International Journal of Mine Water | International Mine Water Association 2006 | www.IMWA.

info

GROUND WATER AND GEQTECHNICAL PROBLEMS

L. Luckner
Professor of Sol1 and Ground-Water A f f a i r s
Head of t h e Research Group f o r Open-Cast Mine Drainage
of t h e Grossrdschen I n s t i t u t e f o r L i g n i t e Mining and t h e
Dresden University of Technology, Department of Water A f f a i r s
German Democratic Republic

ABSTRACT
This paper i s based on the Author's l e c t u r e s presented during h i s s t a y
a s a V i s i t i n g Professor a t The C i t y University, I,ondon, i n November
1982. S t a r t i n g from a general view of t h e main problems, it d e s c r i b e s
the d r i v i n g forces i n hydro-geomeclzanical processes, e s p e c i a l l y the
f o r c e s induced by pressure changes In t h e underground water.
The
e s t i m a t i o n of t h e s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s i n t h e ground ( s o i l and rock)
r e q u i r e s t h e s o l u t i o n of coupled systems of equations of s o i l and
ground water flow and geotechnical s t r a i n o r f a i l u r e of t h e ground.
The paper d e s c r i b e s i n d e t a i l problems of regional ground subsidence
due t o pumping i n open-cast mine a r e a s and problems of e s t i m a t i o n of
seepage f o r c e s i n s a t u r a t e d o r unsaturated loose rocks with a n i s o t r o p i c
c o n d u c t i v i t i e s and i n f i s s u r e d hard rocks with c o n d u c t i v i t i e s charact e r i s e d by a tensor.
P o s s i b i l i t i e s of the s o l u t i o n of those problems
with analog and numerical models a r e b r i e f l y discussed.
M A I N PROBLEMS

We have t o d i s t i n g u i s h between hydrogeomechanical processes on

microscopic and on macroscopic l e v e l s .
On t h e microscopic l e v e l , the two phases, t h e s o l i d m a t e r i a l and t h e
f l u i d flowing i n t h e connected channel network of the porous o r
f i s s u r e d s o l i d m a t e r i a l , a r e considered as two d i f f e r e n t systems (two
I n t h e c e n t r e of i n t e r e s t a r e
s i n g l e phases) coupled with each o t h e r .
s t a b i l i t y problems of the s o l i d skeleton and problems of t h e t r a n s p o r t
of f i n e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s through t h e skeleton. The concept d i v i d e s t h e
s o l i d m a t e r i a l i n t o a skeleton which t r a n s f e r s e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s a'
and i n t o f i n e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s which do not. The most i n t e r e s t i n g
processes a r e :

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Chemical d i s s o l u t i o n and p r e c i p i t a t i o n , i f s o l i d s a r e n o t i n thermodynamical e q u i l i b r i u m with t h e s o l i d minerals (11 (important e.g.

i n carbonate r o c k s ) .
Hydranechanical s u f f o s i o n and clogging, i.e. t h e passage o r blocking
of s o l i d m a t e r i a l s which a r e n o t p a r t of t h e s k e l e t o n (21 (important,
e.g., f o r t h e design o f f i l t e r s i n suffosion-endangered l o o s e r o c k s ) .
I n t e r n a l e r o s i o n (e.g. p i p i n g and, on t h e ground s u r f a c e , sand
b o i l i n g ) ( 3 ) ; i n t e r n a l e r o s i o n , i n c o n t r a s t t o s u f f o s i o n , involves
a l l s o l i d m a t e r i a l i n t h e process of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
I n t e r f a c e e r o s i o n , i.e. e s p e c i a l l y processes of e r o s i o n and b r i d g i n g
i n t h e v i c i n i t y of f i l t e r s i n cohesive and non-cohesive m a t e r i a l s
( 2 1 (important, e. g., f o r t h e design of f i l t e r s i n water engineering).

