ABCT3747

Introduction to Chemical & Bioprocess Technology

Lecture 1 Introduction to the Subject

1 Important subject matters (teaching,
1.
(teaching learning,
learning assessment)
Le/Tu: 42 hours (3 credits)
Marking scheme:

Compulsory for BScCT and HDCT

Continuous Assessment:
(Assignments, Tests)
Final Exam:

40%
60%

Instructors: Dr. JY Wu
Tel: 3400-8671, Office: Y812
E-mail: [email protected]
y g @p y
8/21/2015

Key reference books:

1. Geankoplis CJ: Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles (Unit
Operations), Prentice Hall.
2. Doran PM: Bioprocess Engineering Principles, Harcourt Brace & Company.
3. Felder RM & Rousseau RW: Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes.
John Wiley & Sons. (Units, material and energy balances)
4. Himmelblau DM: Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering.
Prentice Hall. (Equivalent to ref.2)
M
More
refs
f (for
(f food
f d processing):
i )
1. Toledo RT: Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering (E-book available at PolyU
Lib) Springer,
Lib).
Springer 3rd ed.
ed 2007.
2007 Chts 2,3,5
235
2. R. Paul Singh UC Davis Web Resources in Food Engineering: rpaulsingh.com
Examples (e-solver unit conversion, mass and energy balances); Animations
separation processes
2

Teaching plan/schedule
Lecture/tutorial (TU107/101) Wed 4:30-5:30 pm; Fri 2:30-4:30 pm
Part No.

Contents

Le/Tu hrs

Period

Homework

Lecture 1
ICBPT12

Introduction (subject;
chem bioprocess)

1 hr

Wk 1

Lecture 2
ICBPT12

Intro to eng calculations

( i andd terms))
(units

4 hrs

Wk1-2

As#1

Lecture 3
ICBPT3

Separation processes

3 hrs

Wk 3

As#2 (self
study)

Lecture 4
ICBPT4

Material Balances

4 hrs

Wk 4-5

As#3

Lecture 5
ICBPT5

Energy Balances

6 hrs

Wk 6-7

As#4

3 hrs

Wk 8 (Oct 23)

Review & Test 1

Lecture 6 ICBPT6

Heat Transfer

6 hrs

Wk 9-10

As#5

Lecture 7 ICBPT7

Fluid flow

6 hrs

Wk 11-12

As#6

6 hrs

Wk 13 (Nov 27?)

Review 2 and Test 2

Tentative schedule subject to change on further notice.

3

Submission and assessment of assignment

Format: Hardcopy to ABCT dept assignment box.
Labels: Full name and student ID; Subject code and title ABCT3747ICBPT.
Due day: About one week after completing the lecture
Assessment by Lecturer/TAs:
All submitted assignments will be assessed for course work mark
mark.
General comments and common problems discussed on-line/in class.
Detailed solution manuals or answers available to all students afterwards.

Do not copy
py assignment
g
or yyou will be p
punished!

Notice about test: Test date and room will be announced in due time.
When the date is fixed, all students should take the test according to schedule.
No make-up test will be given except for compelling reasons such as serious
sickness. Student missing
g the test should approach
pp
the subject
j lecturer
immediately (< 2 working days) to get a make-up test or get a 0 mark.
4

Successful ways to learn this course

Background knowledge: high-school chemistry & biology (AL level),

physics and maths (AS minimum).

Memory of important terms, their definitions and units

Understanding the concepts is most important and the goal.

Effective
communication is
y to the lectures and attend the tutorials;important!
listen carefully
study the notes and references books before/after class;
ask questions and discuss with me or your classmates.

Do a lot of exercises

It is more important to
get the
understand how to g
answer than to know the
answer.

Class Rules and Discipline

In class and during
g a lesson: No chatting,
g and any
y other noisy
y and
disturbing activities (such as playing with other students, leaving your
seats or entering the classroom).
Attendance and punctuality: Attend all the lectures and tutorials if
possible and be punctual.
possible,
punctual Later comers (10 min maximum) are not
admitted to the classroom.
Bad class behaviour is a nuisance to the class, and also damages your own
image: impolite, immature and inconsiderate.

