A Guidebook To Mechanism in Organic Chemistry

A Guidebook to
Mechanism in
Organic Chemistry
PETER SYKES
In this new edition several additional topics, for example the
nitrosation of amines, diazo-coupling, ester formation and
hydrolysis, anti decarboxylation, are included and many
sections of the previous edition have been rewritten in whole
or in part to clarify the argument.
v,
Some press opinions of the first edition:
<
'The Guidebt^ ' a pleasure to read and at use . . . for it is
\t$&1l& language, the prifttiug is good, with a
j..tietiV type of emphasis where necessary,'and

. >. Excellent. . . . In short, Dr Sykes has written
^ which can be strongly recommended to
:ent alike.'
Cambridge Review
t
'First year ci*>- iistry undergraduates should be dancing in the

sue?-' for joy v. the news of this publication. . . ."The book
is >.. ;.fvlly produced and should bring home to many people
that orjiiiic Chemistry is not an over-complicated form of
cooker .'. Peter Sykes has done a really valuable job.'
'Dr Sykes has achieved the remarkable feat of perfu

presentation of a subject not usually in a form easily as
to the student. The reproduction of fonftulae is sple
the general presentation admirable to a icgrec. No
is felt, therefore, in unreservedly r e c o m p i l i n g this
^-"hnical Journal
final B.Sc. or Dip.Tech. students.'
LONGNMS
\A Guidebook to Mechanism
I in Organic Chemistry
L O N G M A N S
L O N G M A N S , G R E E N A N D CO L T D
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SECOND
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FIRST
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THIRD
1965
1961
1962
1962*
1^8**.
IMj{
SECOND
SECOND
1961
SYKES
IMPRESSION
IMPRESSION
FOURTH
FIFTH
PETER
PUBLISHED
SECOND
THIRD
SYKES
EDITION
1965
IMPRESSI0^186
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\
C O N T E N T S
PAGE
Forewool by ProfessorJLord Todd, F.R.S.
ix
Preface to Second.Edition
xi
~.
Structure, Reactivity arid Mechanism .
The Strengths rtfcXtids and Bases
^^ldcQpfaYic
. 3 8
S u b s t i t u t i o n , - ^ d ^ a t u r a t e d Carbon A t o m .
58
4 , Carbonium Ions, Electro^-JDeficient Nitrogen and Oxygen

Atoms and their Reactions ?
80
Electrophilic and Nucleophilic Substitution in Aromatic

Systems .
. ^H.
.
.
.
.
. 1 0 1
6 ^-Addition, to Carbon-Carbon Double Bonds
137
CÂSdition' to Carbon-Oxygen Double Bonds
158
8'''Elimination Reactions
9
Carbanions and their Reactions.
189
.
10 ^RacJ-icals and their Reactions
210
231
Select g?6liography.
261
D
Index
263
'
FOREWORD
T H E great-dêlopment of*the theory of organic chemistry or more
particularly-of our understanding of the mechanism of the reactions
oêarbori compounds, which h?" ccurred during the past thirty
^years or soVhas wrought a vast change in outlook over the whole of
the science. A t one time organic <$iemistry appeared t o the student as
a vast body of facts,, often apparently unconnected, which simply had
to be learnt, but the iaVte recent developments in theory have changed
alltjjfe so that organic chemistrjys^now a much more ordered body
ofknowledgei in which a logical pattern can be clearly seen. Naturally
enough during the long periodôf development from the initial ideas
of Lapworth a n d Robinson organic chemical theory has undergone
continuous modification a n d it is only in comparatively recent times
that it has become of such evident generality (although doubtless
still far from finality) that its value and importance t o the under
graduate student has b e c \ m e fully realised. As a result the teaching
o f ^ a n i c chemistry has been, t o some extent, in a state of flux a n d a
variety o f experiments have been made a n d a substantial number of
B r o k s p r o d u c e d setting out different approaches to it. While it is the
writer's opinion that it is unsatisfactory to teach first the main
factual part of the subject and subsequently t o introduce the theory
of reaction mechanism, he is equally convinced that at the present
time it is quite impracticable t o concentrate almost entirely on theory
and virtually to ignore the factual "part of the subject. Organic
chemjpal theory has n o t yet reached a level at which it permits
prediction with any certainty of the precise behaviour of many
members of the more complex carbon compounds which are of
everyday occurrence in the practice of the science. Sound theory is
vital t o the well-being of organic chemistry; but organic chemistry
remains essentially an experimental science.
In Cambridge we are seeking the middle way, endeavouring t o
build u p both aspects of the subject in concert so that there is a
ix
Foreword
minimum of separation between fact and theory. T o achieve this the
student is introduced at an early stage to the theoretical principles
involved and to the essential reaction mechanisms illusfated by a
modest number of representative examples. With this approach is
coupled a more factual treatment covering the chemistry of the
major groups of carbon compounds. D r . Sykes [who has been
intimately associated with this approach} has now written this
aptly-named ' G u i d e b o o k ' to reaction mechanism which sets out in
an admirably lucid way what the student requiresras a complement
to his factual reading. I warmly commefld it as a bopjp,which will
enable students to rationalise many of fllrfacts of organic chemistry,
to appreciate the logic of the subject and in so doing to minimiseshe
memory work involved in mastering it. *
^
A.
26th April, 1961.
;
>
'
R.
TODD.
\
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
I N preparing this second edition I have been most anxious that it
should not-increase, markedly in size (or price!) for I feel sure that
wjjat utility the b o o k has-been found to possess stems in n o small
part from its being short in"length (and cheap in price!). I have, there
fore, added only those topics wjjich are generally felt to be vital
omissions, e.g. nitrpsation of amines, diazo-coupling, ester formation
and hydrolysis, decarboxylation, etc., but I have also sought to
eliminate errors and to clarify t h j ^ r g u m e n t throughout, which has
i n v o l v e d rewriting many of the sections in whole o r in part.
M a n y readers have been kind enough to write to me and I have
where possible adopted their s u g g e s t i o n s ; in this connection I owe a
particular debt to Professor D r . W . Liittke of Gottingen and Dr. P.
Hocks o f Berlin, the translators of the G e r m a n edition. M r . G. M.
Clarke a n d D r . D . H . Marrian of this University have kindly read t h e
proofs of this second edi^pn and they t o o have made valuable suggest i q ^ f o r which I a m most grateful.
Cambridge,
PETER SYKES.
Affil 1964.
,
PREFACE
T H E last twenty-five years have seen an enormous increase in our