On t h e macroscopic l e v e l t h e hydrogeomechanical processes a r e considered

a s problems of continuum mechanics, i . e . t h e f i x e d s o l i d m a t e r i a l and
the flowing f l u i d a r e two components of one s i n g l e phase p e n e t r a t i n g
each o t h e r and each f i l l i n g t h e whole space volume continuously l i k e
t h e components oxygen and n i t r o g e n i n t h e s i n g l e phase a i r . The mass
d e n s i t y of each of t h e components i s then t h e bulk d e n s i t y .
It i s
u s e f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h between " l o c a l " and "global" problems.

The most important l o c a l problems

- of hydrogeomechanical processes on t h e
macroscopic l e v e l a r e :

Local f a i l u r e s where the upward g r a d i e n t of t h e piezometric head

exceeds t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s (e. g. formation of quicksands i n opencast pits).
Local mud flow on s l o p e t o e s , i . e . t h e formation of mud tongues with
water flowing o u t of slopes.
Local s l i p f a i l u r e s on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s l o p e s d i r e c t l y above an
impermeable or semipermeable l a y e r .

The most important g l o b a l problems (which may, o f course, a l s o be

t r e a t e d a s l o c a l problems) a r e :
Subsidence problems due t o e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c deformation ( 4 ) (e.g.
land subsidence due t o a change i n e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s by draw-down
of ground-water)
- S l i p p i n g and c o l l a p s e of geotechnical s t r u c t u r e s ( e g. f a i l u r e s along
s l i p planes, perhaps along a logarithmic s p i r a l ) .
- Viscous s o i l flow (e.g. i n dump a r e a s during a r i s e of ground water,
e s p e c i a l l y in t h e v i c i n i t y of r e s i d u a l mines w i t h r i s i n g water
levels)

D R I V I N G FORCES

The d r i v i n g f o r c e s i n hydrogeornechanical processes which cause deformat i o n s , f a i l u r e s and c o l l a p s e s a r e above a l l t h e chemical f o r c e s , t h e

hydromechanic a1 a c c e l e r a t i o n and changes i n underground water pressure.
Chemical f o r c e s a r e proportional to t h e d e v i a t i o n of t h e s a t u r a t i o n
1 . 0 ) . For a mineral of t h e s t r u c t u r e
index SI from 1.0 (I? Q., S I
A B ( s ) , e.g. CaF2 ( s ) , d i s s o c i a t i n g i n water a s t h e s o l v e n t i n m
m n

c a t i o n s with t h e charge of +n (e.g. 1 ca2+) and i n n anions with t h e

charge of -m (e.g. 2F-1, S I i s ( 1 1 ( 5 1

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- symbol f o r t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e substance
s t a n d i n g i n s i d e t h e brackets
- therwdynamical equilibrium c o n s t a n t

eq
S I < 1 . 0 means t h e r e f o r e mineral d i s s o l u t i o n and SI > 1.0 p r e c i p i t a t i o ~
The hydromechanical a c c e l e r a t i o n f o r c e f follows from Newton's law i n
a flow channel,
dv/dt = p f R ( a v / a t

f =

v~v/~R).

(2)

Above a l l , t h e convective a c c e l e r a t i o n vav/aR i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

t r a n s p o r t of s o l i d p a r t i c l e s through t h e channels o r f i s s u r e s of the
skeleton.
Supposing t h e geometrical c r i t e r i a of suf f o s i o n a r e
fulfilled ( 2I ,
'particle
SF

< SF. 'channe 1

s l i p p i n g ( o r p a s s i n g ) f a c t o r depending on

'

'channe 1
1
t h e t r a n s p o r t of a p a r t i c l e t a k e s p l a c e only i f vav/aR exceeds an
estimated value depending on t h e shape and weight of t h e p a r t i c l e
and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e t r a n s p o r t [ 2 I .
The underground water pressure i s connected w i t h t h e t o t a l s t r e s s 0
and t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s 0' r e s p e c t i v e l y by equation ( 4 ) :
o = o ' + p

(4)

0 , 0 ' and p a r e i n t e n s i v e
v a r i a b l e s of continuum
mechanics.