Intended learning
g outcomes
(BScCT 12047 course document)
Whatt tto learn?
Wh
l
?
The expectations

Upon completion of this subject, students will be able to

1) recognize the common chemical and biochemical processes and the

functions of individual process equipment;
2)) apply
l the
h elementary
l
chemical
h i l engineering
i
i principles
i i l andd concepts to
analyze and solve material and energy balance problems in chemical,
biochemical and related processes;
p
;
3) estimate the size of process equipment, the amounts and costs of
material, and energy in chemical and bioprocess plants.

Note: To be assessed in tests and exams, to determine your grade.

7

2. Introduction to Chemical p
process technology
gy

What is process technology? Processes, equipment and operations

involved in the chemical and other physical, food and biological processing
industries.

A process is a series of operations that causes physical and/or chemical

changes
h
iin a substance
b
or a mixture
i
off substances
b
to desired
d i d product
d
(desired composition, properties and form).

Flow charts or flow diagrams are very useful for illustrating processes
Example: a waste water treatment process as shown on next slide.

A food process example: cane sugar production from cane

http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/sugar/12087.html
p
p q g
g

Q: Find out the unit operations and the function of each in this process.

A waste water treatment process

p

http://ga water usgs gov/edu/wwvisit html

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wwvisit.html

Process material flow/streams: input (feed), output (product),

recycle
l andd bypass.
b
10

Chemical engineering

Process technology was originally a subject of chemical engineering, or

essentially chemical process technology.

Areas of chemical engineering:

Fundamentals: thermodynamics, material and energy balances, transfer

processes and fluid mechanics; chemical kinetics, catalysis.

Unit operations: physical processes for the processing of raw materials,

and the separation, recovery and processing of products.

Process control and economy.

pollution control.
Waste treatment and p

11

Major components of chemical process plants

A complete
p
chemical pplant ggenerally
y consists of the following
g components,
p
1) Raw material processing/preparation;
2) Chemical reaction to make the products;
3) Product separation and processing;
4) Waste disposal/treatment.
Recycle

Raw
materials

Reactor feed
preparation

P d
Products
Reactor

Separator
Wastes

Fig. 2 A general chemical production

process (Turton R et al. 2003).

Waste
control
12

Ethanol p
production by
y direct hydration
y
of ethylene
y

CH2=CH2 + H2O CH2CH2OH

13

Products of chemical industries

Products derived from fossil fuels
- Fuels: LPG (liquefied petroleum gas),
gas) gasoline,
gasoline diesel,
diesel kerosene
- Base chemicals (bulk chemicals): ethene, propene, butane, benzene,
synthesis gas, ammnina, methanol
- Intermediates
I t
di t (b
(bulk
lk chemicals):
h i l ) acetic
ti acid,
id formaldehyde,
f
ld h d urea, ethane
th
oxide, acrylonitrile, acetaldehyde, terephthalic acid
- Consumer products: plastics, electronic materials, fibers, solvents,
d
detergents,
i
insecticides,
i id pharmaceuticals.
h
i l

Other products
p
- Chlorine, sulfuric acid, nitric acid
- Fine chemicals (bulk): drugs, vitamins and pesticides, flavors, fragrances, and
active ingredients
- Specialty chemicals: adhesives, disinfectants, pesticides, pharmaceuticals,
photographic chemicals, dyestaffs, perfumes, and specialty polymers
14

3.
3 Bioprocess technology areas and applications
Biotechnology may be broadly defined as the utilization of the biological
process, such as microbial, plant, animal or their constituents, to provide
goods and services. Modern biotechnology usually refers to the
bioprocesses involving genetically-engineered species.
iochemical engineering
enginee ing iss the
t e extension
e te s o of
o chemical
c e ca engineering
e g ee g principles
p c p es
Biochemical
to systems using biological catalysts to bring about desired chemical
transformations. It is often subdivided into bioreaction engineering and
bioseparations.
F
Fermentation
t ti is
i a biochemical
bi h i l process involving
i
l i the
th biochemical
bi h i l conversion
i
(metabolism) of a substrate into bioproducts by microorganisms such as
bacteria and fungi.
g
15