knowledge of {he reactions of organic compounds and, in particular,
of the actual detailed pathway o r mechanism by which these reactions
take place. This understanding has largely come about from the
application of electronic theoriesso successful in other fieldsto
organic chemistry, and has resulted not only in an extremely valuable
systematisation and explanation of the vast, disparate mass of
existing facts, but has also m a d e it possible t o specify, in advance, the
conditions necessary for the successful carrying out of many new and
useful procedures.
c
xi
Preface
The new approach avoids the learning of vast masses of apparently

unconnected factswhich has been the characteristic of organic
chemistry in the pastand helps a n d encourages the Jhemist t o
think for himself: far from requiring a chemist t o knew more, it
enables him to make infinitely better use of what he already does
know. It marks the greater effectiveness of really understanding the
underlying principles rather than merely knowing by rote. A t the
same time it is well t o emphasise that the complexity of organic
compounds in general is such that the rigorous application of
quantum-mechanical principles to them k impossible. Assumptions
and approximations have t o be made*before useful generalisations
can be worked out a n d it is at this point that there is particular ne^d
for strictly chemical skill and insight: the-day of organic chemistry
from the armchair is far from being with us yet!
This new a n d effective way of thinking about organic chemistry
has been the subject of several large monographs but a smaller,
compact book is still required thaUntroduces the essentials, t h ^ e r y
vocabulary of the subject, t o t h e scholarship candidate, to^Hfe
beginning undergraduate and technical college student, and t o the
chemist whose professional education 1ias been along strictly classical
lines. T h a t is the aim of this book, which h a s grown o u t of the
author's lecture courses at Cambridge and his many years spent in
supervising undergraduates.
T h e minimum of space h a s p u r p o s e l ^ b e e n spent o n valency
theory as such for not only is that adequately treated elsewhere^fcut
the student's real need is t o gain as much experience as possible in
seeing how theoretical ideas work o u t in practice: in explainingfthe
course taken by actual reactions. Thus the first chapter is intended t o
give a succinct statement of the basic principles employed a n d the
rest of the book shows how they work out in explaining the variation
of reactivity with structure, the occurrence of three main classes of
reagentelectrophiles, nucleophiles and radicalsand their be
haviour in the fundamental reactions of organic chemisjxy
substitution, addition, elimination and rearrangement. In all cases,
the examples chosen as illustrations have been kept as simple as
possible so that the essential features of the process are n o t confused
by extraneous and inessential detail.
Detailed references to the original literature are not included as
the author's experience leads him t o believe that in a book of such a
size and scope the limited space available can be better employed. A
xii
0
Preface
select bibliography is, however, included in which the student's

attention is drawn to larger sources of information t o which he can
now progiess and reference is made t o the particular virtues of a
number o f t h e sources quoted.
I a m most grateful t o my mentor of many years, Professor Sir
Alexander Todd, for his Foreword and t o my colleagues Dr. J. Biggs
(now of the University of Hull), D r . V. M . Clark, Dr. A. R. Katritzky,
Dr. D . H . Marrian and to my wife, who have read the manuscript in
whole o r in part a n d made very many useful suggestions. I should
also like t o express my gratitude t o the Rockefeller Foundation for
a grant whicn enabled m e , J p . 1959, t o visit the United States a n d
stay at Harvard University! Northwestern University, the University
of Illinois, Oberlin College and the Georgia Institute of Technology
to study the teaching of mechanistic organic chemistry t o under
graduates a n d graduate students. Many interesting discussions,
particularly with Pressors F . G. Bordwell, Nelson J. Leonard a n d
J a c k H i n e , influenced a number of the ideas developed in this book.
M^mdebtedhess t o the original literature and t o other publications,
in particular Ingold's Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry,
Gould's Mechanism and Struclttrf in Organic Chemistry, Alexander's
Ionic Organic Reactions and Hine's Physical Organic Chemistry will
be apparent t o many who read here. Finally I should like t o express
my deep appreciation t o Longmans, and t o the printers for ttie'ir
unfailing patience and f^j the extreme trouble t o which they have
gojpMo produce that rare phenomenon, structural formulae that
are both clear and aesthetically satisfying.
Cambridge,
PETER SYKES.
April 1961.
t.-
xiii
\
STRUCTURE, REACTIVITY AND
MECHANISM
T H E chief advantage of a mechanistic approach to the vast array of

disparate information that makes up organic chemistry is the way in
which a relttively small muaber of guiding principles can be used,
not only to explain and interrelate existing facts but to forecast the
outcome of changing the conditions under which already known
reactions are carried out and to foretell the products that may be
expected from new ones. It is the business of this chapter to outline
some of these guidingprinciples and to show how they work. As it is
t h e c o m p o u n d s of carbon with which we shall be dealing, something
lflnst first be said about the way in which carbon atoms can form
bonds with other atoms, especially with other carbon atoms.
ATOMIC ORBITALS
The carbon a t o m has, outside its nucleus, six electrons which, offthe
Bohr theory of atomid^tructure, were believed to be arranged in
ojjrits at increasing distance from the nucleus. These orbits repre
sented gradually increasing levels of energy, that of lowest energy, the
Is, accommodating two electrons, the next,, the 2s, also accommodat
ing two electrons, and the remaining two electrons of a carbon atom
going into the 2p level, which is actually capable of accommodating a
total of six electrons.
T h e Heisenberg indeterminacy principle and the wave-mechanical
view o f the electron have made us d o away with anything so precisely
defined as actual orbits, and instead we can now only quote the rela
tive probabilities of finding an electron at various distances from the
nucleus; The classical orbits have, therefore, been replaced by threedimensional orbitals, which can be said to represent the shape and size
of the space around the nucleus in which there is the greatest pro
bability of finding a particular electron: they are, indeed, a sort of
three-dimensional electronic contour. One limitation that theory im
poses on such orbitals is that each may accommodate not more than
Structure,
Reactivity and
Mechanism
two electrons, these electrons being distinguished from each other by

