LAND USE PLANNING

Land-use planning is the general term used for a branch of urban

planning encompassing various disciplines which seek to order and regulate land
use in an efficient and ethical way, thus preventing land-use conflicts.
Governments use land-use planning to manage the development of land within
their jurisdictions. In doing so, the governmental unit can plan for the needs of
the community while safeguarding natural resources. To this end, it is the
systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and
economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land-use
options. Often one element of a comprehensive plan, a land-use plan provides a
vision for the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts,
cities, or any defined planning area.
In the United States, the terms land-use planning, regional planning, urban
planning, and urban design are often used interchangeably, and will depend on
the state, county, and/or project in question. Despite confusing nomenclature, the
essential function of land-use planning remains the same whatever term is
applied. The Canadian Institute of Planners offers a definition that land-use
planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of land,
resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the physical, economic
and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities. The
American Planning Association states that the goal of land-use planning is to
further the welfare of people and their communities by creating convenient,
equitable, healthful, efficient, and attractive environments for present and future
generations.

HISTORY
Land-use planning often leads to land-use regulation, which typically
encompasses zoning. Zoning regulates the types of activities that can be
accommodated on a given piece of land, as well as the amount of space devoted
to those activities, and the ways that buildings may be situated and shaped. The
ambiguous nature of the term planning, as it relates to land use, is historically
tied to the practice of zoning. Zoning in the US came about in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries to protect the interests of property owners. The practice was
found to be constitutionally sound by the Supreme Court decision of Village of
Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. in 1926. Soon after, the Standard State Zoning
Enabling Act gave authority to the states to regulate land use. Even so, the
practice remains controversial today.
The taking clause of the Fifth Amendment to the United States
Constitution prohibits the government from taking private property for public use
without just compensation. The case of Dolan v. City of Tigard demonstrated the
criteria that determine the threshold of what is considered taking. One
interpretation of the taking clause is that any restriction on the development
potential of land through zoning regulation is a taking. A deep-rooted anti-

zoning sentiment exists in America that no one has the right to tell another what
he can or cannot do with his land. Ironically, although people are often averse to
being told how to develop their own land, they tend to expect the government to
intervene when a proposed land use is undesirable.
Conventional zoning has not typically regarded the manner in which
buildings relate to one another or the public spaces around them, but rather has
provided a pragmatic system for mapping jurisdictions according to permitted
land use. This system, combined with the interstate highway system, widespread
availability of mortgage loans, growth in the automobile industry, and the overall post-World War II economic expansion, destroyed most of the character that
gave distinctiveness to American cities. The urban sprawl that most US cities
began to experience in the mid-twentieth century was, in part, created by a flat
approach to land-use regulations. Zoning without planning created unnecessarily
exclusive zones. Thoughtless mapping of these zones over large areas was a big
part of the recipe for suburban sprawl. It was from the deficiencies of this practice
that land-use planning developed, to envision the changes that development
would cause and mitigate the negative effects of such change.
As America grew and sprawl was rampant, the much-loved America of the
older towns, cities, or streetcar suburbs essentially became illegal through
zoning. Unparalleled growth and unregulated development changed the look and
feel of landscapes and communities. They strained commercial corridors and
affected housing prices, causing citizens to fear a decline in the social, economic
and environmental attributes that defined their quality of life. Zoning regulations
became politically contentious as developers, legislators, and citizens struggled
over altering zoning maps in a way that was acceptable to all parties. Land use
planning practices evolved as an attempt to overcome these challenges. It
engages citizens and policy-makers to plan for development with more intention,
foresight, and community focus than had been previously used.

TYPES OF PLANNING
Various types of planning have emerged over the course of the 20th
century. Below are the six main typologies of planning, as defined by David
Walters in his book, Designing Communities (2007):

Traditional or comprehensive planning: Common in the US after

WWII, characterized by politically neutral experts with a rational view of the
new urban development. Focused on producing clear statements about the
form and content of new development.

Systems planning: 1950s1970s, resulting from the failure of

comprehensive planning to deal with the unforeseen growth of post WWII
America. More analytical view of the planning area as a set of complex
processes, less interested in a physical plan.

Democratic planning: 1960s. Result of societal loosening of class

and race barriers. Gave more citizens a voice in planning for future of
community.

Advocacy and equity planning: 1960s & 70s. Strands of democratic

planning that sought specifically to address social issues of inequality and
injustice in community planning.

Strategic planning: 1960s-present. Recognizes small-scale

objectives and pragmatic real-world constraints.

Environmental planning: 1960s-present. Developed as many of the

ecological and social implications of global development were first widely
understood.

Today, successful planning involves a balanced mix of analysis of the

existing conditions and constraints; extensive public engagement; practical
planning and design; and financially and politically feasible strategies for
implementation.
Current processes include a combination of strategic and environmental
planning. It is becoming more widely understood that any sector of land has a
certain capacity for supporting human, animal, and vegetative life in harmony,
and that upsetting this balance has dire consequences on the environment.
Planners and citizens often take on an advocacy role during the planning process
in an attempt to influence public policy. Due to a host of political and economic
factors, governments are slow to adopt land use policies that are congruent with
scientific data supporting more environmentally sensitive regulations.
Smart Growth: Since the 1990s, the activist/environmentalist approach to
planning has grown into the Smart Growth movement, characterized by the focus
on more sustainable and less environmentally damaging forms of development.
Smart growth supports the integration of mixed land uses into
communities as a critical component of achieving better places to live. Putting
uses in close proximity to one another has benefits for transportation alternatives
to driving, security, community cohesiveness, local economies, and general
quality of life issues. Smart growth strives to provide a means for communities to
alter the planning context which currently renders mixed land uses illegal in most
of the country.

METHODS
Professional planners work in the public sector for governmental and nonprofit agencies, and in the private sector for businesses related to land,
community, and economic development. Through research, design, and analysis
of data, a planner's work is to create a plan for some aspect of a community. This

process typically involves gathering public input to develop the vision and goals
for the community.
A charrette is a facilitated planning workshop often used by professional
planners to gather information from their clients and the public about the project
at hand. Charrettes involve a diverse set of stakeholders in the planning process,
to ensure that the final plan comprehensively addresses the study area.
Geographic Information Systems, or GIS, is a very useful and important
tool in land-use planning. It uses aerial photography to show land parcels,
topography, street names, and other pertinent information. GIS systems contain
layers of graphic information and their relational databases that may be projected
into maps that allow the user to view a composite of a specific area, adding an
array of graphically oriented decision making tools to the planning process.
A transect, as used in planning, is a hierarchical scale of environmental
zones that define a land area by its character, ranging from rural, preserved land
to urban centers. As a planning methodology, the transect is used as a tool for
managing growth and sustainability by planning land use around the physical
character of the land. This allows a community to plan for growth while
preserving the natural and historical nature of their environment.

LAND USE ZONING

Zoning is the term used for designating permitted uses of certain parcels
of land by local governments. The word is largely self-explanatory: the local
government will designate various zones for different uses of land, such as
industrial, agricultural, commercial, and residential. Zoning is also frequently
used to designate the types of buildings that can be erected in a particular area,
such as high density housing, high-rises, maximum height restrictions, etc.
The primary philosophy behind zoning regulations is to separate different,
incompatible property uses. For example, keeping large, smoke producing
factories away from residential neighborhoods. However, in many instances,
variances, or exceptions to the zoning rules, are possible. For example, a small
residential variance might be granted to allow for a home in an industrial zone to
house the night watchman. Usually, variances are granted because of some
perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question or
to satisfy a unique need that is not otherwise against the public interests.
Generally, in urban areas, zoning will be divided five major categories:
residential, mixed residential-commercial, commercial, industrial, and special
(e.g., power plants, sports complexes, airports, shopping malls etc.). Often, these
categories will also have a number of sub-categories. For example, within the
commercial category there may be separate zones for small-retail, large retail,
office use, lodging and others, while industrial may be subdivided into heavy
manufacturing, light assembly and warehouse uses.
Of course, zoning laws are not without their critics or misuse. Along with
potential property right infringements, zoning has also been criticized as a means
to promote social and economic segregation through exclusion. By improper use
of various land-use restrictions, such as maximum density requirements,
municipalities are able to artificially maintain high housing costs, increasing the
tax base while effectively excluding lower income groups.

ZONING ORDINANCE AND LAWS

Zoning ordinances and regulations are laws setting limits on how you can
use your property. Cities, counties, townships and other local governments use
zoning laws to guide development and shape the community, usually under an
overall zoning plan.

WHY ZONING IS A BIG ISSUE?

Zoning laws come into play on every single real estate development, big
or small. So if you're thinking about buying property or making improvements to
property you own, know how zoning laws fit into your plan.