Bioprocess technology terms

Bioreactor is a conditioned/controlled vessel or container for bioconversion or
bbiotransformation
ot a s o at o by living
v g organisms
o ga s s or
o enzymes.
e y es. Thee bioreactors
b o eacto s for
o microbial
c ob a
fermentation are commonly known as fermenters.
general name for all sorts of culture containers including
g Petri
Culture vessel: a g
dishes, tubes, plates, flasks, bags, small bioreactors.
g
Culture or fermentation medium is a nutrient formula or solution for the growth
of a culture, in solid or liquid form. Solid medium in the labortory is usually formed
by adding agar to the liquid medium.

16

Applications/products of bioprocesses
Production of
1) Biomass, e.g., baker's yeast and SCP (single cell proteins).
2)) Microbial enzymes,
y
, e.g.,
g , amylase
y
and protease.
p
3) Microbial metabolites, primary such as ethanol, amino acids,
organic acids; secondary: antibiotics.
4) Recombinant proteins, such as bioassay and therapeutic reagents.
Bioconversion and biotransformation
5) Foods/Beverages modified by microbial activity: coffee, tea, cocoa,
vanilla, cheese, olives and tobacco.
6) Wastewater treatment.
17

Development and operation of a bioprocess plant

3
1

2
5
(Stanbury
Stanbury))

1. Medium preparation: formulation (mix, dissolve nutrient components) and sterilisation;

2. Inoculum preparation (incubators, shake-flasks, small fermentors);
3. Fermentation (large fermentors); 4. Product recovery and processing;
18
5. Effluent disposal/treatment

Processes of modern biotechnology

through recombinant DNA technology

Microbial
fermentation

Animal cell
culture

Transgenic
plant
19

Chemical versus Biological processes

Chemical processes
Fulfilling single reaction steps, each in a separate reactor, harsh reaction
conditions ((hi T,, p);
Rapid, low cost, commercially more competitive;
generate more hazardous wastes.
Tend to g
Bioprocesses
Fulfilling multiple reaction steps in one reactor, mild reaction conditions
(low T and normal P);
Green, more environment friendly;
May be less productive and competitive commercially.
Example: ethanol production

20

Ethanol production by chemical process

The current process of choice for industrial ethanol production involves the
di
direct
hydration
h d i off ethylene
h l
with
i h a catalytic
l i amount off phosphoric
h h i acid.
id
CH2=CH2 + H2O CH2CH2OH
Reaction temperature 300 to 400oC and pressure 1000 psi.
Only 4% of ethylene is converted to alcohol (per pass). In the industry, a
series of separation processes is used to separate the product and
unconverted ethylene,
y
, which is recycled
y
to the reactor. The cyclic
y
process
p
gives a net yield of 97%.

21

Ethanol production by biological processes

Raw materials: waste syrup
y p ((molasses)) from cane sugar
g pprocessing
g
(containing mostly sucrose) or biomass (containing mainly cellulose) which
is first hydrolyzed enzymatically into glucose; the sugars are converted to
ethyl
h l alcohol
l h l and
d carbon
b dioxide
di id by
b yeast.
Main biochemical reactions:
C12H22O11 + H2O 2C6H12O6;

C6H12O6 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2

The enzymes require 28 to 72 hours at 20 to 38oC and give a 90% yield.

The bioprocess is still not widely used in industry.

22

Ethanol production by biological processes

23

Summaryy of Lecture 1 Introduction to Chemical

Bioprocess technology
1. General components of chemical and bioprocess plants, and their major
functions: Read flow charts of chemical/bioprocesses and recognize the
process units
i andd their
h i functions,
f
i
be
b able
bl to describe
d
ib with
i h your own words)
d)
2. Compare the common and different aspects between chemical and bioprocess
plants;
l t the
th applications
li ti
off chemical
h i l engineering
i
i in
i process technology.
t h l
3. Memorize the new terms (meaning or definition) in this chapter such as,
reactor feed,
reactor,
feed effluent,
effluent process,
process unit operations
operations, bioreactor
bioreactor, fermentor,
fermentor
fermentation, culture vessel, inoculum, culture medium, downstream
processing.

