Problems

2.4 ?? The origin of the quadratic drag force on any projectile in a fluid is the inertia of the fluid that the projectile
sweeps up. (a) Assuming the projectile has a cross-sectional area A (normal to its velocity) and speed v, and
that the density of the fluid is %, show that the rate at which the projectile encounters the fluid (mass/time) is
%Av. (b) Making the simplifying assumption that all of the fluid is accelerated to the speed v of the projectile,
show that the net drag force on the projectile is %Av 2 . It is certainly not true that all the fluid that the
projectile encounters is accelerated to the full speed v, but one might guess that the actual force would have
the form
fquad = %Av 2
(2.84)
where is a number less than 1, which would depend on the shape of the projectile, with small for a streamlined body, and larger for a body with a flat front end. This proves to be true, and for a sphere the factor
is found to be = 1/4. (c) Show that (2.84) reproduces the form (2.3) for fquad , with c given by (2.4) as
c = D2 . Given that the density of air at STP is % = 1.29 kg/m3 and that = 1/4 for a sphere, verify the
value of given in (2.6).
Solution:
First lets write down what (2.3), (2.4), and (2.6) are from the text. They are
fquad = cv 2
c = D

(2.3)
2

(2.4)
2

= 0.25 N s /m

(2.6)

(a) First lets determine the volume swept by the projectile in a time dt. The volume dV swept in a time dt
is given by
dV = Avdt.

Figure 1: An object of cross sectional area A will sweep out a volume dV equal to vdt.
With the the volume dV and the density % we can find the mass of the fluid being swept given by
dm = %dV = %Avdt.
Now if we divide by dt we get
dm
= %Av
dt
which is the rate at which the projectile encounters the fluid.
(b) From Newtons second law, we know that
dp
dt
d[mv]
=
dt
dv
dm
=v
+m .
dt
dt

f=

Since we are assuming the fluid is accelerated to speed v, we find the

fquad = v
Substituting

dm
dt

dm
.
dt

we get
fquad = %Av 2 .
1

dv
dt

= 0 so we are left with

(c) If we rewrite (2.84) in the form of (2.4), we find that

fquad = %Av 2 = cv 2 .
Therefore, we can easily see that
c = %A = D2 .
For a spherical projectile, this expression can be simplified to
%(r2 ) = D2
 2
D
= D2
%
2
where r is the radius of the projectile. Now solving for gives
=

%.
4

For air and a sphere,

1
4
% = 1.29 kg/m3

= 1.29 N s2 /m4 .
Substituting these values in, we get
= 0.253 N s2 /m4
which matches (2.6).
2.10 ?? For a steel ball bearing (diameter 2 mm and density 7.8 g/cm3 ) dropped in glycerin (density 1.3 g/cm3 and
viscosity 12 Ns/m2 at STP), the dominant drag force is the linear drag given by (2.82) of Problem 2.2. (a)
Find the characteristic time and the terminal speed vter . [In finding the latter, you should include the buoyant force of archimedes. This just adds a third force on the right side of Equation (2.25).] How long after it
is dropped from rest will the ball bearing have reached 95% of its terminal speed? (b) Use (2.82) and (2.84)
(with = 1/4 since the ball bearing is a sphere) to compute the ratio fquad /flin at the terminal speed. Was it
a good approximation to neglect fquad ?
Solution:

First lets identify (2.82) and (2.84) from the text which are
flin = 3Dv
fquad = %Av
as found in the text.

(2.82)
(2.84)

(a) Since all of the motion occurs in the vertical direction, we only need to consider the y-component. From
Newtons second law we see that
mv y = Fy
= mg flin fbuoyant
= mg bvy %g V g
3

= mg bvy %
= mg bvy

1
D
2

3 !

%g D 3 g
6

Simplifying further, we finally get

v y =

b
m


vy

mg %g D3 g
+
b
6b

Therefore the terminal speed vter is

mg %g D3 g

b
6b
where %g is the density of glycerin. If we let = m/b and substitute for vter , we get
vter =

1
v y = (vy vter ).