ZONING CONFLICTS, PROPERTY VALUES AND PLANS

Zoning uses often conflict with one another. For example, a commercial
building usually can't be built on property zoned for residential use. Or your plans
for a dream house in the country may clash with agricultural zoning.
These zoning issues may affect a property's value, for both buyers and
sellers. It all depends on who wants the property and the plans they have for it

ZONING CHANGES AREN'T EASY

Getting the zoning changed on property can be a very difficult process.
First there's notice to the public, then hearings, ending with a local board or
commission granting a zoning variance allowing your change.
You can find out how property is zoned by calling your local planning
department. They can also explain the zoning variance process in your area.
A local land use or real estate attorney can help review your land use plans, and
your options for handling zoning issues.

COMMON ZONING PROVISIONS:

Use Requirements and Restrictions

Use requirements refer to how property can be used. Typical zoning categories
include:

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Agricultural

Recreational

These categories usually break down into further subcategories. For example,
residential zoning has subcategories for single-family and multiple-family homes.
Zoning laws set out many use restrictions, such as:

Building height and overall size

Density, or how close buildings are to one another

What part of the area of a building lot may contain structures

What specific kinds of facilities are included with certain kinds of uses

For example, there are usually zoning limits on the number of stories and total
height of a building, minimum parking areas for a commercial site and
requirements for garages and driveways for a home.

ZONING ORDINANCE BULK REQUIREMENTS

The bulk requirements of a zoning ordinance cover:

Building height and size restrictions

A building's square footage

The percentage of area a building covers on a lot

Minimum lot size

The setback and side-yard requirements control the distance between a building
and the front, back and side property lines.

SUBDIVISIONS

Land is divided up into legal parcels. In most places, there's a zoning

process to follow if you want to split your land into smaller parcels or create a
subdivision.
There are usually simplified procedures if you want to divide your property
into only two to four parcels. These are sometimes called lot splits.
The process is more complex for a major subdivision. A developer must
prepare a site plan or subdivision map, showing details for the planned property
use.
Subdivision laws may mandate:

Lot size

Street specifications

Utility requirements

In some states, local governments have the power to require developers to pay
for infrastructure for their projects. Costs include new utilities, roads and schools.
By the time a subdivision is approved, the developer has been through many
public hearings and responded to those who object to its plan.

Floor Area Ratio (FAR)

Floor area ratio (FAR) is the ratio of a building's total floor area (gross
floor area) to the size of the piece of land upon which it is built. The terms can
also refer to limits imposed on such a ratio.
As a formula: Floor area ratio = (total covered area on all floors of all
buildings on a certain plot, gross floor area) / (area of the plot).

HISTORY
One of the purposes of the 1916 zoning ordinance of New York City was
to prevent tall buildings from obstructing too much light and air. The 1916 zoning
ordinance sought to control building size by regulating height and setback
requirements for towers. In 1961, a revision to the zoning ordinance introduced
the concept of floor area ratio (FAR).

PURPOSE
The floor area ratio (FAR) can be used in zoning to limit the number of
people that a building can hold instead of controlling a building's external shape.
For example, if lot must adhere to a 0.10 FAR, then the total area of all
floors in all buildings on the lot must be no more than one-tenth the area of the
parcel itself. (In other words, if the lot was 10,000 sq. ft., then the total floor area
of all floors in all buildings mustn't exceed 1,000 sq. ft.)

Common exclusions to the total calculation of square footage for the

purpose of floor area ratio (FAR) include unoccupied areas such as mechanical
equipment floors, basements, stair towers, elevator shafts, and parking garages.
An architect can plan for either a single-story building consuming the
entire allowable area in one floor, or a multi-story building that rises higher above
the plane of the land, but which must consequently result in a smaller footprint
than would a single-story building of the same total floor area. By combining the
horizontal and vertical limits into a single figure, some flexibility is permitted
in building design, while achieving a hard limit on at least one measure of overall
size. One advantage to fixing this parameter, as opposed to others such as
height, width, or length, is that floor area correlates well with other considerations
relevant to zoning regulation, such as total parking that would be required for
an office building, total number of units that might be available for residential use,
total load on municipal services, etc. The amounts of these things tend to be
constant for a given total floor area, regardless of how that area is distributed
horizontally and vertically. Thus, many jurisdictions have found it unnecessary to
include hard height limitations when using floor area ratio calculations.

TERMINOLOGY: Similar terms

Floor space ratio (FSR), floor space index (FSI), site ratio and plot
ratio
Floor Space Index (FSI) Vs Floor Area Ratio (FAR)
While in terms of the outcome both will give the same built-up area that is
allowed to be built on a certain area of land, there is an important difference in
the representation of FSI & FAR. One is ratio and the other is index.
An index number is an economic data figure reflecting price or quantity
compared with a standard or base value. The base usually equals 100 and the
index number is usually expressed as 100 times the ratio to the base value. For
example, if a commodity costs twice as much in 1970 as it did in 1960, its index
number would be 200 relative to 1960. Index numbers are values expressed as a
percentage of a single base figure. For example, if annual production of a
particular chemical rose by 35%, output in the second year was 135% of that in
the first year. In index terms, output in the two years was 100 and 135
respectively.
FSI Vs FAR, Example: Being able to build 1.5 times or 150% of land area
will give us same result. But the difference is in denotation. When we say FAR
we have to say 1.5, however, when we want to say FSI we have to say 150 or
150%.

REGIONAL VARIATION

The terms most commonly used for this measurement vary from one next.
In floor space ratio (FSR) is used in New South Wales and plot ratio in Western
Australia.
In India floor space index (FSI) and floor area ratio (FAR) are both used.
In the United Kingdom and Hong Kong both plot ratio and site ratio are used.[5][6]
In Singapore the terms plot ratio add gross plot ratio (GPR) are more commonly
used.
In the United States and Canada, floor space ratio (FSR) and floor area
ratio (FAR) are both used.
Use ratios are used as a measure of the density of the site being
developed. The ratio is generated by dividing the building area by the parcel
area, using the same units.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) SYSTEM in the
Philippines
Strategic Environmental Assessment Considerations of Cumulative and Induced
Impacts Financial Mechanisms

BACKGROUND
EIA Laws (Presidential Issuances)
PD 1151 (1977) Philippine Environmental Policy
Requires sponsors of projects affecting the quality of the environment to prepare
environmental impact statements.
PD 1586 (1978) Establishment of the Philippine Environmental Impact
Statement System (PEISS) w/ the then National Environmental Protection
Council (NEPC) as the lead agency.
EIA Laws (Presidential Issuances)
PP 2146 (1981) Proclaims certain areas and types of projects as
environmentally critical & w/in the scope of the PEISS.

Administrative Order 42 (2002) Rationalizing the Implementation of the

Philippine EIS System giving authority, in addition to the DENR Secretary, to the
EMB Central and Regional Office Directors to grant or deny issuance of ECCs.

EIA in the context of the Philippine Environmental Impact Statement

(EIS) System
The process of predicting the likely environmental consequences of
implementing a project and designing appropriate preventive mitigating and
enhancement measures as an input to decision making.

REQUREMENTS FOR PLANNING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

PROJECTS
ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY
ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY EIA

Conduct of EIA Study and Environmental Compliance Certificate

(ECC) Applications
EIA Study is conducted by the proponent or expert group commissioned
by the proponent.
Result of the EIA Study is documented and submitted to the EMB for
review and evaluation as the major basis for the decision on
Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) applications.

Contents of the ECC

Scope and limitations of approved activities/components

Conditions to ensure compliance with EMPs
Recommendations to other agencies
Denial letter
Specify basis of decision
ECCs of Projects not implemented within 5 years from its date of
issuance is deemed expired

Environmental Assessment Levels

POLICY

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

PLAN

Cumulative Impact Assessment

PROGRAM

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

PROJECT

Difficulty in SEA Implementation

Responsibility over programs, plans and policy is divided among different
government departments/agencies and jurisdictions.

Programmatic Compliance for Co-located Projects

Whats the difference?

A single EIS may be submitted for a multi-component program or an

Industrial Development Area (IDA) taking into consideration all anticipated
industrial activities within a contiguous area.

Considerations in the Analysis of ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

DIRECT IMPACTS
INDIRECT (including Induced) IMPACTS
CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Direct Impacts

Pollution due to discharge of waste streams into air/water/land

Noise pollution due emission of sound from plant activities
Intentional addition of substances such as pesticides, herbicides etc.
Contamination of physical environment due to accidental release of
hazardous substances or addition resulting from spills blowouts,
explosion

NON BUDGETARY FUNDING SUPPORT FOR EIA

Fund
Environmental
Revolving
Fund
Review
Support Fund

Source

Use

Fines and Penalties for

violations

To fund EIA related

activities

Proponent upon
application for ECC

To fund EIA related

activities

Environmental
Monitoring
Fund
Environmental
Guarantee
Fund

Proponent in
compliance with the
standard requirement
in the ECC
Proponent in
compliance with the
standard requirement
in the ECC

To fund EIA related

activities

Rehabilitation /
Compensation for
damages

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

SECURING ECC & SECURING ECC & COMPLYING WITH OTHER
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
The Philippine Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) System
AO 42:
Rationalizing the implementation of the Philippine EIS System and giving
authority in addition to the Secretary of the DENR, to the Director and
Regional the DENR, to the Director and Regional Director of the EMB to
grant or deny the issuance of ECCs.
Aims to achieve sustainable development

DAO 2003-30:
PEIS Implementation Guidelines & Procedures

Streamline the EIS System & to strengthen the processes for its
implementation.