24

ABCT3747 IntroChemBiopTech

Lecture 2 Separation Processes (Unit operations)

A brief introduction
1. Separation processes in chemical and bioprocess technology (their
i
important
t t role
l andd functions).
f ti )
2. General concepts and characteristics of separation processes.
3 Some
3.
S
common separation/downstream
i /d
processes.
Refs: Geankoplis: Chapter 1 for an overview and other chapters for
various separation processes/unit operations.
More ref: R. Paul Singh UC Davis Resources in food eng
rpaulsingh.com/teachingfirstpage.htm Animations on separation processes
Evaporators; Membrane Systems; Driers
2015/8/21

25

ABCT3747 Lecture 2

Introduction to engineering calculations

Focus: Units and Important Physical Terms
1. Dimension and units.

2. Important terms in process technology

3 Mi
3.
Mixture composition.
ii

4 Ideal
4.
Id l gas law.
l
5.
5 Dimensional
Di
i l consistency
i

Refs:
1. Geankoplis CJ: Transport Processes and Unit Operations. Cht 1.
2. Felder RM & Rousseau RW: Elementaryy Principles
p of Chemical Processes. Cht 2.
3. Himmelblau DM: Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Eng. Part 1
4. Toledo RT: Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering (E-book PolyU Lib). Cht 1
5. Doran P: Bioprocess Engineering Principles (Chts 1-3)

8/21/2015

26

Calculations
C l l ti
in
i process technology
t h l
Why and where
Process technology is the processing or changingcalculations
ofl materials
chemical,
chemical
l i byare
physical or mechanical means.
needed?

Quantification/calculation of the process variables and conditions and the

gy is needed for design,
g , operation,
p
,
amounts of materials and energy
productivity and economy of the process.

The calculations in this subject only requires very simple and basic
y due to their lack
maths. The main difficulties for most students are usually
of physical concepts of the processes but not mathematics.

27

Calculations in process technology

Ex. 1 Evaporation process shown in Fig. 1, given the flow rate F, solute
concentration xF and temperature TF of the feed solution, and the desired
concentration of the concentrated solution xL, we can ask several quantitative
questions.
(1) The
Th amount off vapor V generated?
d?
(2) The amount of concentrated solution L?
(3) The amount of steam S required?

Vapor V
TB , HV
Feed solution F
TF , xF , HF

PB
TB
Condensate
C
d
t S
TS , HC

Steam S
TS , HS

(4) The heat transfer area required?

(5) The volume of evaporator?

Concentrated solution L
TB , xL , HL

x-conc, H-enthalpy,
H
h l B-boiling
B b ili pt.
28

Warmingg up
pq
questions
1. Density of water 1.0 kg/L: Express the density in (1) kg/m3 and (2) lb/ft3.
(A 1000 kkg/m
(Ans:
/ 3; 62.43
62 43 lb/ft
lb/f 3).
)
2. The flow rate of water in a pipe is 1800 kg/h. Express the flow rate in (1) kg/s,
(2) m3/min and (3) kmol/h. (Ans 0.5 kg/s; 0.03 m3/min; 100 kmol/h).
p
ppressure patm is 1 atm = ? mmHg
g = ? N/m2 ((Pa).
)
3. Standard atmospheric
4. (Exam Q) A salt solution is made by dissolving 2.0 kg of salt in 78 kg water,
and the solution has a density of 1230 kg/m3. Molecular weight: salt = 58.5
and water = 18.0. Express the salt concentration in (1) mass fraction; (2) mole
fraction; (3) g/L concentration.
(5 marks)
(1) mass frac=
f
2 kg/80
k /80 kg
k = 0.025;
0 025
(2) mole frac = (2/58.5)/(2/58.5+78/18) = 0.0078 mol frac;
(3) mass conc = 2 kg/(80 kg/1230 kg/m3) = 30.75 g/L.
29