IT'

0'

I f t h e t o t a l s t r e s s u i s c o n s t a n t (no changes of the load e . g. due t o

b u i l d i n g of new s t r u c t u r e s o r excavating of s o i l ) , t h e changes of
t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e s o l i d s k e l e t o n a r e equal t o
changes of underground water pressure:
db= 0

-+

Ida, = - d p l

(5)

The e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s i s connected w i t h s t r a i n by

dz

g, 2'
(C'I

(C' I d z ' =

- (c'l

(6)

dp

vector of s t r a i n resp. e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s
matrix of deformability.

Land-subsidence problems a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by changes of p i n time due

t o ground-water pumping:
dp

(7)

= (ap/at)dt.

Often f a i l u r e problems a r e r e l a t e d to changes of p i n space (steady

s t a t e of underground water flow) :
dp

= ydl

g r a d ( ~ / y+ z ) =

grad h

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(8

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h
y

piezometric head
u n i t weight of f l u i d
i n f i n i t e s i m a l l e n g t h i n d i r e c t i o n of grad h.

The seepage f o r c e AS i s
y d l dA grad h = yAv grad h
(9)
dA - i n f i n i t e s i m a l a r e a perpendicular t o dx
on t h e s o l i d s k e l e t o n a s t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e t o t h e f r i c t i o n of t h e
f l u i d flowing through t h e ground (2 1 .
AS =

yacting

Many slope s l i p s a r e t y p i c a l f a i l u r e s due t o changes of p i n time.

The s h e a r s t r e n g t h T responsible f o r the s t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t s l i p p i n g
i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a t a space p o i n t by:

f a c t o r of cohesion
angle of f r i c t i o n .

Each reduction of 0' due t o an i n c r e a s e i n p (e.g. during t h e r i s e of

ground water i n abandoned mining a r e a s ) must reduce T and t h e r e f o r e
i n c r e a s e t h e danger of s l i p f a i l u r e s .
LAND SUBSIDENCE
Land subsidence o f t e n l i m i t s ground-water pumping, e . g. i n Mexico C i t y
and i n many a r e a s along the c o a s t of Japan and of t h e Gulf o f Texas.
Land-subsidence problems i n the German Democratic Republic (G. D. R . ) a r e
above a l l connected with pumping f o r drainage of open-cast mines. For
an o u t p u t of about 300 m i l l i o n Mg ( t o n s ) of l i g n i t e a year, 1.5
This l e a d s t o l a r g e cones
m i l l i a r d m3 of water have t o be pumped.
of depression, e.g. i n t h e open-cast mining a r e a of t h e L a u s i t z a cone
of depression was formed of about 100 km length and 20 km breadth.
For t h e e s t i m a t i o n of t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g v e r t i c a l land subsidence ( 7 )

E~

p*

v e r t i c a l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of the underground
void r a t i o f o r p* = 0
underground water pressure d i f f e r e n c e p* = p

po

it is necessary t o f i n d t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n p = p (x, y, z, t)
For t h i s we have t o solve a p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equation l i n k i n g t h e
mathematical model o f underground water movement with mathematical
models of e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c c o n s o l i d a t i o n ( 7 1 ( 8 1

Source/sink

consolidation

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Source/sink
term f o r
the plastic
p a r t of
consolidation

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f3
n

water c o n l p r e s s i b i l i t y
p o r o s i t y , ? - water d e n s i t y
d l l d 2 - e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c
compressibil~t
y
- hydraulic
c o n d u c t i v i t y of Darcy's Law
q" - v i s c o s i t y of t h e s o i l ( t h e
whole term f o r t h e p l a s t i c p a r t
of c o n s o l i d a t i o n ; s e e , e . g , ( 9 . p
189 ) )

[ )=
effective stress

a'

[-(t-.)/d2

q"]

'