EIS System Procedures:

EIA process

SCOPING
BASELINE STUDY
IMPACT IDENTIFICATION
MPACT PREDICTION
IMPACT EVALUATION
IMPACT MITIGATION & PREPARATION IMPACT MITIGATION &
PREPARATION OF EMP

Project Description
Description of the Project
Location and area covered
Capitalization and manpower requirements
For processing industries, a listing of the raw materials to be used,
description of the process and overall performance or manufacturing
technology
Type and volume of products and discharges

Pre-Scoping Requirements:

Brief project description

Vicinity/location map
List of stakeholders to be invited for the site/formal scoping

EIS DOCUMENT

Executive Summary
Project Description
Matrix of Scoping and Agreements critical issues and concerns as
validated by EMB
Baseline environmental conditions
Impact assessment focused on significant environmental impacts
Environmental Risks Assessment

Environmental Management Plan

Proposals for Environmental Monitoring and Guarantee Fund
Accountability statements/preparers/proponents
Other documents as may be determined during scoping

Environmental Management Plan (EMP)

Defines the scope of compliance reporting, institutional and financial
mechanisms to ensure that mitigating and monitoring measures will be instituted
and implemented by the project proponent.
Mitigation and enhancement measures
Social development program (resettlement, relocation, livelihood)
Contingency/Emergency Response Plan
Risk Management Program
Abandonment Plan (when applicable)
Environmental Monitoring Plan
Information-Education and Communications Plan
Coverage of Monitoring
Frequency of Monitoring
Standard Procedures or Methods of Monitoring (e.g. labeling, transport &
handling of samples) & laboratory analysis
Selection of Sampling Stations
Manpower Requirements
Logistics

ECC Amendment
Major amendments if such involves modification as:

Expansion of land/project area

Increase in production capacity
Change in project location
Major change/s in process flow or technology to be used

Minor amendments if such involves modification as:

Typographical error
Extension of deadlines for submission of post-ECC requirements
Change in company name/ownership

Decrease in land/project area or production cap.

ECC Amendment Requirement

Necessary data, information, reports or documents that will substantiate or

support the requested revision (i.e. for transfer of ownership ECC and
other environmental laws compliance, justification)
Detailed process description (old and new) with material balances;
documentation of environmental performance of the old process;
corresponding comparison of the old and new process in terms of
environmental performance and EMS-based EMP

Procedure for ECC Amendment

Submit to: Approving office (Secretary/EMB RD)
Reviewed by:
Technical Committee (major amendment/s)
Case handler (minor amendment/s)
Timeframe:
30 days for IEE, 60 days for EIS/PEIS
Approving authority:
CC Approving Office (major amendment/s)
ECC Endorsing Office (minor amendment/s)

The ECC is the approval document signifying that the project proponent
has complied with all the requirements of the EIA Process.

Standard Conditions of an ECC

Scope of the operations

Installation of waste treatment facility
Emissions/discharges within DENR standards
Permits from other agencies
Monitoring measures

EMP
Transfer of ownership
EMF/EGF
Preparation of abandonment plan

Requirements for Other for Other Environmental Regulations

RA 6969
REGISTRATION AS HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATOR & TSD FACILITY
Requirements:

Completed registration forms

ECC
Permits to Operate Pollution Control Facilities
Storage Management Plan for raw materials, residues, by-products & endproducts
Long-term plan for the recycled/processed/end-product
Contingency/emergency plan

RA 6969
REGISTRATION AS LOCAL TRANSPORTER OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
Requirements:

Official letter of request

Information on registration/accreditation of , transporter, waste generator
and treater/recycling facility
Information on the waste generated
Memorandum of Agreement/ Affidavit of Joint Understanding between
concerned parties
Waste to be treated is included in recycler/treaters ECC

RA 9275

SECURING DISCHARGE PERMIT

Requirements:

ECC
Appointment of PCO
Engineer Engineers Report s Report
Plans & specification
Vicinity maps

RA 8749
SECURING PERMIT TO OPERATE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL and SOURCE
INSTALLATION
Requirements:

ECC
Appointment of PCO
Engineer Engineers Report s Report
Plans & specification
Vicinity maps

REFERENCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-use_planning
https://www.hg.org/land-use-and-zoning.html
http://zoning-planning-land-use.lawyers.com/zoning-ordinances-andregulations.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_area_ratio
http://www.ilmc.org/Green%20Lead/English/London%20Workshop
%202005/Presentations/Workshop%20Presentation%20-%20Environmental
%20Impact%20Statement%20System%20in%20the%20Philippines.pdf
http://www.academia.edu/8245963/DESIGN_STANDARDS_AND_GUIDELINES_
BONIFACIO_GLOBAL_CITY_Big_Delta_and_Portion_of_North_Bonifacio

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_renewal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_reuse
http://www.phmc.pa.gov/Preservation/About/Documents/standards-forrehabilitation.pdf
http://hisp102.umwblogs.org/preserving-historic-america/studyguides/preservation-rehabilitation-restoration-and-reconstruction-differenttreatments-for-historic-properties/

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barnet, J. (2004). Codifying New Urbanism: How to Reform Municipal

Land Development Regulations, Chicago, IL.
Southwestern NC Planning and Economic Development Commission,
Community Foundation of WNC, & the Lawrence Group Architects of NC,
Inc. (2009). Region A Toolbox, A Pilot of the Mountain Landscapes
Initiative, Sylva, NC.
Walters, David. (2007). Designing Community, Charrettes, Master plans
and Form-based Codes, Oxford, UK.
Young, Anthony. (1993). Guidelines for Land Use Planning, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
McHarg, Ian (1995) Design With Nature, Wiley
Arendt, Randall G. (2015) Rural By Design: Planning for Town and
Country 2nd Edition, APA Planners Press

DESIGN STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES: BONIFACIO GLOBAL CITY:

Big Delta and Portion of North Bonifacio

A.LAND USE ZONING

1. Mixed Use (M1, M2)
All buildings in the Mixed Use Zone should provide separate and
exclusive entrance for the residential portion of the development to ensure
its privacy and security.

B.TRANSPORTATION
1. Road
Multiply connections will be created between the site and the
surrounding highways and roadways. Greater road capacity and more

convenient access will be created without encouraging vehicles to use the

Global City as a through road.
2. Public Transit System
An integrated mix of local and regional transit systems are
envisaged to form the backbone of the Global Citys transportation
network.
3. Pedestrian Circulation
A special feature of the Global City is the comprehensively
designed pedestrian system which will be provided through a mixture of
elevated skywalks, arcades, ground level passageways and at
underground level along the transit system. The intention is to create a
convenient functional and interesting pedestrian circulation system that
cohesively links the main areas of the Global City.

C. UTILITY SERVICES
The city is to be serviced with water supply, drainage and sewage
systems. It will also be provided with electricity, telecommunication
facilities and piped LPG.

D. IMPLEMENTATION
Source: Design Standards and Guidelines: Bonifacio Global City:
Big Delta, Expanded Delta and Portion of North Bonifacio.
The Master Plan for Fort Bonifacio provides a broad land use
framework to guide the development of the Global City. While plans for Big
Delta, Expanded Big Delta and Portion of North Bonifacio of the Global
City have been detailed, the latter phases will be subject to supplements
and/ or amendments, reflecting changing circumstances. All development
proposals must conform to the zoning on the plan as indicated. The
enforcement of the zoning rests with the declarant. The endorsement and
approval procedures required in these Design Standards and Guidelines
and the Declaration of Covenants, Conditions and Restrictions are general
guidelines which shall be supplemented by a detailed Manual of
Endorsement/Approval Procedures to be prepared by the Declarant.