1 Dimension & Units

1.
A dimension is a property that can be measured, such as length (L), mass
(M), time () and temperature (T).
A unit is a quantitative measurement of the dimension, such as meters
(m) for length, kilograms (kg) for mass, seconds (s) for time and degrees
Celsius (oC) for temperature.
To quantify a property,
property you need both a numerical value and a unit,
unit
e.g., the pressure of a gas in a container is 50 kPa.
A property or dimension can be expressed with different units, e.g.,
mass with gram, kilogram and pound; length with meter, millimetre and
f t
feet.
30

Unit systems and Conversion

Two major systems of units
1) Metric Units: including CGS (cm-g-s system), SI (International System).
2) English Units: including FPS (ft-lb-s or English absolute)
absolute), and
Gravitational Systems: British Engineering, American Engineering.
Th SI unit
The
it system
t is
i mostt widely
id l usedd in
i science
i
andd engineering.
i
i
Unit conversion: When the factors in a problem are expressed with different
unit systems, it is often needed or favorable to convert the units into a uniform
y
for the calculation.
system

31

Table 1 Common dimensions and units (Table 2.2 in Toledo).

Dimension/
Property

SI

English/American
Engineering

Length, L

Meter, m

Foot, ft

Time,

Second, s

Second, s

Mass, M

Kilogram, kg

Pound, lb or lbm

Temperature, T

Degree Celsius, oC or Kelven,

K

Degree Fahrenheit, oF or
Ranking scale, oR

Force, F (M L/2)

Newton, N kg m/s2

Pound force, lbf = 32.174

lbm-ft/s2

Pressure, p (M /L2)

Pascal, Pa N/m2 (=kg/m s2)

lbf /ft2; psi = lbf /in2

Energy, E (M L2/2)

Joule, J m N (=kg m2/s2)

ft-lbf ; Btu

Power, P (M L2/3)

watt, 1 W 1 J/s

Horsepower, 1 hp550 ftlbf/s

Basic dimensions and basic units: All other dimensions and units
can be expressed by, or derived from these, so that the others are
derived dimensions and units.
32

Expression of complex units

Symbol and meaning
E
Ex:

1) Concentration:
C
t ti
mol/l
l/l = moll l-11; kg/m
k / 3 = kg
k m-33
2) Heat capacity: kJ/kg oC = kJ kg-1 oC-1

The central dot "" between two units means times or multiplication, and is
sometimes replaced by a hyphen "-" or a space, e.g. kJ/kg oC = kJ/kg-oC =
kJ/kg oC.
kJ/k
C
Use of symbol or formula
Express the unit of a property with the common symbol but not the
formula, e,g. pressure by Pa or N/m2 (but not kg/m s2 ) and energy by J or
kJ but not kgm2/s2.
g a calculation for unit conversion and
The formula mayy be used during
dimensional calculations.

33

Unit conversion methods

Conversion factors are needed which can be found from the reference
b k ((at the
books
h bbackk off Geankoplis
G k li andd Toledo).
T l d )
Use these conversion factors to convert other units which are not included.
Ex. Convert heat capacity Cp from Btu/lboF to kJ/kgoC and kCal/kgoC
Solution: Conversion factors (from a reference): 1 Cal = 4.187
4 187 J,
J 1 btu = 1.055
1 055
kJ, 1 kg = 2.2046 lb, 1 oC = 1.8 oF (for T change)
1 btu
1.055 kJ
kJ
=

(
1
.
055

2
.
2046

1
.
8
)
= 4.187 kJ/kgoC
o
o
o
lb F (1 / 2.2046)kg (1 / 1.8) C
kg C
= 4.187 kJ (1 Cal/4.187 J)/kgoC = 1 kCal/kgoC

34

SI or Metric unit prefixes (Himmelblau or Toledo)

Factor

Prefix

Symbol

Factor

Prefix

Symbol

109

giga

10-2

centi

106

mega

10-33

mili
ili

103

kilo

10-6

micro

10-1

deci

10-9

nano

Examples:
1) Length: 1 mm = 10-3 m; 1 m = 106 m = 109 nm
2) Mass: 1 kg = 1000 g; 1 g = 106 g
3) Comp disk space: 1 Gb = 109 b; 1 Mb = 1000 kb
35