The problems i n t h e G.D . R . a r i s e e s p e c i a l l y i n abandoned mining

a r e a s , when t h e ground-water l e v e l r e t u r n s t o i t s i n i t i a l v a l u e
b e f o r e pumping. The ground-water l e v e l i n t h e L a u s l t z
brownc o a l f i e l d r e g . , b e f o r e t h e s t a r t of mine d r a i n a g e in many a r e a s , w a s
o n l y a b o u t 1 t o 1.5m below t h e ground s u r f a c e . The p l a s t i c p a r t
o f deformation d u r i n g t h e time of miming and pumping i s o f t e n i n
t h e same range. The ground-water l e v e l r i s e s t h e r e f o r e , a f t e r
f i n i s h i n g of mining a c t i v i t i e s , i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e ground
s u f a c e and changes a g r i c u l t u r a l land and f o r e s t i n t o swamps
and marshes. Pumping o r o t h e r k i n d s of a r t i f i c i a l d r a i n a g e measures
a r e t h e r e f o r e necessary i n some of t h e s e a g r i c u l t u r a l o r
urbanised a r e a s i n t h e former cone of d e p r e s s i o n . But t h i s i s
expensive, and,moreover, t h e q u a l i t y of t h e water pumped o u t of t h e
ground i n t h e cone of d e p r e s s i o n i s v e r y bad(l1). Such water i s
h i g h l y a c i d i c I 1 1 ] . I t would be b e t t e r t o e s t i m a t e Land-subsidence
b e f o r e p l a n n i n g t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e mining landscape. The b e s t
p o i n t f o r t h i s p l a n n i n g would of c o u r s e be t h e time b e f o r e openc a s t mining and drainage s t a r t ( 1 2 ) .

SLOPE STABILITY I N LOOSE ROCKS

Ground-water flow i n f l u e n c e s s l o p e s t a b i l i t y by seepage f o r c e s ( s e e
eq. 9 ) a c t i n g on s l i p s a s d r i v i n g f o r c e s and by s h e a r f o r c e s ( s e e
eq. 1 0 ) a c t i n g on s l i p s a s r e s i s t i n g f o r c e s .
The e s t i m a t i o n of both
r e q u i r e s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p i e z o m e t r i c
head h ( x , y , z ) both i n t h e s a t u r a t e d and i n t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zones.
The s u c t i o n i n t h e vadose zone (zone above t h e groundwater t a b l e )
a c t s l i k e a f i c t i t i o u s cohesion, b u t seepage f o r c e s i n t h i s zone a r e
of t h e same range a s i n t h e groundwater zone.
Most c a l c u l a t i o n s of groundwater d r a i n a g e , e s p e c i a l l y i n m u l t i a q u i f e r systems, a r e based on D u p u i t ' s assumptions.
This h o l d s f o r
a l l models using t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y T a s parameter o r t h e Girinsi:ij
p o t e n t i a l $ a s dependent v a r i a b l e .
The s o l u t i o n of t h e s e models
y i e l d s t h e r e f o r e only t h e s o c a l l e d "Dupuit s u r f a c e " and h ( x , y )

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beneath t h i s s u r f a c e .
I n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e s u c h a s u r f a c e may h a v e ,
e . g . , t h e form s k e t c h e d below.

I t is t y p i c a l f o r these calculations t h a t they y i e l d c o r r e c t values

f o r t h e d i s c h a r g e Q , which may b e v e r i f i e d by a c t u a l measurement.
Both t h e Dupuit s u r f a c e and t h e d i s c h a r g e a r e d e p e n d e n t o n l y on Kh.
The a n i s t r o p y o f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y ( e . g . t h e v a l u e o f K,,)
is without
i n f l u e n c e on t h e l o c a t i o n o f D u p u i t ' s s u r f a c e and t h e v a l u e o f Q.
pumping-test d a t a a n d g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t a t f i r s t Kh
and a r e i n s e n s i t i v e on Kv ( h s t a n d s f o r h o r i z o n t a l and v f o r v e r t i c a l ) .
A s t a n d p i p e w i t h a s h o r t f i l t e r a t t h e bottom o f t h e a q u i f e r shows
a w a t e r l e v e l i n good agreement w i t h D u p u i t ' s s u r f a c e .