E.ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN DESIGN

1. General Principles
The design of buildings within Bonifacio Global City must conform
to the Declaration of Covenants, Conditions and Restrictions, to the
Design Standards and Guidelines detailed below, as well as all laws,
ordinances, design standards and codes, rules and regulations related to
land development, and building construction including the National

Building Code, the various planning and safety codes the Philippines and
any amending or new legislation. The objective in drawing up the Design
Standards and Guidelines is to encourage the creation of a detail that
constantly delights residents and visitors alike. Vernacular architecture is
strongly encouraged to reflect the culture of the Philippines. The building
massing of the Bonifacio Global City is governed by several design
standards and guidelines including Floor Area Ratio (FAR) or development
density, building coverage, building setback, easement and building
height.
2. Development Density
There is a permitted development density for individual lots within
Big Delta, Expanded Big Delta and Portion of North Bonifacio. The
calculation of the FAR has been developed in accordance with the
development guidelines established by the Declarant and must be based
upon the definition of gross floor area. Where retail and entertainment
components are allowed, these shall not exceed a FAR of 3.This FAR is a
component of the total permissible FAR of the lot. The total permissible
GFA of any building or buildings constructed or to be constructed on any
lot shall not be more than Floor Area Ratio (FAR) multiplied by the land
area of the lots, as defined in the Declaration of Covenants, Conditions
and Restrictions (CCR) and this Design Standard and Guidelines (DSG).
In case of discrepancies, e.g. rounding off of FAR, the GFA indicated in
the Lot Information Plan shall govern. In addition, the minimum GFA to be
built in any lot developed or to be developed to residential use (as per the
Design Standards and Guidelines in accordance with the Master Plan)
shall not be less than an amount that will result in FAR 4.
3. Gross Floor Area
Gross Floor Area (GFA) is defined in the Declaration of Covenants,
Conditions and Restrictions as the area contained within the external
faces of the external faces of the external walls (or in the absence of such
walls, the external perimeters) of any building(s), to be erected on a lot
measured at each floor or level ( including any floor below the level of the
ground) together with the area of each balcony in such building(s) which
shall be calculated from the overall dimensions of the balcony(including
the thickness of the sides).
4. Basement
Basements are permitted up to the property line, subject to public
and roadway easements. Grade areas above basements must be
designed and landscaped so as to integrate with their immediate
surroundings.
5. Building Height

The building height of all buildings must conform to the

requirements of the Air Transport Office. There must be continuous and
unhampered access (with no abrupt grade changes) between buildings
and required skywalks. The recommended ground level to second level
floor-to-floor height is 6 meters for buildings with required skywalks and
5meters for buildings without required skywalks.
6. Building Character
Building character relates to the range of exterior visual patterns
expressed through cornices, columns, glazing and variations in massing,
colors, texture, and materials, etc. In identifying the particular character for
abuilding it is important that:

It respects the character of buildings in the same block/district.

Facades should employ different but related architectural elements so

as to avoid repetition and monotony. The expression of building
character should include horizontal and vertical banding and rhythm,
storefront cadence and lintel, cornice and molding, tower to podium
proportion and the organization of glazing, etc. Comparable and
compatible design details should be employed at all sides of the
building. Vernacular architectural elements are strongly encouraged to
reflect the culture of the Philippines. In addition, the design of the
building should respond to the local climate in both the overall form
and materials used.

7. Building Materials
Building and other improvements, including, landscaping, lighting
and signage must be consistent with and blend with the character of the
environment in which they are located as well as the requirements of the
Design Standards and Guidelines. The use of environment-friendly
materials is encouraged. External reflective glass should be clear with an
outdoor reflectance of 20% and the shading co-efficient of 0.3or anything
with an equivalent performance in terms or reflectivity and energy efficient.
The actual specific minimum construction(s) cost of buildings may be
determined by the Declarant in supplemental declaration to these Design
Standards and Guidelines that it may issue for time to time.
8. Faade
All building walls, including the parking structures, should be
designed with sufficient architectural details to create identity and still be in
harmony with the context. Building should provide for a hierarchy of
horizontal and vertical expression and patterns that should relate to the

particular form and proportion of a building. The purpose of detailing is to

create consistency among the building frontage (tower) and other
architectural features, such as the building entrance, corner and variation
inset back, etc. Relentless grids and eggratefenestration should be
avoided. All parking above ground shall be confirmed in parking structures
and be visually screened with architectural treatment. Parking structure
side openings shall be covered with grills or similar treatment of no more
than 50% open and/ or transparent in area. Balconies are allowed
and encouraged.
9. Building Entrance and Store Front
The main entrance to a building should be clearly defined by its
size and form as well as in the use of colors, texture, materials and
lighting. Its size, however should relate in scale to the overall configuration
of the building base. The main entrance doorway should be recessed into
the faade and /or located under an arcade or canopy. Also, entry doors
must not project beyond the property line when open and must comply
with all access requirements as required by the Law to enhance the
Mobility of Disabled Persons. The design of a storefront should reflect the
activity which is accommodated behind it as well as the urban setting in
which it is located. Unifying elements with respect to sign age, graphics,
awning and lighting etc. should be adopted. Storefront along pedestrian
routes should at least be 75% transparent. Glass block, etched, sand
blasted, mirrored, or stained glass are allowed but are counted as opaque
material. The design and use of materials in both main entrance and
storefront must comply with the requirements outlined in the local building
fire and other relevant codes. The materials used should be durable and
weather resistant. Storefronts must also take into account the
requirements contained in Section 2.12and Section 4regarding faade and
the Pedestrian System, respectively.
10. Roof + General
Roofs should be designed in accordance with the architectural
treatment of the tower and podium below.
11. Podium Roof
Utilities and equipment on podium roofs must be screened from top
and sides with appropriate structures that are visually in conformity with
the building design. In mixed use developments, podium roofs should be
designed with access and amenities for tenants and residents.
12. Fences, Walls, and Gates
Gates in exclusive residential areas should be recessed to a
minimum of 5 meters, towards the interior property, providing free and
unimpeded movements along sidewalks and roads. Fences should act as

visual screens as well as physical screens. They are to be developed

according to these Design Standards and Guidelines. Fences and wall
designs and materials are subject to design approval by the Declarant.
Fences are to be maintained by the lot buyer/owner.
13. Planned Unit Development Blocks
As used in this Design Standards and Guidelines, selected blocks
shown are classified as Planned Unit Development Blocks. While an
indicative lot subdivision of PUD blocks are shown, final lot
subdivision/configuration for each block shall be prepared by Declarant.
The Floor Area Ratio (FAR) and Gross floor Area (GFA) indicated in
the blocks indicative lot subdivision maybe re-allocated/ re-assigned within
the same block during the development of the final block-lot subdivision
configuration.

F.PARKING AND VEHICULAR ACCESS

1. Parking
The parking strategy that has been devised for Bonifacio Global
City is the result of an in-depth study to examine travel demand patterns
within the Global City. The study looked at the trips that would be
generated by residents and the workforce living or working within the
global City as well as those trips that would be attracted to the Global City
for reasons of work, entertainment, visiting friends, etc. The strategy took
account of the fact that the Global City is to be serviced by both a public
transportation system as well as private vehicles. As part of the overall
public and private transportation strategy for the Global City, there is a
need to constrain vehicular movement and consider a parking strategy.
This strategy looks to provide the Global City with both private and public
car parks. Private car parking spaces as well as provision for loading/
unloading bays will service residents or those working in or utilizing the
particular development or building in which they are located. All residential
developments, whether in R 1, R 2, R 3 or in mixed use M 1, M 2zones,
shall accommodate 100 percent of the required car parking provision on
site. This standard reflects both market and end-user demand as well as
the fact that residential users generate less vehicular trips than for
commercial uses (office, retail, entertainment, etc.) including hotels, the
Lot Buyer/ Owner shall provide 100 percent of the required car parking
provisions on-site. Where different type of development ( e.g., residential
development, hotel, office, retail, community facilities) are included on the
same site, some reduction in car parking standards may be considered by
the Declarant if it can be clearly demonstrated, through detailed traffic
impact and car parking study, that relaxation in the standards of the

provision is beneficial. The dimensions for standard parking space,

loading/unloading bays and lay-bys are as follows:

MINIMUM HEAD ROOM

Private Cars, Taxi 5x2.5x2.4; Coaches, Buses 12x3.6 x3.8 Lorries; Container
Vehicles12x3.6x4.5 The Lay bys are drop off points for private vehicles and taxis.
The minimum headroom relates to the clearance between the floor and the lower
most projection from the ceiling including any lighting units, ventilation duct,
conduits or similar. The first 5 meters of entrance and exit ramps to carparks
abutting sidewalks shall have a slope of not greater than one percent (1%). No
portion of either the entrance or exit ramp shall intrude into the sidewalk
pavement.
a. Standards of Car parking Provision for Mixed Used (M1, M2 Zones)
Minimum of 1 slot per unit size of 100 square meters and above
Minimum of 1 slot per aggregate floor area of 1 sqm GFA or fraction
thereof, for units below 100 sqm.

b. Standards of Loading/Unloading Requirements for Mixed Used

(M1, M2)
Minimum of 1 loading/ unloading bay for Lorries within the site for
every residential lower or as determined by the Declarant.

c. Standards of Loading/Unloading Requirements for Convention

Facilities
A minimum of 1 loading/ unloading bay for Lorries for every
500sqm, or art there of GFA.