having opposed (' paired') spins.
It can be shown from wave-mechanical calculations ttaat the Is
orbital (corresponding to the classical K shell) is spherically symme
trical about the nucleus and that the 2s orbital is similarly spherically
symmetrical but at a greater distance from the nucleus; there is a
region between the two latter orbitals where the probability of finding
an electron approaches zero (a spherical nodal surface):
spherical nodal surface
3p
qfv^
/ M shell
2s
If.
K shell
}L shell
ggl;
1*
As yet, this m a r k s n o radical departure from the classical picture

of orbits, but with the 2p level (the continuation* of the L shell) a dif
ference becomes apparent. Theory mow requires the existence of tfttg^
2/7 orbitals, all of the same energy and shape, arranged mutually at
right-angles along notional x, y and z ajies and, therefore, designated
as 2p , 2p a n d 2p respectively. Further, these three 2p orbitals are
found t o be not spherically symmetrical, like the Is and 2s, but
* dumb-bell' shaped with a plane, in which there is zero probability
of finding an electron (nodal plane), passing through the nucleus
(at right-angles to the x, y and z axes, respectively) and so separating
the two halves of each dumb-bell:
^
x
plane
2p
2p
'
2p , 2p
Pi
.
and Ip,
combined
We can thus designate the distribution of the six electrons of the

carbon atom, in orbitals, as I s ! ? 2p\2p ; orbitals of equal energy
(e.g., 2p 2p , 2p,) accommodating a single electron, in turn, before
any takes u p a second onethe 2p orbital thus remains unoccupied.
2
Bonding in Carbon
Compounds
The 2s orbital takes u p its full complement of two electrons before

the 2p orbitals begin to be occupied, however, as it is at a slightly
lower e n e ^ y level. This, however, represents the ground state of the
carbon atom in which only two unpaired electrons (in the 2p and
2p orbitals) are available for the formation of bonds with other
atoms, i.e. at first sight carbon might appear t o be only divalent.
It is however energetically worthwhile for the carbon atom to assume
an excited state by uncoupling the 2s electrons and promoting one of
them to the vacant 2p orbital for, by doing so, it now hasfour unpaired
electrons and is thus able to form four, rather than only two, bonds
with other atoms or groups ;14he large amount of energy produced by
forming these two extra bonds considerably outweighs that required
( 9 7 kcal/mole) for the initial 2 uncoupling and 2 5 - > 2 J P promotion.
Carbon in order to exhibit its normal and characteristic quadrivalency
thus assumes the electron distribution, Is 2s 2p\ 2p\ 2p\.
0.
x
HYBRIDATION
Carbon does not, however, exert its quadrivalency by the direct use of
these four orbitals to form t h r i e bonds of one type with the three 2p
orbitals and one of a different nature with the 2s orbital. Calculation
shows that by blending these four orbitals so as t o form four new,
identical and symmetrically disposed orbitals inclined to each other
at 1 0 9 2 8 ' (the normal tetrahedral angle), it is possible to form four
stronger, more stable b o n i s . The observed behaviour of a carbon atom
dm thus again be justified o n energetic grounds. These four new
orbitals are designated as sp hybrids and the process by which they are
obtained as hybridisation:
3
BONDING IN CARBON COMPOUNDS
Bond formation between two atoms is then envisaged as the progres

sive overlapping of the atomic orbitals of the two participating
3
Structure, Reactivity and
Mechanism
atoms, the greater the possible overlapping, the stronger the bond so
formed. When the atoms have come sufficiently close together, it can
be shown that their two atomic orbitals are replaced byfv/o mole
cular orbitals, one having less energy and the other more than the
sum of the energies of the two separate atomic orbitals. These two
new molecular orbitals spread over b o t h atoms and either may con
tain the two electrons. The molecular orbital of reduced energy is
called the bonding orbital and constitutes a stable bond between the
two a t o m s ; the molecular orbital of increased energy is called the
anti-bonding orbital and need not here be further consjdered in the
formation of stable bonds between atdfcs.
In the stable bond so formed the two bonding electrons tend t o be
concentrated along the line joining the nuclei of the two participating
atoms, i.e. the molecular orbital is^said to be localised. Such localised
electrons are often referred to as a electrons and the covalent bond
so formed as a a bond. Thus on combining with hydrogen, the four
hybrid sp atomic orbitals of cajbon overlap with the Is atomic
orbitals of four hydrogen atoms t o form four identical, s t r o n | ,
hybrid sp or a bonds, making angles of 109 28' with each other (the
regular tetrahedral angle), in meth^jfe'.Â similar, exactly regular,
tetrahedral structure will result with, for example, CC1 but with, say,
C H C 1 , though the arrangement will remain tetrahedral, it will
depart very slightly from exact symmetry; the two large chlorine
atoms will take up more room than hydrodSn so that the H C H
and CICCI bond angles will differ slightly from 109 28' ad
from each other.
3
(i) Carbon-carbon single bonds

The combination of two carbon atoms, for example in ethane, results
from the overlap of two sp atomic orbitals, one fromêach carbon
atom, t o form a strong a bond between them. The carbon-carbon
bond length in saturated compounds is found to be pretty constant
1 54 A. We have not, however, defined a unique structure for ethane;
the a bond joining the two carbon atoms is symmetrical about a line
joining the two nuclei, and, theoretically, an infinite variety of differ
ent structures is still possible, denned by the position of the hydrogens
on one carbon atom relative to the position of those on the other. The
two extremes of the possible species are known asjthe eclipsed and
staggered forms; they a n d the infinite variety of structures lying
between them are known as conformations of the ethane molecule.
3
-.' '
Bonding in Carbon
Compounds
Conformations are denned as different arrangements of the same

group of atoms that can be converted into one another without the
breaking
any bonds.
Eclipsed
Staggered
The staggered conformation is likely to be the more stable of

