Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Engineering HSC Syllabus Summary

Civil Structures

Engineering mechanics and hydraulics

Stress and Strain

- Strain
The proportional change in length caused when a specimen is
under load

e(extension m)
L(originallength m)

No units (ratio)

Shear stress
A measure of the internal reaction that occurs in response to an
externally applied load

Stress ( Pa )=

Strain ( )=

P( Load N )
2
A ( Aream )

Engineering and working stress

Engineering stress the original C.S.A is used to calculate the stress
for every value of the applied force
Working stress The actual or constantly changing C.S.A value is
used to calculate the stress
Yield stress, proof stress, toughness, Youngs Modulus,
Hookes law, engineering applications
Yield stress- the stress where there is a marked increase in strain
without an increase in stress. Yield stress is always greater than
the elastic limit, but less that the UTS
Proof stress- used as a measure on materials that do not show a
marked yield point. Usually a set amount of strain is given to the
material, usually 15 or 2% and the amount of stress can be
calculated
Toughness- indicated by the area under the curve in a
stress/strain diagram. Ability of a material to absorb energy
Youngs Modulus- Measure of the stiffness of a material. Applies
up to the elastic limit of a material. The gradient of the straight
line in section of the graph indicates YM.
Hookes law- the amount of elastic deformation that a material
can sustain in tension or compression before it undergoes
permanent plastic deformation.
Factor of safety

For ductile materials

For brittle materials -

FOS=
FOS=

Yield stress
max . allowable stress

UTS
max . allowable stress

Michael McElroy

Stress/strain diagram

Truss analysis
- Method of joints

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Michael McElroy
-

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Methos of sections

Bending stress induced by point loads only

Concept of shear force and bending moment

Shear force
A shear force causes one part of a material to slide past the
adjacent part of the material

Bending moment
The bending moment is the amount of bending that occurs in a
beam

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Shear force and bending moment diagrams

Concept of neutral axis and outer fibre stress

As a beam bends, the concave side will compress and set up
compressive forces within the beam

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

The convex side of the beam will stretch, producing tensile

forces
In between, there exists a plane where the fibres in the beam are
not subjected to tensile or compressive forces. This plane is
called the neutral axis
The fibres furthest away from the neutral axis will be subjected
to maximum stress

Bending stress calculation (second moment of area given)

To calculate the bending stress (

) at any section of the

beam.

My
I

Where:

= bending stress (Pa)

M = max. bending moment (Nmm)

Y = distance from neutral axis (mm)
I = second moment of area of the cross section of the
beam (mm4)

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Uniformly distributed loads

- Unlike a point load, UDL is a load that is spread across a beam

Crack theory
- Crack formation and growth
Cracking begins with micro cracks (crack initiation phase)
Cracking then leads to crack propagation, that phase in which
the crack grows in size under cyclic loading to ultimate part
failure
Crack initiation can be long and develops from repetitive
stresses at stress concentrations
Dependant on material and method of component manufacture
Surface cracks can be detected using visual inspection
techniques such as magnetic particle add dye penetration tests
Sub surface cracks require ultrasonic or radiographic methods to
be detected
- Failure due to cracking
Cracking can occur at stresses below yield stress, known as
fatigue
Fatigue fracture begins as small crack, that grows in size from
repeated stress
As a crack expands, the load carrying cross-section of the
component is reduced, with the result that the stress on this
section is raised
- Repair and/or elimination of failure due to cracking
For metallic materials: welding can repair crack. However doing
this will repair crack but micro structural changes will appear
around the weld and weaken the material, with weld being a
point of stress concentration. Heat treating the material after
welding will avoid this

For polymers: adhesives can be used to repair crack. This

cannot be done for thermosets, instead it must be replaced

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

For ceramics: usually cant be repaired need to be replaced

Prevention: designing item without sharp corners will reduce
cracks from forming as stress can be concentrated at these
points

Engineering mechanics and hydraulics

Testing of materials
- Compressive testing
Used to determine the compressive strength of materials
Test piece is compressed and load deformation is recorded
- Transverse beam testing
Many materials used are not only in compression or tension at the
same time. They can be exposed to bending stresses
Used to determine bending and shear in materials
Transverse beam testing involves placing a test piece between two
supports and then gradually applying a load
- Concrete testing
The water/cement ratio in concrete effects the workability of the
mix and also the final strength of the concrete
Slump test measures the workability of concrete. Wet concrete is
placed in a mould. When the mould is removed, the amount of
deformation of the shape is measures and is used to describe the
workability of the concrete
Compression test compression testing of concrete is measured
after 28 days. This is done to test the strength of the concrete.