LENGTH WIDTH MINIMUM HEADROOM

For sites of at least 500sqm net site area, 1 picking up/ setting down lay by for
taxis and private cars for every 20,000sqm of GFA or part thereof, or as
determined by the Declarant. The Lot Buyer/Owner shall contribute a reasonable
amount to the development and maintenance of off-site carparks in proportion to
the number of parking rights owned by the Lot Buyer/ Owner. Every development
application to the Declarant must contain a Car Parking Plan as detailed in
Section13 of these Design Standards and Guidelines and the Declaration of
Covenants, Conditions and Restrictions. In case of redevelopment, the Lot
Buyer/ Owner will be required to comply with parking requirements as a result of
the redevelopment.
2. Loading and Unloading Requirements

Loading and unloading requirements must be provided within the

lot boundary.
The point of access for loading/ unloading activities should not
interrupt any main shopping frontage
The maneuvering of Lorries should be within the lot except where
access is onto vehicular service lane.
Loading/ unloading bays should be located close to the service
entrance
Wherever possible, loading/ unloading activities should be
accommodated underground.

3. Space for Parking Service Vehicles

Space for the maneuvering, parking, loading of refuse collection

vehicle or any other service vehicles shall be provided on the
ground floor, basement or vehicular service lane, as appropriate.
The space so provided shall be designed to allow vehicles to enter
and leave the lot without reverse movement. Exceptions to this
provision must be with prior written approval of the Declarant.

G.PEDESTRIAN SYSTEM1.
1. Comprehensive System
Developments within the Bonfacio Global City are encouraged to adopt
an integrated pedestrian network that accommodates circulation on and
between there levels:

Above grade-skywalk and galleria

At grade-arcade galleria, greenway, passageway

Below grade underground concourse and passageway certain
development locations are required to provide and comply with arcade
and greenways shown in the Pedestrian System Plan.

A. Above Grade Linkage

A1. Skywalk Planning Guidelines:

Covered pedestrian passageways located above grade and forming

part of the public pedestrian circulation network are categorized as
part of the skywalk system. Wherever possible, the skywalk must
be integrated into the internal circulation system of the individual
developments into which it links.

All skywalk bridges must be perpendicular to the roadway over

which they pass and no part of the skywalk system running parallel
to the lot line shall protrude beyond the exterior wall of the
development.

Wherever possible, skywalks should link into other pedestrian

circulation systems such as arcades, ground level passageways
and underground concourse level of transit system to create a
convenient, functional and interesting pedestrian circulation
throughout the major parts of the Global City.

Any commercial/ soliciting activities within/ on a skywalk bridges

shall require the prior written approval of the Declarant.

Adjoining property owners are encouraged to coordinate their plans

so that the connection point is mutually agreeable. In case of
conflict, the parties shall submit the issue for theDeclarants
resolution.

A2. Skywalk Design Criteria

The design criteria of the skywalk system must be compatible with
the overall character of the neighborhood(s) in which they are located with
the architectural treatment of the individual building(s) that they form part
of and/or connect into. Detailed requirements of the planning and design
of the skywalk system must comply with the guidelines.

WIDTH -3.5 meter minimum interior clearance

HEIGHT -2.5 meters minimum interior height

CLEARANCE -5 meters minimum from the street surface to the
bottom of the bridge structure

ACCESS FOR THE DISABLE -connection point between building

and skywalk bridges shall be accessible to the disable.

ENCLOSURE/ COVER -the entire system shall be covered

overhead; all bridges must be partially glazed on side with 75% f
the surface being transparent; and provided with heat insulation.

ACCESSORIES -lighting shall be provided throughout the entire

skywalk and trash cans must be provided at appropriate locations.

2. Pedestrian Edge Treatment

In the planning and layout of all lots, due considerations shall be
given to the pedestrian. The use of colonnades, arcades, canopies,
skywalk and covered walks is generally encouraged.

H.LANDSCAPRE WITHIN PRIVATE OPEN SPACE

1. Within lots, internal publicly accessible landscaped areas are
encouraged, in particular, in all large scale developments. If such spaces are
integrated into the comprehensive pedestrian network, such space may be
utilized for public art.
2. Open space within lots shall be designed with amenities for residents
and occupants, including garden, pools, shades, structures and play areas. In the
case of the residential buildings, the podium roof should be developed to
maximize use by residents.
3. Private open spaces within use or commercial parcels must be
designed to enhance the use of outdoor spaces, particularly at the podium level.

I.UTILITIES
1. General
These guidelines are a supplement to the Declaration of
Covenants, Conditions and Restrictions, existing National Building Code
and appropriate Philippine and utility agency codes which must be fully
complied with in addition to the guidelines sated within this document.
2. Water Supply

There will be a single water supply system provided inside the

Global City.
Water service will be a single water supply system provided by the
Declarant to each lot. It will be the Lot Buyers/Owners responsibility
to verify the location of the water service connection to his lot. The
Lot Buyer/Owner shall, prior to his connection, obtain from the
Declarant the means and method of connecting to the water
distribution system and shall provide advance written notification to
the Declarant. Location and space requirement of the metering
equipment will be provided by the Lot Buyer/Owner.

The service must be connected to storage tank/s provided by the

Lot Buyer/Owner within the lot property limits.

No water pumps directly connected to a water main of the

Declarant shall be permitted. Booster pumps may be installed to

pump water from a ground storage tank of adequate capacity

supplied by natural pressure from the Declarants water mains. The
installation of booster pumps shall require the prior written consent
of the Declarant and shall comply with other applicable
requirements provided in this Declaration and Design Standards
and Guidelines issued pursuant there to.

The Lot Buyer/Owner shall provide a minimum storage for water

equal to the average day use for domestic use in the lot and/or
building/s. Water requirements for fire in the lot and/or building/s will
be in addition to the minimum storage for domestic use.

The Lot Buyer/Owner shall provide a pace within the lot and/or
building/s for a meter room accessible from the outside at all times.
No rent or charge for the meter room shall be charged to the
Declarant and/or the Water Supplier.

The Lot Buyer/Owner shall, in the required provisions to

accommodate water supply, also comply with the utility agency
requirements.

3. Electricity Supply
The Lot Buyer/Owner shall, in the required provisions for
accommodations for utilities comply with the National Building Code,
Philippine Electrical Code, and/or the utility agency requirements.

The Lot Buyer/Owner shall provide a space to accommodate the

electrical components to the specifications of the utility agency. The
Lot Buyer/Owner shall allow reasonable access to this space. Itis
the responsibility of the Lot Buyer/Owner to obtain design and
construction criteria and building code compliance from the
appropriate government and utility agencies.

4. Sewer and Storm Water Drainage

Localized collection of solid waste shall be done by the Declarant.

The strategy for solid waste collection and disposal shall be

compatible with the management plan of the Metro Manila
Development Authority and the Declarant and/or ESC whichever is
more stringent.

The solid waste strategy shall consider implementation of obligatory

garbage segregation, recycling program o resource recovery at
source and point of disposal.

The Lot Buyer/Owner is required to comply with the recycling

requirement and other requirements and guidelines of the
Declarant regarding solid waste.

The Lot Buyer/Owner shall provide and maintain within the lot a
comprehensive and nuisance-free system of refuse collection and
disposal to serve the lot and the buildings constructed or to be
constructed thereon.

5. Fuel Restriction

The Lot Buyer/Owner shall not use any fuel or store any fire
hazardous materials on the lot or any part thereof or in any building
or any part of any building erected or to be erected therein other
than gas, liquefied petroleum gas, natural gas, kerosene or
conventional liquid fuel. Use of any other fuel or storage off fire
hazardous material shall require the prior written consent of the
Declarant.

6. Telecommunication

The lot Buyer/Owner shall provide a space to accommodate the

telecommunication requirements of the service provides. The
Lot Buyer/Owner shall provide reasonable access to this space.

It shall be the responsibility of the Lot Buyer/Owner to obtain design

and construction criteria and building code requirements from the
appropriate government agency and service providers.

The Lot Buyer/Owner shall construct as an integrated component of

the building, install, and provide and maintain a communal
television antenna on the roof of the building constructed or to be
constructed on the lot.

Any radio transmitter operated within the Global City will require
prior permission from the Declarant and the appropriate authorities
before installation.

7. District Cooling

The Declarant advocates district cooling where applicable

especially in high density areas. This is recommended in view of
the high energy conservation aspect of this technology.

The supply and maintenance of temporary utilities within the lot

required for he works shall be the responsibility of Lot Buyer/Owner.
The Lot Buyer/Owner shall remove all temporary utilities and
services on completion of the works or when directed by the
Declarant.

The Declarant may arrange for the utility supplies to be made

available on site prior to the commencement of construction. In
such instances, the Declarant shall provide a point of connection on
or adjacent to the site. Subject to the approval of the Declarant, the
Lot Buyer/Owner shall be responsible for connecting into this point
of supply at his own cost. The cost of all the utility consumed shall
also be for the account of the Lot Buyer/Owner.