the two for the hydrogen atoms are as far apart as they can get and
any interaction is thus at a minimum, whereas in the eclipsed con
formation they are suffering the maximum of crowding. The long
cherished principle of free rotation about a carbon-carbon single
ttBfici is not contravened, howeve'r, as it has been shown that the
eclipsed and staggered conformations differ by only 3 kcal/mole in
energy content and this is'srffell enough to allow their ready interconversion through the agency of ordinary thermal motions at room
temperature. T h a t such crowding can lead t o a real restriction of
rotation a b o u t a carbon-carbon single bond has been confirmeTP by
the isolation of two forrik of C H B r a - C H B r j , though admittedly only
a ^ l o w temperatures wnere collisions between molecules d o not
provide enough energy to effect the interconversion.
(ii) Carbon-carbon double bonds
In ethylene each carbon atom is bonded to only three other atoms, two
hydrogens and one carbon. Strong a bonds are formed with these
three atoms by the use of three hybrid orbitals derived by hybridising
the Is and, this time, two only of the carbon atom's 2p atomic orbitals
an atom will normally only mobilise as many hybrid orbitals as it has
atoms o r groups t o form strong a bonds with. The resultant sp hybrid
orbitals all lie in the same plane and are inclined at 120 to each other
(plane trigonal orbitals). In forming the molecule of ethylene, two of the
sp orbitals of each carbon atom are seen as overlapping with the Is
orbitals of two hydrogen atoms t o form two strong a C H bonds,
while the third s p orbital of each carbon atom is used to form a strong
a CC bond between them.
2
Structure,
Reactivity
and
Mechanism
This then leaves, on each carbon atom, one unhybridised 2p

atomic orbital at right angles t o the plane containing the carbon and
hydrogen atoms. These two 2p atomic orbitals are parall t o each
other a n d can themselves overlap t o form a molecular orbital, spread
ing over both carbon atoms and situated above and below the plane
containing the two carbon and four hydrogen atoms (dotted lines
indicate bonds to atoms lying behind the plane of the paper and *
to those lying in front of it):
h 4 ~ 1
The electrons occupying this new m o l e c u l a r o r b i t a l ' a r e known as

n electrons and the orbital itself a s o r b i t a l . The new ir bond thfltis
thus formed has the effect of drawing the carbon atoms closer t5gether thus the C = C distance in ethylene is 1 33 A compared with a
CC distance of 1*54 A in ethanglfThe lateral overlap of the p
orbitals that occurs in forming a 7r.bond is less effective than the linear
overlap that occurs in forming a a bond and the former is thus weaker
thaiTthe latter. This is reflected in the fact that the energy of a c a r b o n carbon double bond, though more than ^fat of a single b o n d is,
indeed, less than twice as much. Thus the CC b o n d energy in ethaqp
is 83 kcal/mole, while that of C = C in ethylene is only 143 kcal/mole. The overlap of the two 2p atomic orbitals, and hence the strength of
the n bond, will clearly b e at a maximum when the two carbon and
four hydrogen atoms are exactly coplanar, for it is only in this
position that the p atomic orbitals are exactly parallel t o each other
and thus capable of the maximum overlapping. A n y disturbance of
this coplanar state by twisting about the a bond joining the two
carbon atoms would lead t o reduction in w overlapping a n d hence a
decrease in the strength of the ir b o n d : it will thus be resisted. A
theoretical justification is thus provided for the long observed
resistance to rotation about a carbon-carbon double bond. The
distribution of the IT electrons in two layers^ above and below the
plane of the molecule, and extending beyond the carbon-carbon
bond axis means that a region of negative charge is effectively waiting
there to welcome any electron-seeking reagents (e.g. oxidising agents),
6
r
Bonding in Carbon
Compounds
so that it comes as n o surprise to realise that the characteristic reac

tions of a carbon-carbon double bond are predominantly with such
reagents ( y . p . 137). Here the classical picture of a double bond has
been superseded by a view in which the two bonds joining the carbon
atoms, far from being identical, are believed t o be different in nature,
strength and position.
(iii) Carbon-carbon triple bonds
In acetylene each carbon atom is bonded to only two other atoms, one
hydrogen a ^ one carbon. Strong a bonds are formed with these two
atoms by the use of two hybrid orbitals derived by hybridising the 2s
and, this time, one only of the carbon atom's 2p orbitals. The resultant
sp hybrid orbitals are co-linear. Thus, in forming the molecule of
acetylene, these hybrid orbitals ore used to form strong a bonds
between each carbon atom and one hydrogen atom and between the
two carbon atoms themselves, resulting in a linear molecule having
fttffunhvbridised 2p atomic orbitals, at right angles to each other, on
each of the two carbon atoms. The atomic orbitals on one carbon a t o m
are parallel to those on the othgr and can thus overlap with each other
resulting in the formation of tw it bonds in planes at right angles to
each other:
1
The acetylene molecule is thus effectively sheathed in a cylinder of

negative charge. The C = C bond energy is 194 kcal/mole, so that the
increment due to the third bond is less than that occurring o n going
from a single to a double bond. The C = C bond distance is 1 -20 A
so that the carbon atoms have been drawn still further together, but
here again the decrement on going C = C ->-C=C is smaller than that
on going C C - - C = C .
(iv) Conjugated dienes, etc.
An explanation in similar terms can be adduced for the differences in
behaviour between dienes (and also in compounds containing more
than two double bonds) in which the double bonds are conjugated (I)
and those in which they are isolated (II):
Mechanism
Me-CHCHCHCH
>
Me-CJ|^CHCgpgH*
(I)
CHr-CHCHj-CHCH
-*
CHs-CH CHs-CHCH
In either case, overlapping of the p atomic orbitals on adjacent carbon

atoms can lead to the formation of two localised n bonds as shown,
and the compounds would be expected t o behave like ethylene, only
twice as it were! This adequately represents the observed behaviour
of (II) but not of the conjugated compound (I). On looking more
closely at (I), however, it is realised that interaction is also possible
between the p atomic orbitals of titk two centre carbon atoms ojNhe
conjugated system, as well as between each of these and the p orbitals
on the outside carbon atoms of the sjetem. An alternative formula
tion is thus a 7r orbital covering all four carbon atoms (III)
Me - C H C H C H C H .
CH^CHCH=CH
(rv)
(ni)
CHf-CH-CHCH,
^ ^ ^ ^ g s s a a >
,
(V)
%
in which the electrons are said to be delocalised as they are now spread
over, and are held in common by, the whole of the conjugated
system. There will, of course, need to be two such delocalised orbitals
as n o orbital can contain more than two electrons and four electrons
are here involved. The result is a region of negative charge above and
below the plane containing all the atoms in the molecule.
The better description that this view affords of the properties of
conjugated dienes including the possibility of adding, for example,
bromine to the ends of the system (1:4-addition) rather than merely
to one of a pair of double bonds (l':2-addition) is discussed below
(p. 150).
Bonding in Carbon
Compounds
It should, perhaps, be mentioned that such delocalisation can only