2 Important terms and definitions

2.
2 1 Physical properties of materials
2.1

Viscosity (): a measure of fluid resistance to

flow and deformation. The most common unit
of viscosity
y is centipoise
p
((cp),
p)
1 cp=0.01 p (poise=g/cm-s)=10-3 Pa s (kg/m-s)

1000
99
98

Specific Volume (v): the volume per

unit mass (m3/kg, cm3/g, ft3/lbm), =1/v

Density (k
kg/m3)

Density (): the mass per unit volume

(kg/m3, g/cm3, lbm/ft3)

Density of water

-10

-5

5
10
T (oC)

15

Most properties change

with environment
conditions, e.g. T

Q: Show that Pa-s = kg/m-s. Convert 1 cp = 6.7210

? -4 lbm/ft-s

36

20

2.2 Molal units

Average Molecular Weight of a mixture (two components A and B),

M = x A M A + xB M B
where xA and xB denote the mole fractions and MA and MB molecular weights of
components
p
A and B, respectively.
p
y
The mole unit commonly used in chemistry means g mole: g mol = g
mass/M. (M = molecular weight). In engineering processes, larger molar
amounts are often expressed by kg mol or lb mol,
kgg mol = k mol = kg
g mass/M;;

lb mol = lb mass/M;;

Likewise, molecular weight M = g/g mol = kg/kg mol = lb/lb mol.

Conversion: 1 kg mol = 1000
2 2046
lb mol
mol, as 1 kg =1000 g =
? g mol = 2.2046
?
2.2046 lbm.
Ex. M of water = 18 g/g mol =18 kg/kg mol = 18 lb/lb mol.
So that, 1 kg water = 0.05556 kg mol = 55.56 mol = 0.1225 lb mol.

37

2.3. Process variables

Process variables refer to the operating conditions and physical properties
that can be controlled or varied in a process, and can affect the process.

Temperature scales and units

Temp scale
Temp.

SI Unit

English Unit

Relative scale

Celsius, oC

Fahrenheit, oF

Ab l
Absolute
scale
l

K l i K
Kelvin,

Rankin,
R
ki oR

Conversion equations:
oC
oC

oF: xoC = [1.8 (x)+32] oF;

K: x oC = ((273 + x)K;
)

K oR: x K = 1.8 x oR
oF

oR: x oF = ((x+460))oR

T change/difference T: x oC =(1.8 x) oF; x oC = x K; x oF =x oR

? = 77 oF,
Ex: 25oC = 1.8
1 8 (25)+32
F and to 25+273=
? 298 K
T changes from 20 to 25oC, T= 5 oC =?5 K and 9? oF

38

Process variables
Pressure (Force per unit area)
1) Atmospheric
At
h i pressure (p
( atm):
) pressure ddue to the
h
weight of the atmosphere surrounding our planet.
2) Gauge pressure (pg): pressure over the

pg

atmospheric pressure.
3) Absolute pressure (pabs): pressure relative to
complete or perfect vacuum
pabs=patm+ pg .

pabs

patm
Vac.

4) Vacuum is a measure of pressure level below

the atmospheric pressure Vac. = patm-pabs.
Note: Atmospheric p (patm) varies with geographic
location, and does not always equals 1 atm.

pabs= 0
39

Pressure units:
The SI unit for pressure is N/m2, called pascal (Pa), while many other units
are used in practice,
practice such as
bar: 1 bar = 100 kPa = 105 Pa
g
atm: 1 atm 1.01325 105 Pa=101.325 kPa = 760 mmHg
psi ( lbf/in2, pound per square inch): 1 psi=6.8947 103 Pa
mmHg: 1 atm = 760 mmHg (Hg at 0oC)
Examples
1. patm = 756 mmHg, pabs = 1358 mmHg:

pg = 602?