A Lot Buyer/Owner will not be permitted to obtain water from the

existing ground water wells nor drill new wells. The Declarant may
provide a limited water supply distribution network to provide water
supply distribution network to provide water to the Lot Buyer/Owner
at a cost. The water supplied will be non-potable and the declarant
does not guarantee the continuity, quality or capacity of the supply
provided.

Temporary electrical supply and distribution shall include, but not be

limited to the following:

Temporary electrical supply and distribution system including

design, statutory approvals, connections and consents, fees
equipment, utility charges, cabling, and the like as required to
complete the works.

Temporary lighting supply distribution system will be installed by the

service provider as required to maintain a well-lit site during all
hours of operation. The minimum levels of safety lighting as per the
Philippine Code and guidelines must be provided at all times.

Before finalizing arrangement for supply of temporary electricity, the

Lot Buyer/Owner must submit for the Declarants approval any
temporary overhead or underground routing of electricity cables
which traverse the Global City.

Temporary sewerage and surface water drainage to temporary

accommodation and facilities will be installed in account of the Lot
Buyer/Owner. Pumps and devices to efficiently maintain the
installation will be provided by the Lot Buyer/Owner.

8. Liquefied Petroleum Gas

All plumbing and pipe works of any buildings or building

constructed or to be constructed on the lot shall be concealed accordingly.
For gas pipe, concealment should provide for free vent.

URBAN REDEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

Urban renewal, which is generally called urban
regeneration ("regeneration" in the United Kingdom), "revitalization" in
the United States, is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to
high density urban land use. Renewal has had both successes and failures. Its
modern incarnation began in the late 19th century in developed nations and
experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s under the rubric
of reconstruction. The process has had a major impact on many urban
landscapes, and has played an important role in the history and demographics of
cities around the world.
Urban renewal involves the relocation of businesses, the demolition of
structures, the relocation of people, and the use of eminent domain (government

purchase of property for public purpose) as a legal instrument to take private

property for city-initiated development projects. This process is also carried out in
rural areas, referred to as village renewal, though it may not be exactly the same
in practice.
In some cases, renewal may result in urban sprawl and less congestion
when areas of cities receive freeways.
Urban renewal has been seen by proponents as an economic engine and
a reform mechanism, and by critics as a mechanism for control. It may enhance
existing communities, and in some cases result in the demolition of
neighborhoods.
Many cities link the revitalization of the central business district
and gentrification of residential neighborhoods to earlier urban renewal
programs. Over time, urban renewal evolved into a policy based less on
destruction and more on renovation and investment, and today is an integral part
of many local governments, often combined with small and big
business incentives.

HISTORY
The concept of urban renewal as a method for social reform emerged
in England as a reaction to the increasingly cramped and unsanitary conditions of
the urban poor in the rapidly industrializing cities of the 19th century. The agenda
that emerged was a progressive doctrine that assumed better housing conditions
would reform its residents morally and economically. Another style of reform
imposed by the state for reasons of aesthetics and efficiency could be said to
have begun in 1853, with the recruitment of Baron Haussmann by Louis
Napoleon for the redevelopment of Paris.

Conservation
Conservation development, also known as conservation design, is a
controlled-growth land use development that adopts the principle for allowing
limited sustainable while protecting the area's natural environmental features in
perpetuity, including preserving open space landscape and vista,
protecting farmland or natural habitats for wildlife, and maintaining the character
of rural communities. A conservation development is usually defined as a project
that dedicates a minimum of 50 percent of the total development parcel as open
space. The management and ownership of the land are often formed by the
partnership between private land owners, land-use conservation organizations
and local government. It is a growing trend in many parts of the country,
particularly in the western United States. In the eastern U.S., conservation design

has been promoted by some state and local governments as a technique to help
preserve water quality.
This type of planning is becoming increasingly more relevant as "land
conversion for housing development is a leading cause of habitat loss and
fragmentation". With a loss or fragmentation of a species' habitat, it results in the
endangerment of a species and pushes them towards premature extinction. Land
conversion also contributes to the reduction of agriculturally productive
land, already shrinking due to climate change.
Conservation Development differs from other land protection approaches
by aiming to protect land/ watersheds etc. on parcels slated for immediate
development; to protect land here and now, whereas a greenbelt approach
typically aims to protect land from future development, and in a region beyond
areas currently slated. It seeks to offer a gradient between urban regions and
open countryside, beyond what a line on a maptypically a highwaycurrently
provides. This approach seeks to avoid the dichotomy of economic urbanism on
one side of such a street while on the other lies completely protected woodlands
and farm fields, devoid of inclusion in that economy. Addressing the theoretical
illusion that humanity walled off is better-off, Conservation Development
recognizes that design of how we live is far more important than we allot credit;
that instead of walling off a problem we need to face that problem and drastically
lower our impact on the sites where we live, and indeed raise the performance of
our communities toward a level where such walls are no longer considered first
response requirements.

History
Conservation development was formulated in the early 1980s by a Britishtrained planner named Randall Arendt. He pulled together several concepts from
the 1960s. He combined the idea of cluster and open space design with Ian
McHarg's "design with nature" philosophy.

Conservation Development
Conservation development seeks to protect a variety of ecological
resources and services such as biodiversity, productive farmland, ecosystem
services, scenic landscapes and historic and cultural resources. This is achieved
by identifying the ecologically sensitive and valuable areas. The protected lands
can be under an easement to prevent development on it. Housing is then built
around the protected areas. Density, lots sizes, types of housing and amount of
protected area is dependent on the type of conservation development.

While not a prevalent type of development, it's estimated that conservation

development takes up between 2.5%-10% of the total US real estate
development. Conservation development is usually applied to rural, exurban or
suburban residential subdivisions, though it does have a few urban applications
(Doyle 4).
While there are several types of conservation developments, they all have
several features in common. All developments have conservation land set aside,
either held by a conservation organization or protected by a conservation
easement. These developments must have ongoing stewardship for the
protected portion of the parcel. Secondly, the development finances the projected
area. Third, each development begins by surveying the land's ecological features
and resources. A decision can then be made about where to build and what
areas need to be protected. Lastly, these developments also use a variety of
design features to reduce some of the negative impacts inherent in development.
Examples include low-impact storm water management systems, and landscape
design.

Advantages
The biggest advantage of conservation development is that it can protect
species and ecosystems, preventing further habitat fragmentation and loss. By
surveying the land and identifying the primary conservation areas where
ecosystems are most at risk, communities are created without huge disruption to
the environment. Conservation development also provides for secondary
conservation areas, which provide corridors for animals to hunt, mate and travel
through.
However, any development will have some impact on the land. But by
studying it, there are ways in which this can be mitigated. A developer can have
native vegetation planted. Wildlife friendly native species could be
introduced, while invasive species are monitored and controlled. Management
systems are also used to "promote natural flow patterns and infiltration",
considered a very important factor in minimizing a development's impact.
There are several benefits from an economic standpoint. Conservation
development allows developers to make themselves distinct in a competitive
housing market. A developer can use an environmentally oriented marketing
strategy, highlighting the benefits of the development to possible buyer with a
green thumb. A final advantage of conservation development is that homes in
these developments tend appreciate faster than their conventional counterparts.
Pejchar et al. and Arendt cite a number of economic benefits that accrue
to municipalities through conservation development. They include fewer public
costs on maintenance and infrastructure, protecting open space without losing
tax revenues, and avoiding the loss of ecological services like landscape

stabilization, flood control and clean water. A municipality also experiences a

reduced demand for public green space since it has been provided free of charge
by the development.
Lastly, there are a few social and recreational advantages to conservation
development. With the smaller lots that accompany these houses, homeowners
are likely to move into public green space and engage with their neighbors.
Community events such as picnics or parties are more common. The protected
green space also provides excellent recreational activities, such as hiking,
jogging, or simply observing nature. It's hopeful that with this experience, people
can reconnect with nature and develop a land ethic.

Disadvantages
There are several drawbacks to conservation development. The first
problem encountered is the perceived risk by both developers and
homebuyers. In protecting sensitive areas, developers and homeowners see a
risk in the possible elimination of desired sites to build homes. This might be a
large enough risk to discourage developers. This could be a place for
government intervention, which could provide tax breaks to developers building a
development this way.
Conservation subdivisions and conservation-oriented planned
development projects have been "criticized for protecting land at too small a
scale to provide meaningful conservation benefits, while simultaneously
promoting "leapfrog" development". This pushes sprawl further from the city and
contributes to a more fragmented rural area.