occur when all the atoms in the diene are essentially in the same plane.
F o r in other positions, (e.g. XIV, p . 13), possible owing to rotation
a b o u t the central CC bond, the n atomic orbitals o n carbon atoms
2 and 3 would' not be parallel and could thus not overlap at all
effectively. The effect of the delocalisation that actually takes place is
thus to impose considerable restriction on rotation about the central
CC bond, observed as a preferred orientation of the compound.
(v) Benzene and aromaticiry
A somewhat similar state oNTffairs occurs with benzene. The known
planar structure of the molecule implies sp hybridisation, with p
atomic orbitals, a t right angles t o the plane of the nucleus, on each of
the six carbon atoms (VI):
(VIII)
&*
(VI)
(V
Overlapping could, of co%rse, take place 1:2, 3:4, 5:6, or 1:6, 5:4,
3 d ? leading t o formulations corresponding t o the Kekule structures
(e.g. VII) but,, in fact, delocalisation takes place as with butadiene,
though to a very much greater extent, leading to a cyclic tr orbital
embracing all six carbon atoms of the ring. Other orbitals in addition
to the above are required to accommodate the total of six electrons
(cf. p . 1), but the net result is annular rings of negative charge above
and below the plane of the nucleus (VIII).
Support for this view is provided by the fact that all the c a r b o n carbon bond lengths in benzene are the same, i.e. all the bonds are of
exactly the same character, all being somewhere in between double
and single bonds as is revealed by their length, 1 39 A. The degree of
'multiplicity' of a bond is usually expressed as the bond order, which
is one for a single, two for a double and three for a triple bond. The
relation between bond order and bond length is exemplified by a
curve of the type
9
Mechanism
1-20
Bond Order
but it will be seen that the relationship is not a linear one and that
the bonds in benzene are not midway between double and single bonds
in length. The influence of the layer of negative Charge on the type of
reagents that will attack benzene fi discussed below (p. 101).
The relative unreactivity of benzene, as compared with the highly
unsaturated system implied in its usual representation and actually
observed in a non-cyclic conjugated triene, arises from the stability
conferred by the cyclic delocalisation of the IT electrons over the six
carbon atoms coupled with the fact tfeat the angle between the plane
trigonal a bonds is at its optimum vafUe of 120. The stability conferred
by such cyclic delocalisation also explains why the characteristic
r e g i o n s of aromatic systems are substitutions rather than- the
addition reactions that might, from the classical Kekule structures,
be expected and which are indeed realised with non-cyclic conjugated
trienes. F o r addition would lead t o a product in which delocalisatifea,
though still possible, could now involve only four carbon atoms and
would have lost its characteristic cyclic character (IX; cf. butadiene),
whereas substitution results in the retention of delocalisation essen
tially similar to that in benzene with all that it implies (X):
Br,
Br,
Addition
(IX)
: +HBr
Substitution
(XI)
(X)
* This symboi has, where appropriate, been used to represent the benzene
nucleus as it conveys an excellent impression of the closed, delocalised orbitals
from which its characteristic aromaticity stems.
10
Bonding in Carbon
Compounds
In other words, substitution can take place with overall retention of

aromaticity, addition cannot (cf p . 102).
A rough estimate of the stabilisation conferred on benzene by
delocalisation of its n electrons can be obtained by comparing its
heat of hydrogenation with that of cyclohexene:
I^J|
+H
+3H
-*
+28-8 kcal/mole
-j0
+49-8 kcal/mole
The heat of hydrogenation of three isolated double bonds (i.e.

bonds between which there is n o interaction) in such a cyclic system
would thus b e 2 8 - 8 x 3 = 86-4 kcal/mole. But when benzene is
hydrogenated only 49*8 kcal/mole are actually evolved. Thus the
infraction of the IT electrons in beazene may be said to result in the
molecule being stabler by 36-6 kcal/mole than if n o such interaction
took place (the stabilisation ârising from similar interaction in
conjugated dienes is only 6 Real/mole, hence the preference of
benzene for substitution rather than addition reactions, cf. p . 102).
This amount by which benzene is stabilised is referred to ae*he
delocalisation energy or, more commonly, the resonance energy. The
latter, though more widelpused, is a highly unsatisfactory term as the
v ^ d resonance immediately conjures u p visions of rapid oscillations
between one structure and another, for example the Kekuld struc
tures for benzene, thus entirely misrepresenting the actual state of
affairs.
(vi) Conditions necessary for delocalisation
Though the delocalisation viewpoint cannot result in this particular
confusion of thought, it may lead to some loss of facility in the actual
writing of formulae. T h u s while benzene may b e written as (XI) as
readily as one of the Kekuld structures, the repeated writing of
butadiene as (V) becomes tiresome. This has led to the convention
of representing molecules that cannot adequately be written as a
single classical structure (e.g. (IV)) by a combination of two or more
classical structures linked by double-headed arrows; the way in
TVhich one is derived from another by movement of electron pairs
*
11
Structure,
Reactivity
and
Mechanism
often being indicated by curved arrows (e.g. (IV) ->-(XII) or (XIII)),

the tail of the curved arrow indicating where an electron pair moves
from and the head where it moves to:
C H ^ C H - l ^ C H ^ C H j - C H ^ C H ^ C H ^ - C H j
(IV)
(XII)
CH =^CH^CH=Qh
2
av)
CH -^CH^=CH-^CH
2
(xiii)
This is the basis of the concept ^ f resonance. The individual