Now id we separate the differential equation and integrate both sides, we find the velocity to be
Z vyf
Z
dv 0
1 t 0
=
dt
0
0
vy0 v vter


vyf vter
t
ln
=
vy0 vter

vyf vter = (vy0 vter )et/ .

Therefore, we get


vyf (t) = vy0 et/ + vter 1 et/ .
The mass m of the steal ball bearing is given by
m = %s V
= %s
=

1
D
2

3 !

%s D3 ,
6

where V is the volume of the steel ball, %s is the density of steel, and D is the diameter of the steel ball.
We also know that the linear drag coefficient b is given by
b = 3D
where is the viscosity of the medium (glycerin for this problem). This means the characteristic time
becomes
m
=
b
%s D3
=
.
18D
So finally we get
=
3

%s D 2
.
18

Similarly, the terminal speed vter becomes

mg %g D3 g

b
6b
%s D3 g %g D3 g

.
=
18D
18D

vter =

Simplifying the expression, we get

vter =

gD3
(%s %g )
18

where %g is the density of glycerin and is the viscosity of glycerin. If we substitute the values
%s = 7.8 g/cm

%g = 1.3 g/cm

D = 2 mm
= 12 N s/m

we find that the characteristic time and the terminal speed vter are
= 1.44 104 s
vter = 1.18 103 m/s.
If the steel ball bearing is initially dropped from rest (vy0 = 0 m/s), the velocity equation becomes


vyf (t) = vter 1 et/ .
The time it takes to reach 0.95vter is given by
0.95vter = vter (1 et/ )
0.05 = et/
t = ln(20)


= 1.44 104 s ln(20).
This gives us a time of
t = 4.31 104 s.
(b) The ratio of fquad /flin is given by
fquad
%g Av 2
=
flin
3Dv
%g D2 v 2
=
12Dv
%g Dv
=
.
12
If we use the terminal speed vter , we find that
fquad
%g D3 g
=
(%s %g ).
flin
216 2
Substituting in the values, we get
fquad
= 5.33 106 .
flin
Since 5.33 106  1, it was appropriate to ignore fquad .

2.16 ? A golfer hits his ball with a speed v0 at an angle above the horizontal ground. Assuming that the angle is
fixed and that the air resistance can be neglected, what is the minimum speed v0 (min) for which the ball will
clear a wall of height h, a distance d away? Your solution should get into trouble if the angle is such that
tan < h/d. Explain. What is v0 (min) if = 25 , d = 50 m, and h = 2 m?
Solution:

If we neglect air resistance, we can use the typical kinematic equations.

y-component:

x-component:

1
yf = y0 + vy0 t + ay t2
2
1
= v0 sin()t gt2
2

1
xf = x0 + vx0 t + ax t2
2
= v0 cos()t

Substitute for t at yf = h.

Solve for t at xf = d.


2
d
1
h = d tan() g
2
v0 cos()
Solve for v0

2
d
1
g
= d tan() h
2
v0 cos()

2
d
2(d tan() h)
=
v0 cos()
g

2
v0 cos()
g
=
d
2(d tan() h)
gd2
v02 =
2 cos2 ()(d tan() h)

d = v0 cos()t
d
t=
v0 cos()

Therefore the minimum speed v0 is

s
v0 =

gd2
2 cos2 ()(d tan() h)

if tan() >

h
.
d

The above condition must be true for the radical to give a real result. Physically if this condition is not satisfied,
then there is no speed at which the golf ball will clear the wall.
For the conditions = 25 , d = 50 m, and h = 2 m, the minimum speed necessary is
v0 = 26.5 m/s.

2.20 ?? [Computer] Use suitable graph-plotting software to plot graphs of the trajectory (2.36) of a projectile thrown
at 45 above the horizontal and subject to linear air resistance for four different values of the drag coefficient, ranging from a significant amount of drag to no drag at all. Put all four trajectories on the same plot.
5

[Hint: In the absence of any given numbers, you may as well choose convenient values. For example, why
not take vx = vy = 1 and g = 1. (This amounts to choosing your units of length and time so that these
parameters have the value of 1.) With these choices, the strength of the drag is given by the one parameter
vter = , and you might choose to plot the trajectories for vter = 0.3, 1, 3, and (that is, no drag at all), and
for times from t = 0 to 3, For the case the vter = , youll probably want to write out the trajectory separately.]
Solution:
If we look at Figure 2, we see that the trajectories with the largest terminal speeds(lowest drag coefficient),
have the largest range.