But f o r t h e
A l l t h e s e r e a s o n s speak o f c o u r s e f o r u s i n g s u c h a model.
estimation of slope s t a b i l i t y there is, beside t h e lack of t h e
approximate d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h below t h e Dupuit s u r f a c e , t h e
u n c e r t a i n t y o f e s t i m a t i o n o f v a l u e s o f seepage f o r c e s above t h i s
surface.
Attempts a r e t h e r e f o r e o f t e n made t o c a l c u l a t e t h e
e l e v a t i o n o f t h e groundwater t a b l e i n s t e a d o f t h e D u p u i t s u r f a c e .
[81, t h e
A f t e r a s c a l e d i s t o r t i o n depending on t h e f a c t o r Kh/KV
e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e groundwater s u r f a c e ( i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e r a t i o
K ~ / K ~by
) means o f e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n d u c t i v e p a p e r [ 2 ] [ 8 ] o r n u m e r i c a l
models ( b a s e d on t h e Dupuit s u r f a c e a l o n g s t r e a m l i n e s ( 2 , p 2 3 9 ) )
f o r a r e a s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e s l o p e is p o s s i b l e a t comparatively
s m a l l expense.
The groundwater l e v e l c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e Dupuit s u r f a c e f o r
The v a l u e of Q i s i n d e p e n d e n t of t h l q .
and i s h o r i z o n t a l f o r IC, = 0.
The problem o f u s i n g such a c o n c e p t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f
K, and t h e measurements o f t h e groundwater l e v e l under f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s .
The b e s t way o f e s t i m a t i n g K, seems t o be t o t a k e u n d i s t u r b e d v e r t i c a l
s o i l samples d u r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g o f o b s e r v a t i o n b o r e h o l e s .
The
measurement o f t h e f r e e groundwater t a b l e i s p r a c t i c a l l y o n l y p o s s i b l e
with a chain of s i n g l e transducers o r mini-filters.
Mini-filters
work b o t h i n groundwater and t h e vadose-water zone, i . e . t h e y have
proved s a t i s f a c t o r y d e v i c e s f o r measuring b o t h p r e s s u r e and s u c t i o n

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i n groundwater.
The i n s t a l l a t i o n o f numerous b o r e h o l e s w i t h
p o r o u s w a l l s , o v e r a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e a q u i f e r , on t h e o t h e r hand,
must b e a v o i d e d .
They s e r v e a s e l e m e n t s t r a n s p o r t i n g w a t e r i n t h e
v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n and s o d i s t u r b i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f p r e s s u r e
and flow 12 , p 77 )

face
point A
output of
level

O f c o u r s e even t h e model c o n c e p t o f a groundwater t a b l e i n s t e a d o f

t h e Dupuit s u r f a c e i s n o t f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t . A l i t t l e b e t t e r seems
t o be i n s t e a d t o u s e the i n t e r f a c e between t h e s a t u r a t e d and
2bove)or even t h e i n t e r f a c e
u n s a t u r a t e d z o n e ( A ~= p a i r entrance/y
dz above t h e w a t e r tabie).
o f f i c t i t i o u s s a t u r a t i o n ( A H f = ( 1 / K s a t ) fKuns
But o n l y t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s m o d e l l i n g o f underground w a t e r movement i n
t h e whole groundwater and vadose-water zone w i t h a n i s o t r o p ~ c
p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y seems t o b e a meaningful
s o l u t i o n f o r t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f s e e p a g e f o r c e s and e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s
t o c a l c u l a t e s l o p e s t a b i l i t y and t o e s t i m a t e t h e degree o f approxima-.
t i o n o f o t h e r model c o n c e p t s .