classical structures that may readily be written down are referred to
as canonical structures and the real, unique structure of the com
pound, somewhere ' i n between' all of them, being referred to as a
resonance hybrid. The term mesoWierism is also used for the pheno
menon, though less widely, to avoid the semantic difficulty mentioned
above, emphasising that the compound <fbes not have several
possible structures which-are rapidly interconverted (i.e. it is^jp/
a sort of extra rapid and reversing tautomerism!), but one structure
only, ' i n between' the classical structures that can more readily be
written (meso implying 'in betweea').
A certain number of limitations must be borne in mind, however,
whjg considering delocalisation and its representation through two
or more classical structures as above. Broadly speaking, the more
canonical structures that can be written foj a compound, the greater
the delocalisation of electrons and the more stable the compound <qjU
be. These structures must not vary too widely from each other in
energy content, however, or those of higher energy will contribute so
little to the hybrid as t o make their contribution virtually irrelevant.
Structures involving separation of charge (e.g. XII and XIII) may be
written but, other things being equal, these are usually of higher
energy content than those in which such separation has not taken
place (e.g. IV), and hence contribute correspondingly less t o the
hybrid. The structures written must all contain the same number of
paired electrons and the constituent atoms must all occupy essentially
the same positions relative to each other in each canonical structure.
If delocalisation is to be significant, all atoms attached to unsatur
ated centres must lie in the same plane or nearly so. This requirement
has already been referred t o for butadiene (p. 9 ) , for if the molecule
takes u p a position such as (XIV)
12
The Breaking and Forming of Bonds

H
H
H
A
the p atomic orbitals o n C a n d C are n o longer parallel, cannot
therefore overlap, and delocalisation is thus prevented. Some overlap
will still take place if the orbitals are not exactly parallel, but over
lapping, with its consequent stabilisation, decreases fairly rapidly as
the parallel position is departed from. Examples where delocalisation,
with consequent stabilisation, is actually prevented by steric factors
aitftiiscussed subsequently (p. 22).
T h e delocalisation that is so effective in promoting the stability of
aromatic compounds results when there are no partially occupied
orbitals of the same energy. The complete filling of such orbitals can
be shown to occur with 2 + 4 n IT electrons, and (m electrons ( = 1) is
the arrangement that occurs by far the most commonly in aromatic
compounds. lOw electrons (n2) are present in naphthalene
(delocalisation energy, 6 r kcal/mole) and 147r electrons (n = 3) in
adfnracene a n d phenanthrene (delocalisation energies, 84 and 91
kcal/mole, respectively) and though these substances are not mono
cyclic like benzene, the introduction of the trans-annular bonds that
makes them bi- and tri-cyclic, respectively, seems to cause relatively
little perturbation so far as delocalisation of the n electrons over the
cyclic group of ten or fourteen carbon atoms is concerned.
2
THE BREAKING AND FORMING OF BONDS
A covalent bond between two atoms can essentially be broken in the

-following ways:
e
R:X--R: +X
R + : X
13
Structure, Reactivity and Mechanism
In the first case each a t o m separates with one electron leading to the
formation of highly reactive entities called free radicals, owing their
reactivity to their unpaired electron; this is referred to as homolytic
fission of the bond. Alternatively, one atom may hold on to both
electrons, leaving none for the other, the result in the above case
being a negative and a positive ion, respectively. Where R and X are
not identical, the fission can, of course, take place in either of two
ways, as shown above, depending on whether R or X retains the
electron pair. Either of these processes is referred to as heterolytic
fission. Formation of a covalent bond can, of course, take place by
the reversal of any of these processes^
Such free radicals or ion pairs are formed transiently as reactive

intermediates in a very wide variety of organic reactions as will be
shown below. Reactions involving radicals tend to occur in the gas
phase and in solution in non-polaf solvents and to be catalysed by light
and by the addition of other radicals (p. 231). Reactions involving ionic
intermediates take place more readily in solution in polar solvents.
Many of these ionic intermediate? can be considered as carrying their
charge o n a carbon atom, though the ion is often stabilised by delocalisation of the charge, to a greater or lesser extent, over other
carbon atoms or atoms of different elements:
CH =CHCH OH
A
"
H9
CH =CHCH OH
H
2
CH
-H.O
/ ^ ~ \ >
-* [ C H = C H J - C H
I
e
CCH
3
<*O
>
Slffe
[CH C*-CH
X ^
- C H C H = C H ]
I
CH,C=CH
H 0
2
When a positive charge is carried on carbon the entity is

known as a carbonium ion and when a negative charge, a carbanion.
Though such ions may be formed only transiently and be present
only in minute concentration, they are nevertheless often of
paramount importance in controlling the reactions in which they
participate.
14
Factors affecting Electron-availability
in Bonds
FACTORS AFFECTING E L E C T R O N - A V A I L A B I L I T Y IN BONDS AND AT

I N D I V I D U A L ATOMS
In the light of what has been said above, any factors that influence
the relative availability of electrons (the electron density) in particular
bonds or at particular atoms in a compound will greatly affect its
reactivity towards a particular reagent; for a position of high electron
availability will be attacked with difficulty if at all by, for example,
O H , whereas a position of low electron availability is likely t o be
attacked with ease, and vice versa with a positively charged reagent.
A number of such factors have been recognised.
(i) Inductive effect

In a covalent single bond between unlike atoms the electron pair
forming the a bond is never shared absolutely equally between the
two a t o m s ; it tends t o be attracted a little more towards the more
electronegative atom Qj[the t w o . Thus in an alkyl halide
\ 8 . *
c<3ci
(XV);
8-
ycci
-yc-*-c\
(JfVla)
(XVlb)
the electron density tends to be greater nearer chlorine than carbon

(XV) as the former is the more electronegative; this is generally
represented in classical formulae by (XVIa) or (XVlb). If the carbon
atom bonded t o chlorine is itself attached t o further carbon atoms,
tiro effect can be transmitted further:
ccc-*-c^-a
4 3 2
1
The effect of the chlorine atom's partial appropriation of the elec
trons of the carbon-chlorine bond is t o leave C slightly electrondeficient; this it seeks to rectify by, in turn, appropriating slightly
more than its share of the electrons of the a bond joining it to C ,
and so on down the chain. The effect of C on C is less than the
effect of CI o n C however, a n d the transmission quickly dies away
in a saturated chain, usually being too small to be noticeable beyond
C .
Most atoms and groups attached to carbon exert such inductive
effects in the same direction as chlorine, i.e. they are electron-with
drawing, owing to their being more electronegative than carbon, the
t
15
Structure,
Reactivity and
Mechanism
major exception being alkyl groups which are electron-donating.*