Ceramics
- Structure property relationships, applications
Hard, brittle, chemically inert, electrical/thermal insulation,
durable
Compressive strength
- Glass
Non-crystalline ceramics
3 basic ingredients are: silica, limestone, soda ash
Soda-lime glass: accounts for 90% of glass windows, bottles
etc.
Borosilicate glass: used for ovenware, telescopes
Lead glasses: optical components, radiation shielding
Main properties: transparent, brittle, compressive strength
Properties can be improved by: thermal toughening (air
quenching), chemical toughening, laminating
- Cement
Bonding material
Compressive strength
Low toughness
Easily casted
Excellent workability

Composites
- Timber

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Organic materials
Structure: cellulose tubes bounded together by glue lignin
(wood grain)
Factors affecting strength of timber: loading duration, moisture
content, defects (within grain)
Exposure to chemicals
Concrete (reinforced and pre-stressed)
Concrete is a compound of sand, gravel, cement and water
Reinforced concrete: steel bars imbedded in concrete to add
tensile strength
Pre-stressed: concrete is poured over steel wires or cables that
are placed in tension. After concrete is hardened, tensile stress
on cables is released
Asphalt
Consists of aggregate, bitumen and air voids
Aggregate held together with bituminous binder
Adding small amounts of materials, such as rubber, alter asphalt
properties
Toughness
Durability
Resistance to moisture, heat etc. (weather resistant)
Laminates
Consists of materials that are sandwiched together
Plywood: layers of timber with adhesive
Laminated glass: two layers of glass with PVB polymer in middle
adds strength
Fibre glass: glass fibres bonded with polymer resin

Geotextiles
Woven polymers or ceramic fibres
Used to stabilise road base, geotextile is placed underneath
asphalt prevents potholes
Corrosion
- Corrosive environments
Availability of oxygen to enable reactions to proceed
Temperature
- Dry corrosion, wet corrosion, stress corrosion
Dry corrosion occurs through chemical reactions with gases, at
high temperatures i.e. in furnaces
Wet corrosion occurs when material is in contact with fluid or
moisture
Stress corrosion when a material is subjected to stress (i.e.
cyclic loads) and cracks begin to form. The material will
eventually degrade due to fatigue
Recyclability of materials
- Steel
B.O.F (basic oxygen furnace) 25% recycled steel possible
E.A.F (electric arc furnace) 100% recycled steel possible
- Concrete
Recycled concrete weaker that original product
Usually used as rubble

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Concrete is crushed/broken down and re-used

Wood
Can be recycled for basic uses i.e. furniture, pallets etc.
Dependant on type of wood
Used as chips for garden mulch, playground covering
Smaller chips to form wood composites
Recycled as paper or cardboard
Asphalt
Limited uses for recycled products
Usually crushed and refined with other materials added to
reproduce asphalt again
Glass
Can be reused to produce glass again

Personal and Public Transport

Engineering mechanics and hydraulics

Static friction
- Concept of friction and its use in engineering
Friction is the resistance to motion and efficiency
Friction always acts opposite to the direction in which the body
moves
Static friction frictional force present when two bodies are at
rest
Limiting friction - frictional force present when two bodies are at
the point of moving
Dynamic friction frictional force while a body is moving
- Coefficient of friction amount of friction that materials develops
between them ()

FF
Frictin force
=
R N Normal reaction

Normal force
Reaction force
Always perpendicular to supporting surface
Equal to, but opposite direction to weigh force
Balances out forces
Friction force
Force that prevents movement
Force that is exerted between contacting surfaces
Always opposes direction of motion
Increases as applied force increases
Angle of static friction ()
Resultant force (of friction force and normal force) makes
with the normal
The angle that the resultant force makes with the normal
reaction
tan =
Angle of repose

