: Paye M,
Barel A, Maibach H, editors. Handbook of cosmetic science and
technology. New York: CRC Press; 2006. p. 880-6.

452
34. Wentz R. Substantiating skin care cosmetic claims. Soap Cosmet Chem
Spec 1986;36-42:54-6.
35. Hypoallergenic cosmetics. FDA Web site. Available at: www.fda.gov/
Cosmetics/CosmeticLabelingLabelClaims/LabelClaimsandExpirationDating/ucm2005203.htm. Accessed June 16, 2009.
36. Weichers J. Mind over matter: cosmetic claim substantiation issues
facing the future. Cosmet Toilet 2005;120:57-64.

A.E. Newburger
37. Foulke J. Cosmetic ingredients: understanding the puffery. FDA
Consumer Magazine, May 1992.
38. FTC Policy Statement on Deception, Appended to Cliffdale Associates,
Ind. 103 F.T.C. 110, 174(1984). Available at: www.ftc.gov/bcp/
policystmt/ad-decept.htm. Accessed June 16, 2009.
39. Smithles R. Substantiating performance claims. Cosmet Toilet 1984;99:
79-84.