mmHg

2. A gas container is under 300 mmHg vacuum when patm = 756 mmHg:pabs
= 456
? mmHg, pg = - 300
? mmHg
3. A gas is under normal atmospheric pressure when patm = 756 mmHg:
pabs = 756
? mmHg, pg = 0? mmHg
40

Pressure measurement: manometers

Barometer for measurement of atmospheric p:
h = patm /f g
Q: If patm = 1 atm, f = Hg = 13596 kg/m3 h = ?
U-tube manometer for measurement pressure
difference:
p1 - p2 = (f -)gh
= density of fluid being measured;
f = density of manometer liquid
g = gravitational constant (9.806 m/s2)

when f >>,

p1 >

p2

p1 - p2 = fgh
f

41

Process variables
Flow Rate and velocity
Flow rate is the amount of fluid flowing through a cross-section per unit
time. Three common flow rates:
mass/time kg/s),
kg/s)
Mass flow rate (m: mass/time,
Volumetric flow rate (Q: volume/time, m3/s)
Molar
M l flow
fl rate
t (N:
(N moles/time,
l /ti
k mol/s)
kg
l/ )
m = Q ; N = m/M

( = density and M = MWt of fluid).

Velocity is the distance travelled per unit time

Dimension: distance/time; Units: m/s, ft/s, km/h
Average velocity of fluid through a cross-section area A
u = Q/A
Cross-section area of pipe, A =D2 (D = diameter)

42

3. Mixture composition
p
Concentration means the quantity of some solute in per fixed volume of
sol ent or solution,
solvent,
sol tion in a mixture
mi t re of two
t o or more components,
components in mass per
unit volume, moles per unit volume.
Mole Fraction and Mass (Weight) Fraction: the mole (or mass) fraction
of a component (A) in a mixture equals the moles (or mass) of A divided by
th total
the
t t l number
b off moles
l (or
( the
th total
t t l mass)) off the
th mixture.
i t
I many cases
In
the fractions are represented as percentages (mol % and wt%).
Ex. A NaCl solution in water contains 10% NaCl by mass (i.e. 10 g NaCl in 100 g
solution). Given M (molar mass): NaCl=58.44; water =18.02, and density of solution
=1 10 kg/L.
=1.10
kg/L Find the following conc.
conc values of NaCl:
(1) mole fraction = (10/58.44)/(10/58.44+90/18.02) = 0.0331 = 33.1 mol%
(2) mass concentration in g/L = 10 g/(100 g/1100 g/L) = 110 g/L
(3) molar concentration = 1.88 mol/L

43

4. Ideal Gas Law

pV=nRT
p= pressure, V= volume, T= temperature, n= number of moles
R= the gas law constant = 8.314 m3-Pa/mol-K
= 0.08206
0 08206 m3- atm/kg mol-K
Properties of ideal or perfect gases, their molecules are
Rigid spheres, Having no volume; Exerting no force on each other

Gases can be taken as ideal gases: Gases at low pressure, such as the air in
the atmosphere, fuel gases and flue gases in combustion
Non-ideal gases: High pressure gases such as steam (pure water vapor)
44

5 Dimensional consistency rule

5.
Rule: In an equation
q
of pphysical
y
relationship,
p, all the additive terms on both
sides must have the same net dimension.
For example, the van de Waals equation of state for real gases,
(p + a/V2) (V-b) = nRT
Given p = pressure and V= volume, to satisfy the rule of dimensional
consistency,
(1) the term a/V2 must have the dimension of pressure, so that the
(pV2)).
constant a has the dimension of (p
(2) the constant b should bear volume dimension.
45

Dimensional Consistency
Therefore, you can divide or multiply but cannot add or subtract different
properties and their units.
Examples:
( ) A sugar
(1)
g solution has a conc of 0.03 kg/L,
g , so that 5 m3 of the solution
contains
5 m3 x 0.03 kg/L = 5000 L (0.03 kg/L) = 150 kg sugar
(2) 150 kg sugar is dissolved in 5 m3 solution, the conc. is
150 kg/5 m3 = 30 kg/1000 L = 0.03
0 03 kg/L
((3)) However: 150 kg
g sugar
g + 5 m3 water = ?
46