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

The angle when the angle of static friction will equal the
inclination of the plane
When the gravitational force down an inclined slope
equals the frictional force, i.e. the system is an equilibrium
Energy, power
Potential energy
Stored energy within an object with the ability to do work
The PE is equal to the work done in lifting a bodys weight
(mg) through a vertical height (h).
PE =mgh
Hydro electricity uses PE
Kinetic energy
Energy a body possess due to its motion
KE = Energy a body possess due to its motion

KE =

1
2

mv2

Work
W=KE or W=Fs or W=Fscos
When a force causes motion
Total work multiple forces acting on a body
Power
The rate at which work is done
P=w/t = Fs/t = Fv

Engineering materials

Testing of materials

Visual testing
Dye penetration
Dye or coloured liquid is placed on the surface of a
component and excess is wiped clean
Any cracks or imperfections on surface of component will be
highlighted by the dye remaining
Fast, simple, inexpensive
Used for small specimens and various materials
Difficult to detect small cracks
UV light is also used to help show up any imperfections

Magnetic particle testing

Component is placed on a conducting rod, that produces a
magnetic field about the component
Fluorescent liquid of charged particles is sprayed over
component
Fluorescent magnetic particles are drawn to the cracks by the
conducting rod, highlighting surface imperfections

Radiographic examination
X-Rays

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Favourable because a photo film is produced, for close

analysis
Detects sub-surface defects
Radiation is used to penetrate the item, with any voids
allowing the rays to pass through more easily, resulting in a
dark area of film
Used on large objects
Longer/more expensive than visual testing
Exposure to radiation can be harmful to humans

Gamma Rays
Effective when testing thick structures, i.e. steels
Can be used to examine joining methods, i.e. welds
Exposure to radiation can be harmful to humans

Ultrasonic testing
Detects sub-surface defects
A probe transmits high frequency vibrations throughout the
component as it passes over the surface of a component
Any imperfections within the component causes the vibration to
be reflected without travelling to the bottom
Results are displayed on detection machine

Heat treatment of ferrous metals

Heat treatment of steels
Heat treatment used to give steel to alter their properties. Heat
treatment involves 3 main processes
1. Heating of metal to pre-determined temp.
2. Soaking (holding) of metal at that temp. until heat becomes
uniform throughout
3. Cooling of metal at pre-determined rate such that is will
cause formation of, or will maintain desirable structures
within the metal
Annealing
Process annealing
Heat steel to temp. Between 550 and 650C
Relieve internal stresses from within material
Air cooled
Complete recrystallisation of the metal
Full annealing
Heated above 923C
Soaked
Cooled within furnace slow process
Produces softer steel
Normalising
Heating to higher temps. than annealing
Soaked
Air cooled
Produces fine grain structure stronger material
Increase in UTS, hardness
Decrease in ductility
Hardening and Tempering

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Hardening
Hardening steel depends on carbon content
Heat above 800C
Soak
Quench (cool very quickly) water, oil, brine can be used
Quenching causes stress to build up in steel becomes extremely
hard
Quenching produces martensite hard + brittle material that needs
further treatment to increase toughness
Tempering
Remove internal stresses from material that have been quenched
(martensite)
Retains hardness and replaces brittleness with toughness
Heat steel between 200 - 600C
Soak
Cool in air
Tempered martensite produced
Structure property relationships
Annealed coarse grain structure soft with moderate strength
Normalised fine grain structure higher strength
Hardening stressed grain structure hardness + brittleness
Tempering very fine grain structure toughness + hardness
Structure/property relationship in the material forming processes
Forging
Shaping a metal through use of force
Can be done above recrystallisation temp. (hot forging) or below
(cold forging)
Extrusion
Drop forging technique that uses hydraulic pressure to operate a
hammer that shapes metal
o Dimensional accuracy not good
o Grain flow/direction is major advantage grain flow follows
profile of part, no points of weakness. Contrasting to
machined part where grain flow does not follow profile and
provides points of weakness
Rolling
Metal pressed into shape between rollers
Can be done as hot or cold rolling
Cold rolling
o Compressed grains result in specific directional
properties
o High strength
o Grains in material remain stressed
o Increased harness
Hot rolling
o Unstressed finished product
o Easily performed than cold rolling
o Favourable directional grain flow
Casting
Pour molten metal into a mould to form a specific shape
Good dimensional properties close to finished product
Cheap