Trajectories for Various Air Resistances

T0
T1
T2
Tvac

Figure 2: A plot for four trajectories subject to different linear air resistances. The trajectories T , can be identified
by their relative terminal speeds given by v0 = 0.5, v1 = 1, v2 = 3, and vvac = for the trajectories T0 , T1 , T2 , and
Tvac respectively.
2.23 ? Find the terminal speeds in air of (a) a steel ball bearing of diameter 3 mm, (b) a 16-pound steel shot, and
(c) a 200-pound parachutist in free fall in the fetal position. In all three cases, you can safely assume the drag
force is purely quadratic. The density of steel is about 8 g/cm3 and you can treat the parachutist as a sphere
of density 1 g/cm3 .
Solution:
The terminal speed vter for quadratic drag is given by
r
vter =

mg
b

where c = D2 and = 0.25 N s2 /m4 for a spherical projectile in air at STP.

(a) For a steel ball bearing of diameter 3 mm, the terminal speed is given by
s
%s V g
vter =
D2
s
4%s D3 g
=
24D2
s
%s Dg
=
6
3

where %s = 8 g/cm is the density of steel, D = 2 mm is the diameter of the steel ball bearing, and V is
the volume of the steel ball bearing. Substituting these values in gives us
vter = 22.2 m/s
(b) The diameter of the 16-pound steel shot can be found by
Weight(W ) = %s V g

3
4
1
=
D %s g
3
2

= %s D 3 g
6
6W
D3 =
%s g

1/3
6W
D=
.
%s g
Therefore the terminal speed gives us
s
vter =

W
D2

 % g 1/3
s
=
6W

W
.

The conversion for pounds to newtons gives us 16 lbs=71.17 N. Substituting these values in gives us
vter = 140.4 m/s.
3

(c) Similarly for the 200 pound(889.6 N) parachutist of density % = 1 g/cm ,

vter = 107 m/s.
2.24 ? Consider a sphere (diameter D, density %sph ) falling through the air (density %air ) and assume that the drag
force is purely quadratic. (a) Use Equation (2.84) from Problem 2.4 (with = 1/4 for a sphere) to show that
the terminal speed is
r
8
%sph
vter =
Dg
.
(2.88)
3
%air
(b) Use this result to show that of two spheres of the same size, the denser one will eventually fall faster. (c)
For two spheres of the same material, show that the larger will eventually fall faster.

Solution:

(a) From Newtons Second Law

mv =

1
= mg %air Av 2 .
4
The terminal speed vter is given by
1
0 = mg %air Av 2
4
4mg
2
vter =
.
%air A
For a sphere, we can write the volume V as
V =
=
=
=
=


3
4
1

D
3
2
3
D
6
1
DD2
6

2
2
1 2
D
D
3
2
2
DA.
3

The mass m of the sphere can be given as

m = %sph V
2
= %sph DA.
3
Substituting these two equations into the velocity equation gives
2
vter
=

8%sph DAg
.
3%air A

Simplifying the expression, we get

r
vter =

8
%sph
Dg
.
3
%air

(b) If we look at the ratio of two spheres (1 and 2)

%sph1
8
3 Dg %air
%sph2
8
3 Dg %air

%sph1
=
%sph2

2
vter1
.
vter2

Assuming each sphere is the same size but different densities, these ratios show that if the ration of
2
2
%sph1 /%sph2 > 1, which means %sph1 > %sph2 , then vter1
> vter2
, or in other words, the terminal speed of
the denser sphere is larger than the other sphere.
(c) Similarly if we look at the ratio for spheres of different sizes,
D1
=
D2

%sph
8
3 D1 g %air
%sph
8
3 D2 g %air

2
vter1
.
vter2

Assuming the density of each sphere is the same, if D1 /D2 > 1, then sphere 1 is larger than sphere 2
which also means vters > vter2 . So in other words, the larger sphere will have a larger terminal speed.