Dimensional Consistency
Dimensionless Groups:
p are formed byy pputting
g groups
g p of
variables together with all their units cancelled out.
Reynolds number, defined (for fluid flowing in pipe) as,
Re= Du/
D = pipe diameter L,
L u = velocity L/,
L/ = density M/L3 and =
viscosity of fluid M/L-.
In engineering, many design equations are correlations of
dimensionless ggroups.
p
47

Meaningful and concise expression of

numerical values
1) Use scientific expression for very long numbers.
Ex. 12467001.2467106; 0.00003453.45105
2) Do not write too many decimal digits if they are insignificant to the number.
number
Ex. T = 298.1525 K 298.15 K (difference 0.0025 is negligible, less than
0.001%) or 298 K (the difference 0.1525 is only about 0.05%).
3.167 g (difference 0.00032 is only about 0.01%)
Ex. 3.16732 g 3.167
In most calculations in this subject, you can omit the last few digits of a number
i the
in
h final
fi l answer if they
h account for
f < 1% off the
h value.
l
48

Summaryy
1. The common unit systems, SI and English (or American Eng.), unit
conversion; the rule of dimensional consistency.
2. Temperature scales and conversion. Pressure scales and measurements.
3. Representation and calculation of mixture composition and concentration.
4. Use off ideal
id l gas laws
l
to calculate
l l moles
l andd mass off pure andd mixture
i
gases.

Assignment
g
1 ((As1Qs)
Q )6q
questions from Himmelblau

49

Guided studyy
(1) Remember and understand the definition and meaning of important terms
and process variables.
variables
(2) Remember the basic units of SI and English systems.
(3) Calculate both numbers and units of physical terms
terms.
(4) What is dimension.
((5)) Convert units q
quickly
y and correctly.
y
(6) Do not confuse terms such as, energy and power, flow rate and velocity,
mole and mass, gauge and absolute pressures.

50

Dimensions relationship
p flow chart

(Hi
(Himmelblau
lbl and
d Ri
Riggs, 7th ed)
d)
51

E 2 Flow
Ex.
Fl rate,
t velocity
l it and
d ideal
id l gas law
l
A gas mixture containing 9.1% NH3, 89.1% N2 and 1.8% H2O vapor by
mole flows at a rate of 1.2 kg/s through a pipe of 0.5 m diameter. The gas
has a total pressure of 1.2 atm and a temperature 25 oC. Calculate the
average velocity of the gas in the pipe in m/s.
Gi en MWt of elements: NH3 = 17,
Given
17 N2=28,
28 H2O = 18.02.
18 02
Ideal gas law:
V=nRT/p
Both side divided by time: V/t = Q (vol rate)
n/t = N ((mol rate))
So that
Q = NRT/p

52

Ex. 2 Flow rate, velocity and ideal gas law

N = m/M (M= average molecular wt)
M = 9.1% (17) + 89.1% (28) + 1.8% (18.02) = 26.82
N = (1.2
( kg/s)/(26.82
k / )/(
kg/kg
k /k mol)
l) = 4.474x10-22 kg
k mol/s
l/

Q = NRT/p
= (4.474x10-2 kg mol/s)(0.08206 m3 atm/kg molK)(298K)/1.2 atm
= 0.912 m3/s
Calculate the unit
Average MWt = 26.82; Molar flow rate N = 4.47x10-2 kg mol/s
Vol flow rate Q= 0.912
0 912 m3/s; Cross-sec
Cross sec Area A = 0.196
0 196 m2
Velocity u = 4.64 m/s
53

Pressure terms and measurement with manometer

( )
(a)
patm

(b)
(c)
(c)
(a) Gauge
pressureis(pmeasured
What pressure
in a, b, andpatm
c?
g); (b) Atmospheric
What is the
pressure
cg = 40
(c) Absolute
pressure
pabsreading
= patm +inpc.
40.9
9 inHg

N2
p

(d)

(d) Gas
Whatunder
is absolute
11 inHg
p in
vacuum
(d)? and pabs= 29.9-11= 18.9 inHg

11
inHg

54