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Can effect physical properties of metal depending on material

mould is made from
Sand casting
o Mould made form sand
o Chill grains form on surface of metal
o Larger columnar grains form within metal present
weakness in metal allows for metal to shear along the
grain boundaries
Shell moulding
o Form of sand moulding
o High dimensional accuracy
o Fine clean sand with thermosetting binder
Die casting
o Metal forced into mould cavity under pressure
o Excellent surface finish
Centrifugal casting
o Molten metal injected into spinning mould
o Centrifugal force forces molten metal to stick to interior of
the mould
Extrusion
Metal forced through die so it takes shape of the die it passes
Powder forming
Metal power is mixed with other desired materials and put into
mould in room temperature
Mixture is then pressed into mould to form desired shape
Pressure compacts particles together
Pressed item is sintered in controlled atmosphere furnace
Heated to temp. Where atoms are allows to diffuse between
grains, producing uniform grain structure
Used to form brake pads materials with different properties
mixed together to give superior final product
Difficult to produce certain shapes
Non-ferrous metals
Aluminium
Non-corrosive
Lightweight
Good strength to weight ratio
Easily fabricated
Very good electrical conductivity
Ductile
o Aluminium silicon
Good casting properties
More corrosive than pure aluminium
o Aluminium copper
High strength
Good electrical conductivity
More corrosive than pure aluminium
Hard
o Aluminium silicon-magnesium
Medium strength
Weldable
Car doors

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Brass
Alloy of copper and zinc
Corrosion resistance
Cannot spark
Low coefficient of friction

Bronze
Alloy of copper and tin
Excellent corrosion resistance from oxidization
Hard
Brittle
Structure/property relationship
Annealing, strengthening

Ceramics and glasses

Semi-conductors
Operates on the basis of the deficiency/surplus of electrons within a
material
Semi conductors are a unique group of materials that, when
subjected to a certain type of energy (i.e. thermal, electrical), can
act either as conductors or insulators. The properties of these
materials make them highly favourable in the electronics industry.
Diodes
- Form the basis of rectifiers, which allow the conversion of AC power to
DC. Allows an electric current to pass in one direction, while blocking
current in the opposite direction. Rectifiers are used to function battery
charges in most transportation vehicles.
- Used to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers that
can be found in various transportation vehicles such as cars, trains,
aeroplanes and even motorcycles.
- Used to produce light in LEDs (light emitting diode) that can be found
in the instrument panels and consoles of various transportation
vehicles. Also used in some modern day headlamps on vehicles such as
cars and motorcycles.
Transistors
- Enables the amplification of current or voltage, or acts as a switch.
These qualities are present in practically all electronic devices found in
the control systems of transportation vehicles.
- Allows for the miniaturization of electronic components which are
essential in the electrical equipment found in cars, trains and
aeroplanes.
- Featured within microprocessors, located in computing systems such as
GPS devices, speech recognition technology and various on-board
technologies found within modern day cars and aeroplanes.
- Overall, transistors are fundamental components to all electronic
devices. It can be understood that virtually all electronic devices and
equipment found in transportation systems feature transistors.
-

Justify appropriate choices of ceramics and glasses used in

transportation parts and systems
Ceramics car brake pads high heat resistance, durability

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Glasses laminated glass car/train windows for safety reasons

Multi-laminated glass planes - to cope with
pressurised cabin, protect against substances such as
moisture and salts from occurring between glass
layers, safety, strength

Laminating and heat treatment of glass

Heat treatment
Tempered glass - Heat treatment of glass increases
resistance to fracture by creating compressive surface layer
Glass heated to around 650C
Subjected to air quench rapidly cools surface
Cooling surface contracts placed under compression
Laminated glass
Consists of a sandwich of two layers of glass and a polymer
interlayer of PVB joined under heat and pressure