Though the effect is quantitatively rather small, it is responsible for
the increase in basicity that results when one of the hydrogen atoms
of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl group (p. 49), and, in part at any
rate, for the readier substitution of the aromatic nucleus in toluene
than in benzene. Several suggestions have been made to account for the
electron-donating abilities of C H , C H R , C H R and C R , none of
which is wholly convincing and the matter can be said to be unsettled.
All inductive effects are permanent polarisations in the ground
state of the molecule and are therefore manifested in its physical
properties, for example, its dipole moment.
(ii) Mesomeric or conjugative effect

This is essentially a further statement of the electron redistribution
that can take place in unsaturated and especially in conjugated
systems via their w orbitals. An example is the carbonyl group (p. 158)
whose properties are not entirely satisfactorily represented by the
classical formulation (XVII), s o r by the extreme polar structure
(XVIII), that may be derived from it by an electron shift as shown:
*
(XVII)
>co
>co
(XVIII)
(XIX)
The actual structure is somewhere in between, i.e. a resonance hybrid'

of which the above are the canonical forms, perhaps best represented
by (XIX) in which the electrons are drawn preferentially towards
oxygen rather than carbon. If the carbonyl group is conjugated with
a ^>C=C<^ bond, the above polarisation can be transmitted further
via then-electrons: .
MeCH = ? C H ^ C H = = ^
Me-CHCH=CHO
Me CHCHCHO
(XX)
* The metal atoms in, for example, lithium alkyls and Grignard reagents,
both of which compounds are largely covalent, are also electron-donating, leading
to negatively polarised carbon atoms in each case: R
Li and R - Mg- Hal
(cf. p. 170).
(
i6
in Bonds
Delocalisation takes place (XX), so that an electron-deficient a t o m

results at C , as well as at C , as in a simple carbonyl compound. The
difference between this transmission via a conjugated system and the
inductive effect in a saturated system is that here the effect suffers
much less diminution by its transmission; C is almost as positive
as C was in (XIX).
The stabilisation that can result by delocalisation of a positive or
negative charge in an ion via its n orbitals can be a potent feature in
making the formation of the ion possible in the first place (c/. p . 40).
It is, for instance, the stabilisation of the phenoxide ion (XXI) by
delocalisation* of its charge \jja the delocalised w orbitals of the
nucleus that is largely responsible for the acidity of phenol, i.e. the
ease with which it will lose a proton in the first place (cf. p . 41):
8
(XXI)
An apparently similar delocalisation can take place in undimeciated phenol itself involving an unshared electron pair on the
oxygen atom
I
but this involves separation of charge and will thus be correspond

ingly less effective than the stabilisation of the phenoxide ion which
does not.
Similar stabilisation of the anion with respect to the neutral mole
cule is not shared by benzyl alcohol, which is thus n o more acidic than
aliphatic alcohols, for the intervening saturated carbon atom pre
vents interaction with the n orbitals of the nucleus:
Structure,
Reactivity
and
Mechanism
CHoO-H
CH,O
H+!
(XXII)
In other words, the phenoxide ion (XXI) is stabilised with respect to

the phenol molecule whereas the benzyl oxide ion (XXII) is not so
stabilised with respect to the benzyl alcohol molecule. A somewhat
similar situation occurs in the dissociation of the carboxylic acids:
o"
^
RC
\
H + RCy
OH
RC
i.e.
RC
(XXIII)
The more the carboxylate ion (XXIII) is stabilised with respect to*he
undissociated acid molecule, the more readily the latter will lose a
proton and the stronger the acid wiUthen be. Here again delocalisa
tion can take place in the undissociated molecule
JO
RC
O
-
\>H
R<j
OH
and contributes to its stability but it requires separation of charge and

so will be less effective than that in the carboxylate anion which does
not. It will be observed that the stabilisation effected in the carboxy
late ion will be particularly marked as the two canonical structures
that can be written are of equal energy.
The most common examples of mesomeric effects are encountered
in substituted aromatic systems: the IT electrons of suitable substituents interact with the delocalised n orbitals of the nucleus and thus
profoundly influence its reactivity, i.e. its aromaticity. The delocalised
IT orbitals of the benzene nucleus are particularly effective in trans
mitting the electrical influence of a substituent from one part of the
molecule to another:
18
in Bonds
Thus the nitro group in nitrobenzene lowers the density of nega

tive charge over the nucleus, as compared with benzene itself: it is an
electron-witMrawing
group, \f contrast to the negatively charged
oxygen atom in the phenoxide ion (XXI), which is an electrondonating group. Because of the presence of an electron-withdrawing
group, nitrobenzene will be less readily attacked than benzene itself
by positive ions or electron-deficieUt reagents (oxidising agents such
as K M n 0 , for example) which, as will be seen below (p. 101), are
.exactly the type of reagents involved in normal aromatic substitution
reactions.
Mesomeric, like inductive, effects are permanent polarisations in

the ground state of the molecule and are therefore manifested in the
physical properties of the compounds in which they occur. The
essential difference between inductive and mesomeric effects is that
the former occur essentially in saturated groups or compoundj*he
latter in unsaturated and, especially, conjugated compounds. The
former involve the electrons in a bonds, the latter those in n bonds
^ p d orbitals. Inductive effects are transmitted over only quite short
distances in saturated chains before dying away, whereas mesomeric
effects may be transmitted from one end to the other of quite large
molecules provided that conjugation (i.e. delocalised n orbitals) is
present through which they can proceed. Either effect influences the
behaviour of compounds in b o t h essentially static and dynamic
situations: in both the position of equilibria and rates of reaction, in
the strength of acids and bases as much as in the reactivity of alkyl
halides or the relative ease of substitution of different aromatic
species.
(iii) Time-variable effects
Some workers have sought to distinguish between effects such as the
two considered above which are permanent polarisations manifested
in the ground state of the molecule and changed distributions of
19
Structure,
Reactivity
and
Mechanism
electrons that may result either on the close approach of a reagent or,
more especially, in the transition state, lying between reactants and
products, that may result from its initial attack. These time-variable
factors corresponding to the permanent effects discussed above have
been named the inductomeric and electromeric effects, respectively.
Any such effects can be looked upon as polarisabilities rather than as
polarisations, for the distribution of electrons reverts to that of the
ground state of the molecule attacked if either of the reactants is
removed without reaction being allowed to take place or, if a transi
tion state is actually formed, it decomposes t o yield the starting
materials again.
\
*
Such time-variable effects, being only temporary, will not, of course,
be reflected in the physical properties of the compounds concerned.
It has proved impossible to distinguish experimentally between
permanent and time-variable effects in a number of cases, but it cannot
be too greatly emphasised that despite the difficulties in distinguishing
what proportions of a given effect are due to permanent and to timevariable factors, the actual close a p p r o a c h of a reagent may haveê
profound effect in enhancing reactivity in a reactant molecule and
so in promoting reaction.
*
(ivÎyperconjugation
The inductive effect of alkyl groups is normally found t o be in the
order
f
Me
C H - i - < Me-^-CHs-vs
<
v
/
Me
Me
C H - - < Me->--C-~
Me
as would be expected. When, however, the alkyl groups are attached