Urban Renewal

Urban renewal, which is generally called urban

regeneration ("regeneration" in the United Kingdom), "revitalization" in
the United States, is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to
high density urban land use. Renewal has had both successes and failures. Its
modern incarnation began in the late 19th century in developed nations and
experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s under the rubric
of reconstruction. The process has had a major impact on many urban
landscapes, and has played an important role in the history and demographics of
cities around the world.
Urban renewal involves the relocation of businesses, the demolition of
structures, the relocation of people, and the use of eminent domain (government
purchase of property for public purpose) as a legal instrument to take private
property for city-initiated development projects. This process is also carried out in
rural areas, referred to as village renewal, though it may not be exactly the same
in practice.
In some cases, renewal may result in urban sprawl and less congestion
when areas of cities receive freeways.
Urban renewal has been seen by proponents as an economic engine and
a reform mechanism, and by critics as a mechanism for control. It may enhance
existing communities, and in some cases result in the demolition of
neighborhoods.
Many cities link the revitalization of the central business district
and gentrification of residential neighborhoods to earlier urban renewal
programs. Over time, urban renewal evolved into a policy based less on
destruction and more on renovation and investment, and today is an integral part
of many local governments, often combined with small and big
business incentives.

History
The concept of urban renewal as a method for social reform emerged
in England as a reaction to the increasingly cramped and unsanitary conditions of
the urban poor in the rapidly industrializing cities of the 19th century. The agenda
that emerged was a progressive doctrine that assumed better housing conditions
would reform its residents morally and economically. Another style of reform
imposed by the state for reasons of aesthetics and efficiency could be said to
have begun in 1853, with the recruitment of Baron Haussmann by Louis
Napoleon for the redevelopment of Paris.

Long-term implications

Urban renewal sometimes lives up to the hopes of its original proponents

it has been assessed by politicians, urban planners, civic leaders, and
residents it has played an undeniably important role.
Additionally, urban renewal can have many positive effects. Replenished
housing stock might be an improvement in quality; it may increase density and
reduce sprawl; it might have economic benefits and improve the global economic
competitiveness of a city's Centre. It may, in some instances, improve cultural
and social amenity, and it may also improve opportunities for safety and
surveillance. Developments such as London Docklands increased tax revenues
for government. In late 1964, the British commentator Neil Wates expressed the
opinion that urban renewal in the USA had 'demonstrated the tremendous
advantages which flow from an urban renewal programmed,' such as remedying
the 'personal problems' of the poor, creation or renovation of housing stock,
educational and cultural 'opportunities'.
As many examples listed above show, urban renewal has been
responsible for the rehabilitation of communitiesas well as displacement.
Replacement housing particularly in the form of housing towers might be
difficult to police, leading to an increase in crime, and such structures might in
themselves be dehumanizing. Urban renewal is usually non-consultative. Urban
renewal continues to evolve as successes and failures are examined and new
models of development and redevelopment are tested and implemented.
An example of urban renewal gone wrong is in downtown Niagara Falls, New
York. Most of the original downtown was demolished in the 1960s, and many
replacement projects including the Rainbow Centre Factory Outlet, Niagara Falls
Convention and Civic Center, the Native American Cultural Center, the Hooker
Chemical (later the Occidental Petroleum) Headquarters building, the Winter
garden, the Fallsville Splash Park, a large parking ramp, an enclosed pedestrian
walkway, the Falls Street Faire & Falls Street Station entertainment complexes,
sections of the Robert Moses State Parkway, and the Mayor E. Dent Lackey
Plaza closed within twenty to thirty years of their construction. Some demolished
blocks were never replaced. Ultimately, the former tourist district of the city along
Falls Street was destroyed. It went against the principles of several urban
philosophers, such as Jane Jacobs, who claimed that mixed-use districts were
needed (which the new downtown was not) and arteries needed to be kept open.
Smaller buildings also should be built or kept. In Niagara Falls, however, the
convention center blocked traffic into the city, located in the center of Falls Street
(the main artery), and the Winter garden also blocked traffic from the convention
center to the Niagara Falls. The Rainbow Centre interrupted the street grid,
taking up three blocks, and parking ramps isolated the city from the core, leading
to the degradation of nearby neighborhoods. Tourists were forced to walk around
the Rainbow Center, the Winter garden, and the Quality Inn (all of which were
adjacent), in total five blocks, discouraging small business in the city.

Adaptive Reuse
Adaptive reuse refers to the process of reusing an old site or building for
a purpose other than which it was built or designed for. Along with brownfield
reclamation, adaptive reuse is seen by many as a key factor in land conservation
and the reduction of urban sprawl. However adaptive reuse can become
controversial as there is sometimes a blurred line
between renovation, facadism and adaptive reuse. It can be regarded as a
compromise between historic preservation and demolition.

DEFINITION
Adaptive reuse deals with the issues of conservation and heritage policies.
Whilst old buildings become unsuitable for their programmatic requirements, as
progress in technology, politics and economics moves faster than the built
environment, adaptive reuse comes in as a sustainable option for the reclamation
of sites. In many situations, the types of buildings most likely to become subjects
of adaptive reuse include: industrial buildings, as cities become gentrified and the
process of manufacture moves away from city; political buildings, such as
palaces and buildings which cannot support current and future visitors of the site;
and community buildings such as churches or schools where the use has
changed over time.
Adaptive reuse is seen as an effective way of reducing urban sprawl and
environmental impact. By reusing an existing structure within a site, the energy
required to create these spaces is lessened, as is the material waste that comes
from destroying old sites and rebuilding using new materials. Through adaptive
reuse old, unoccupied buildings can become suitable sites for many different
types of use.

FACTORS AFFECTING ADAPTIVE REUSE

Criteria for adaptive reuse
While the process of adaptive reuse is a decision often made purely by
companies establishing a particular brand or presence, there are often criteria for
deciding whether a building should be conserved and reused or just demolished
for the area of land it occupies. Some of these determining criteria include:

The societal value of a given site; that is, the importance to the community
of the use of a site by community members or visitors.

The potential for the reuse of a particular site; the physical damage
sustained to the site and its support of future use, the character of the
existing site in terms of the proposed reuse.
The historical importance of the site; in terms of both the physicality of the
street-scape and the area, as well as of the role of the site in the
community's understanding of the past.
The environmental conditions of the site; whether the site is suitable
climatically or can support the proposed environmental work needed in the
site.

Economic considerations
There has been much debate on the economic possibilities and viability of
adaptive reuse as different corporations and companies seek to find sustainable
ways to approach their corporate or retail sites. There are many outcomes that
affect the economic return of adaptive reuse as an avenue to reuse of a given
site. Factors such as the reuse of materials and resources as well as a lesser
need to involve energy, both in terms of labor and machine powered, can
effectively decrease the monetary funds needed for companies to establish sites.
However, there can be hidden costs in reusing old buildings such as the
unknown contamination of older sites, decay and disuse affecting the usability of
a building, and the possible need for modification of an older building to fit current
and future building codes.
The economic costs differ from project to project and some professionals
go as far as to assert that new build is always more economical and renovation is
universally more expensive,[4] due to their own involvement with adaptive reuse
projects. Others claim that the return on investment is enhanced when using an
older building because of the savings involved. One Canadian developer claims
that reusing buildings generally represents a saving of between 10-12% over
building new. In terms of profitability, there are also assertions that adaptive
reuse projects often have an uncertainty to their profitably that newer
developments lack. When looking for funding to build, these considerations must
be addressed.
With many heritage sites on the agenda for government agencies, there
are a number of financial incentives provided in order to increase the use of older
sites in many countries. In the provinces of Canada, some municipalities offer
financial encouragement for heritage development such as, the City of
Waterloo who waived the development charges for the Seagram Lofts that have
been estimated to be around $700,000. Governing bodies also benefit from the
reuse of once abandoned sites as once occupied, they generate tax revenue and
therefore often recover the initial investment.

Advantages of adaptive reuse

With the debate of adaptive reuse as a sustainable avenue in the
development of key sites, there are many advantages to using certain sites for
redevelopment. One of these advantages is the site's location. In many cases,
historical sites are often located in the centers of large cities. Due to the spatial
development of a given area, these buildings can often be heritage-listed and
therefore sold as an entity, rather than just for the land that they occupy, which
the new tenants then have to retrofit the building for their particular purpose.
Older buildings also often have a specific period character through the detailing
and joinery of their constructed eras that newer or reconstructed developments
lack. In certain cases such as the hospitality industry, the grand character of a
site can influence the feel of their building and are used for maximum potential to
enhance the site's physical attractiveness to a client.
Barriers to adaptive reuse
As mentioned above, adaptive reuse sometimes isnt the most viable
option for all historic sites. For some sites that have been left alone to decay by
neglect, the physical damage of the site can render the site unusable both in
terms of the cost to repair the damage as well as unsafe by government
standards. Sites contaminated by old materials such as asbestos also become
unviable for the process of adaptive reuse.

Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is defined as the act or process of making possible a
compatible use for a property through repair, alterations, and additions while
preserving those portions or features which convey its historical, cultural, or
architectural values.