Polymers
- Structure/property relationships and applications
Basic structure consists of molecules composed of repeating
atoms of the same element that are joined together by chains.
The basic unit of any polymer is the carbon atom - forms the
backbone of the polymer chain.
Different polymers with different properties can be produced
when replacing the hydrogen atom with another element.
Thermoplastics - covalent bonds (atoms sharing same electrons
and hence fusing them together) form the polymer chains but
only weak secondary bonds between the chains elastic,
malleable
Thermosets - covalent bonds (atoms sharing same electrons and
hence fusing them together) form both the polymer chains and
secondary bonds between the chains rigid, strong, less elastic
Applications thermoplastics - In transportation systems,
thermoplastics are mainly used as interior components
(dashboards, linings etc.)
Applications thermosets - In transportation systems,
thermosets are mainly used as interior components and textiles,
however in some modern transportation systems composite
thermosets (more than 2 substances combined) can be used to
make exterior parts such as body panels. Exterior components of
boats waterproof, rigid, buoyant, hard, tough
- Engineering textiles
Thermosets act as binder for textiles adds tensile and
compressive strength and durability to textile
- Manufacturing processes for polymer component
Injection moulding - plastic is heated from granular form and
melted into resin form and then injected through a die by way of
a ram into a cavity or cast usually thermoplastics

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Extrusion - plastic is heated from granular form and melted into

resin form and then injected through a die by way of a ram onto
a conveyer belt to cool
Compression moulding in granular form, plastic is placed in
mould where heat and pressure is applied to melt the plastic
allowing it to flow within cavities used for thermosets

Engineering electricity/electronics
Power generation/distribution
Power generation
To produce electricity and power, generators are used to convert the mechanical
energy of rotation into electrical energy. In Australia, electricity can be produced
in a number of ways that include:
-

Steam
Takes place in a coal fire power station
This production process includes burning finely crushed coal in a furnace.
The heat generated from this heating process is used boil pure fresh
water, which produces high pressure steam and turns a series of turbines
that are connected to generators.
The steam used to rotate the turbines can reach 540C
Steam pressure turns the generator shaft at up to 50rps (=50hz AC
frequency in domestic power supply)
Advantages: coal is an abundant, relatively cheap and an easily
transportable substance. Production process re-uses the steam (or rather
the water that is boiled)
Disadvantages: mining the coal damages the environment greatly, burning
the coal produces polluting gases (i.e. sulphur dioxide), releases mass
amounts of greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming
Hydro-electric
Involves harnessing the potential energy of dammed water by allowing the
water to run through a water turbine and generator.
Advantages: does not produce atmospheric pollution, renewable energy
source (sources that are naturally replenished)
Disadvantages: expensive production method (i.e. erecting infrastructure),
affects surrounding environment, only possible in particular areas (such as
mountainous regions)
Wind
Involves using the wind to turn large blades which turn turbines connected
to generators.
Advantages: does not produce atmospheric pollution, renewable energy
source (sources that are naturally replenished)
Disadvantages: high initial costs (to erect infrastructure), to produce high
amounts of electricity; a lot of wind turbines are needed, consumes large
amounts of land.

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Nuclear Power
Involves using the heat from a nuclear reaction to drive a steam turbine.
The turbine connects to a generator that is spun, producing electricity.
Advantages: efficient production method, doesnt contribute to global
warming
Disadvantages: produces very harmful by-products to the environment,
nuclear waste disposal is an issue.

Power distribution
From the generation of electricity at a large scale, a number of processes occur
during the distribution to the consumer to provide safe and manageable
amounts. These processes include:

20 kV
supply

(district
transform
er
station)

(Local
transform
er
station)

66 kV
(substatio
n)
Industry

132 kV

Industry

(generat
ing
station)

500 kV

11 kV
(Pole or
undegrou
nd
transform
er

415/24
0 kV
(Consum
er)

The transmission lines used for distribution consist of high-tension galvanised

steel core aluminium cables. The steel core adds for better support and strength
of the wires, with aluminium more favourable over copper for its high
conductivity and low density.