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F o r u s i n g s u c h a model c o n c e p t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t i m a t e t h c
d e p e n d e n c e o f \ a n d Kh on t h e d e g r e e o f s a t u r a t i o n o f t h p s o i l w i t h
w a t e r [ 1 4 ) . The m e a s u r e m e n t o f p o r h i s a g a i n p o s s i b l e by means o f
a v e r t i c a l chain of mini-filters.
As t h e c o m p u t e r c o d e we a r p u s i n g
t h e p r o g r a m VEREGO ( 13 ) .
SEEPAGE FORCES I N FISSURED ROCKS
For f i s s u r e d h a r d r o c k s it i s t y p i c a l t o have a h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y
of t e n s o r i a l character.
Several f a u l t s a c t a s s p e c i a l zones with high
conductivity.
The o p p o s i t e h o l d s f o r g r o u t c u r t a i n s .

The b e s t way f o r s o l u t l o n o f s u c h a n undercrround f l o w problem 1s

a n u n l e r l c a l model w l t h f l n l t e e l e m e n t s f l t t l n q t h e i n d l v l r l u d l a r e a s
o f d ~ f f e r e n tp e r m e a b l l ~ t ~ e s .

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The r e s u l t s of t h e computer (we use f o r t h i s t h e computer program

POFEM ( 1 5 1 ) a r e t h e n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p i e z o m e t r i c head
h ( x , z ) drawn by a p l o t t e r

-------

and t h e g r a d i e n t s of p i e z o m e t r i c head g r a d h = f ( x , z ) a l s o drawn by

a plotter.
- - - - --

The most i m p o r t a n t problem i s t h a t t h e width of t h e f i s s u r e s , and

t h e r e f o r e t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y , i s a f u n c t i o n of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s . We
s o l v e t h i s problem by an i t e r a t i o n procedure.
The h i g h groundwater
p r e s s u r e s upstream of t h i s g r o u t c u r t a i n and t h e f o r c e moment due t o
t h e h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e f o r c e of t h e water body i n t h e r e s e r v o i r on
t h e c o n c r e t e dam cause t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h i s a r e a t o reach very
high values.
I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e upper p a r t of t h e g r o u t
c u r t a i n becomes f i s s u r e d and l o s e s i t s e f f e c t , a s i s shown i n t h e l a s t
two p i c t u r e s .
I n c a s e s where t h e underground w a t e r movement i s d i s t u r b e d by l o c a l
(e.g. d r a i n a g e ) elements, t h e use of three-dimensional modules i s

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necessary.
We u s e i n s u c h c a s e s t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m R A U M - 1 ( 1 5 ).
B u t t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d model d o e s n o t a l w a y s y i e l d t h e b e s t
results i n practice.
T o d a y ' s p r o b l e m i s t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
process simulation o f t e n exceed t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f i t t i n g such
a model w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a .
But b e c a u s e t h e r e s u l t s o f
s i m u l a t i o n s c a n o n l y b e a s good a s t h e w e a k e s t p a r t , it w i l l a l s o
i n f u t u r e b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o know t h e e a s i e r m e t h o d s o f s o l u t i o n
l i k e a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s and m o d e l l i n g w i t h n o t t o o c o m p l i c a t e d
e l e c t r i c a l a n a l o g d e v i c e s ( e . q . e l e c t r i c p a p e r m o d e l s ) . The l a s t
p i c t u r e shows how R E M M E R T saw t h i s p r o b l e m ( 1 6 ] :

Co -operalive
environmental
research

Subproject Data
research
desgn

bank

Process
models

Integrated
site
models

Comprehensive
bjorne
models

Rea(-world
appllcat ion

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge t h e h e l p w i t h t h e E n g l i s h f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h i s t e x t g i v e n
by P r o f e s s o r P. 0 . Wolf d u r i n g my v i s i t i n London.

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Inc.

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International Journal of Mine Water | International Mine Water Association 2006 | www.IMWA.info

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