Standards for Rehabilitation

1. A property will be used as it was historically or be given a new use that
requires minimal change to its distinctive materials, features, spaces, and spatial
relationships
2. The historic character of a property will be retained and preserved. The
removal of distinctive materials or alteration of features, spaces, and spatial
relationships that characterize a property will be avoided.
3. Each property will be recognized as a physical record of its time, place,
and use. Changes that create a false sense of historical development, such as
adding conjectural features or elements from other historic properties, will not be
undertaken.
4. Changes to a property that have acquired historic significance in their
own right will be retained and preserved.
5. Distinctive materials, features, finishes, and construction techniques or
examples of craftsmanship that characterize a property will be preserved.
6. Deteriorated historic features will be repaired rather than replaced.
Where the severity of deterioration requires replacement of a distinctive feature,
the new feature will match the old in design, color, texture, and, where possible,
materials. Replacement of missing features will be substantiated by documentary
and physical evidence.
7. Chemical or physical treatments, if appropriate, will be undertaken
using the gentlest means possible. Treatments that cause damage to historic
materials will not be used.
8. Archeological resources will be protected and preserved in place. If
such resources must be disturbed, mitigation measures will be undertaken.
9. New additions, exterior alterations, or related new construction will not
destroy historic materials, features, and spatial relationships that characterize the
property. The new work shall be differentiated from the old and will be compatible

with the historic materials, features, size, scale and proportion, and massing to
protect the integrity of the property and its environment.
10. New additions and adjacent or related new construction will be
undertaken in such a manner that, if removed in the future, the essential form
and integrity of the historic property and its environment would be unimpaired.

Rehabilitation

Preservation, Rehabilitation, Restoration, and Reconstruction:

Different Treatments for Historic Properties
I. There are four treatments defined in the language of the National Historic
Preservation Act of 1966 as amended. These are Preservation, Rehabilitation,
Restoration and Reconstruction.
A. Standards for Preservation
1. Preservation is defined as the act or process of applying measures
necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity, and materials of an historic
property. Work, including preliminary measures to protect and stabilize the
property, generally focuses upon the ongoing maintenance and repair of historic
materials and features rather than extensive replacement and new construction.
New exterior additions are not within the scope of this treatment; however, the
limited and sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems
and other code-required work to make properties functional is appropriate within
a preservation project.
a. A property will be used as it was historically, or be given a new use that
maximizes the retention of distinctive materials, features, spaces, and
spatial relationships. Where a treatment and use have not been identified,
a property will be protected and, if necessary, stabilized until additional
work may be undertaken.
b. The historic character of a property will be retained and preserved. The
replacement of intact or repairable historic materials or alteration of
features, spaces, and spatial relationships that characterize a property will
be avoided.
c. Each property will be recognized as a physical record of its time, place,

and use. Work needed to stabilize, consolidate, and conserve existing

historic materials and features will be physically and visually compatible,
identifiable upon close inspection, and properly documented for future
research.
d. Changes to a property that have acquired historic significance in their
own right will be retained and preserved.
e. Distinctive materials, features, finishes, and construction techniques or
examples of craftsmanship that characterize a property will be preserved.
f. The existing condition of historic features will be evaluated to determine
the appropriate level of intervention needed. Where the severity of
deterioration requires repair or limited replacement of a distinctive feature,
the new material will match the old in composition, design, color, and
texture.
g. Chemical or physical treatments, if appropriate, will be undertaken
using the gentlest means possible. Treatments that cause damage to
historic materials will not be used.
h. Archeological resources will be protected and preserved in place. If
such resources must be disturbed, mitigation measures will be
undertaken.
B. Standards for Rehabilitation
1. Rehabilitation is defined as the act or process of making possible a
compatible use for a property through repair, alterations, and additions while
preserving those portions or features which convey its historical, cultural, or
architectural values.
C. Standards for Restoration
1. Restoration is defined as the act or process of accurately depicting the
form, features, and character of a property as it appeared at a particular period of
time by means of the removal of features from other periods in its history and
reconstruction of missing features from the restoration period. The limited and
sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems and other

code-required work to make properties functional is appropriate within a

restoration project.
a. A property will be used as it was historically or be given a new use
which reflects the propertys restoration period.
b. Materials and features from the restoration period will be retained and
preserved. The removal of materials or alteration of features, spaces, and
spatial relationships that characterize the period will not be undertaken.
c. Each property will be recognized as a physical record of its time, place,
and use. Work needed to stabilize, consolidate and conserve materials
and features from the restoration period will be physically and visually
compatible, identifiable upon close inspection, and properly documented
for future research.
d. Materials, features, spaces, and finishes that characterize other
historical periods will be documented prior to their alteration or removal.
e. Distinctive materials, features, finishes, and construction techniques or
examples of craftsmanship that characterize the restoration period will be
preserved.
f. Deteriorated features from the restoration period will be repaired rather
than replaced. Where the severity of deterioration requires replacement of
a distinctive feature, the new feature will match the old in design, color,
texture, and, where possible, materials.
g. Replacement of missing features from the restoration period will be
substantiated by documentary and physical evidence. A false sense of
history will not be created by adding conjectural features, features from
other properties, or by combining features that never existed together
historically.
h. chemical or physical treatments, if appropriate, will be undertaken using
the gentlest means possible. Treatments that cause damage to historic
materials will not be used.

i. Archeological resources affected by a project will be protected and

preserved in place. If such resources must be disturbed, mitigation
measures will be undertaken.
j. Designs that were never executed historically will not be constructed.
D. Standards for Reconstruction
1. Reconstruction is defined as the act or process of depicting, by means
of new construction, the form, features, and detailing of a non-surviving site,
landscape, building, structure, or object for the purpose of replicating its
appearance at a specific period of time and in its historic location.
a. Reconstruction will be used to depict vanished or non-surviving portions
of a property when documentary and physical evidence is available to
permit accurate reconstruction with minimal conjecture, and such
reconstruction is essential to the public understanding of the property.
b. Reconstruction of a landscape, building, structure, or object in its
historic location will be preceded by a thorough archeological investigation
to identify and evaluate those features and artifacts which are essential to
an accurate reconstruction. If such resources must be disturbed,
mitigation measures will be undertaken.
c. Reconstruction will include measures to preserve any remaining historic
materials, features, and spatial relationships.
d. Reconstruction will be based on the accurate duplication of historic
features and elements substantiated by documentary or physical evidence
rather than on conjectural designs or the availability of different features
from other historic properties. A reconstructed property will re-create the
appearance of the non-surviving historic property in materials, design,
color, and texture.
e. A reconstruction will be clearly identified as a contemporary re-creation.
f. Designs that were never executed historically will not be constructed.

II. Applying the Treatments

A. Preservation as a treatment. When the propertys distinctive

materials, features, and spaces are essentially intact and thus convey the
historic significance without extensive repair or replacement; when
depiction at a particular period of time is not appropriate; and when a
continuing or new use does not require additions or extensive alterations,
Preservation may be considered as a treatment.
B. Rehabilitation as a treatment. When repair and replacement of
deteriorated features are necessary; when alterations or additions to the
property are planned for a new or continued use; and when its depiction at
a particular period of time is not appropriate, Rehabilitation may be
considered as a treatment.
C. Restoration as a treatment. When the propertys design, architectural,
or historical significance during a particular period of time outweighs the
potential loss of extant materials, features, spaces, and finishes that
characterize other historical periods; when there is substantial physical
and documentary evidence for the work; and when contemporary
alterations and additions are not planned, Restoration may be considered
as a treatment. Prior to undertaking work, a particular period of time, i.e.,
the restoration period, should be selected and justified, and a
documentation plan for Restoration developed.
D. Reconstruction as a treatment. When a contemporary depiction is
required to understand and interpret a propertys historic value (including
the re-creation of missing components in a historic district or site ); when
no other property with the same associative value has survived; and when
sufficient historical documentation exists to ensure an accurate
reproduction, Reconstruction may be considered as a treatment.

III. When the Standards are Regulatory

A. The Secretary of the Interior is responsible for establishing professional
standards and providing advice on the preservation and protection of all
cultural resources listed in or eligible for the National Register of Historic
Places.
B. The Secretary of the Interiors Standards for the Treatment of Historic

Properties, apply to all proposed development grant-in-aid projects

assisted through the National Historic Preservation Fund, and are
intended to be applied to a wide variety of resource types, including
buildings, sites, structures, objects, and districts. These Standards,
revised in 1992, were codified as 36 CFR Part 68 in the July 12,
1995Federal Register (Vol. 60, No. 133). They replace the 1978 and 1983
versions of 36 CFR 68 entitled The Secretary of the Interiors Standards
for Historic Preservation Projects.
C. The Secretary of the Interiors Standards for the Treatment of Historic
Properties may be used by anyone planning and undertaking work on
historic properties, even if grant-in-aid funds are not being sought. Another
regulation, 36 CFR 67, focuses on certified historic structures as defined
by the IRS Code of 1986. The Standards for Rehabilitation cited in 36
CFR 67 should always be used when property owners are seeking
certification for Federal tax benefits.