AC/DC Circuits
-

AC
AC (alternating current) is where they electrons oscillate back and forth in
the circuit meaning the current direction alternates
The rate of oscillation is called the frequency

The current from the power outlet in a domestic home has a

frequency of 50hz (changes directions 50 times per second or 3000
times per minute (rpm))
DC
DC (direct current) always flows in the same direction (put in AC
terms: a current with 0hz)
DC power mainly comes from a battery
DC is used in applications where we need to control the speed of
electric motors e.g. electric trains

Single phase and three phase system

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Single phase
-

The distribution of AC in which the power supply varies over time (i.e. at
some instances power is at max and other instances it is at 0)
Has an average output of 50%
Does not produce a consistent power output, instead has power lapses
(when the current is alternating)
Used when loads are most likely heating, and not heavy loads such as
machinery and electric motors etc.
Ideal for residential consumers and not the industry
Common in rural areas
Three phase

Makes use of three wires to deliver three independent alternating

electrical currents at different time intervals
Removes any moment of 0 power and maintains max power average
(100%) rather than the average of 50%
Produces a stable flow of electricity
Desirable for electric motors as a magnetic field can be more effectively
produced and maintained as oppose to single-phase
Can still power a single phase circuit
Used in the industry

Rectification
-

Rectification is the process of converting AC to DC

Rectification is achieved with the use diodes, which allows for only certain
waveforms to pass through, blocking the others (i.e. allowing positive, but
blocking negative)
Half wave rectification is achieved with one diode in a circuit and blocks
current flowing in one direction, so only the negative waveform direction is
blocked.
Full wave rectification is achieved with four diodes, which allows the entire
wave to pass through but only on the positive side. This produces a
varying DC current.

Michael McElroy
-

Year 12 Engineering Studies

The varying DC produced by these rectifiers does not produce true DC

current and is not ideal for most DC equipment. However, adding a
capacitor to the circuit will get a better waveform.
The capacitor stores energy that can be used when the wave form reduces
in voltage, resulting in a nearly flat waveform with the capacitor
smoothing out the troughs.
When the potential (voltage) falls at any time during the propagation, the
capacitor releases a charge that causes the voltage to rise again.

Electric motors used in transport systems

Principles

DC electric motor
A DC electric motor works by passing a DC electric current through the
rotor (coils) that produces a magnetic field. When this rotor is placed
within an external magnetic field, the magnetic field from the rotor
interacts with the external magnetic field, causing either a force of
repulsion or a force of attraction on the rotor, causing it to rotate. This
rotation is known as torque. To maintain this torque and produce constant
rotation, a commutator is used to change the current supply into the rotor
after every half turn. This changing current will in turn produce a changing
magnetic field from the rotor and alternate its polarity. This reversed
magnetic field will ultimately change the forces produced due to the field
interactions and cause constant rotation (when this process is repeated).

AC electric motor
An AC electric motor works on the same principle as a DC electric motor,
in that current through the rotor causes rotation when in an external
magnetic field, however in this case an AC electric currant is provided as
oppose to DC. The supply of an AC electric current into the rotor means
that the current will already be alternating, therefore eliminating the need
for a commutator. The input of AC will cause for the current through the
rotor to alternate at 50 times per second and therefore causing the
magnetic field produced by the rotor to alternate also. This changing
current and magnetic field means that constant torque and rotation is
produced.

Induction motor

Michael McElroy

Year 12 Engineering Studies

Induction motors are the most popular type of AC motors. The

principle behind the AC induction motor is in the opposite to the
generic AC motor (torque is caused from alternating current passing
through rotor in a stationary magnetic field) in that is consists of a
rotating magnetic field that exerts a torque on a stationary coil. In
an induction motor, electromagnets in the stator produce a
changing magnetic field (from the AC current, the oscillation of the
current will cause the electromagnets to change polarities) that
induces an electric current within the rotor (from electromagnetic
induction). This induced current within the rotor will in turn produce
its own magnetic field. The interaction between the two magnetic
fields will cause the rotor to rotate. When the electromagnets in the
stator are connected in single phase, the rotors initial torque is low.
Three phase on the other hand produces a much better torque due
to the timing of the three electromagnets. In three phase, the stator
simulates rotation because the rapid switching of current through
the magnets one after the other simulates motion of one pair of
magnets spinning. This ultimately increases the rate of change of
magnetic flux in the motor and increases the induced current within
the rotor.