t o an unsaturated system, e.g. a double bond or a benzene nucleus,
this order is found to be disturbed and in the case of some conjugated
systems actually reversed. It thus appears that alkyl groups are
capable, in these circumstances, of giving rise to electron release by
a mechanism different from the inductive effect and of which methyl
is the most successful exponent. This has been explained as proceed
ing,by an extension of the conjugative or mesomeric effect, delocali
sation taking place in the following way:
20

H
H
in Bonds
-C^CH=^CH
H-C=CH-CH
H
(XXIV)
HC-r-H
HC
(XXV)
This effect has been called hypercmjugation and has been used suc
cessfully to explain a number of otherwise unconnected phenomena.
It should be emphasised that it is not suggested that a proton actually
becomes free in (XXIV) or (XXV)^for if it moved from its original
position one of the conditions necessary for delocalisation to occur
would be controverted (p. 12).,
*
The reason for the reversal oi electron-donating ability in going
M e - > E t - > i s o P r - > t - B u is that hyperconjugatioH depends for its
operation on hydrogen attached t o carbon atoms a- t o the unijgurated system. This is clearly at a maximum with M e (XXIV) and non
existent with t-Bu (XXVÎ),"provided it is assumed that n o similar
efjf2Ct of comparable magnitude occurs in CC bonds,
H
HCCH=CH,
I
'
(XXIV)
MeCCH
-
Me
CH
2 x
MeCCH=CH
(XXVI)
(XXVII)
Me
MeCCH=CH
Me
(XXVIII)
hence the increased electron-donating ability of methyl groups under
these conditions. This is believed t o be the reason for the increased
stabilisation of defines in which the double bond is not terminal
21
Structure,
Reactivity
and
Mechanism
compared with isomeric compounds in which it is, i.e. (XXIX) in

which there are nine a-hydrogen atoms compared with (XXX) in
which there are only
five:
.
CH
CH
CH C=CHCH
(XXIX)
3
Me
CH C=CH
(XXX)
2
This leads t o their preferential formation in reactions which could

lead to either compound on introduction of the double bond and
even to the fairly ready isomerisation of the less into the more stable
compound.
' '
Although hyperconjugation has proved useful on a number of
occasions, its validity is not universally accepted and a good deal of
further work needs t o be done on, its theoretical justification.
STERIC EFFECTS
We have to date been discussing/actors that may influence the rela

tive availability of electrons in bonds or at particular atoms in*a
compound, a n d hence influeaQ that compound's reactivity. The
working or influence of these factors* may, however, be modified or
even nullified by the operation of steric factors; thus effective delocalisajjjjp via n orbitals can only take place if the p or n orbitals on the
atoms involved in the delocalisation can become parallel or fairly
nearly so. If this is prevented, s i g n i f i ^ n ^ overlapping cannot take
place and delocalisation fails to occur. A good example of thisjjs'r
provided by dimethylaniline (XXXI) and its 2,6-dialkyl derivatives^
e.g. (XXXII). The N M e group in (XXXI), being electron-donating
(due to the unshared electron pair on nitrogen interacting with the
delocalised orbitals of the nucleus), activates the nucleus towards
attack by the diazonium cation PhN , i.e. towards azb-coupling,
leading to preferential substitution at o- and, more particularly,
/^-positions (cf. p . H 9 ) :
2
(XXXI)
22
Steric
Effects
The 2,6-dimethyl derivative (XXXII) does not couple under these

conditions, however, despite the fact that the methyl groups that have
been introduced are t o o far away for their n o t very considerable
bulk t o interfere directly with attack at the />-position. The failure t o
couple at this position is, in fact, due t o the two methyl groups in the
o-positions t o the N M e interfering sterically with the two methyl
groups attached t o nitrogen and so preventing these lying in the same
plane as the benzene nucleus. This means that the p orbitals of nitro
gen and the ring carbon atom t o which it is attached are prevented
from becoming parallel t o each other a n d their overlapping is thus
inhibited. Electronic interaction with the nucleus is thus largely pre
vented and transfer of charge t o the /^-position, with consequent acti
vation t o attack by P h N as in (XXXI), does not now take place:
2
QCXXW)
The most common steric effect, however, is tfce classical 'steric
hindrance' in,which it is apparently the sheer bulk of groups t h j j is
influencing the reactivity of a^site in a compound directly and not by
. p r o m o t i n g or inhibiting êctrbn-availability. This has been investi:-Wted closely in connection with the stability of the complexes formed
%y trimethylboron with a wide variety of amines. Thus the complex
(XXXIII) formed with triethylamine dissociates extremely readily
whereas the complex (XXXIV) with quinuclidine, which can be
looked upon as havingîree ethyl groups on nitrogen that are 'held
b a c k ' from interfering sterically with attack on the nitrogen atom,
is very stable:
Me
/
CH
Me
o/
MeCH N : BMe
/
\
CH
Me
\
Me
(XXXIII)
2
CH,CH
Me
/
\ e
0 /
CH
, N : BMe
\CH -CH ^
\
Me
CH2"~CHf2
2
(XXXIV)
23
Structure,
Reactivity
and
Mechanism
T h a t this difference is not due to differing electron availability at the

nitrogen atom in the two cases is confirmed by the fact that the two
amines differ very little in their strengths as bases (cf. p . 56): the uptake
of a proton constituting very much less of a steric obstacle than the
uptake of the relatively bulky B M e .
M o r e familiar examples of steric inhibition, however, are probably
the difficulties met with in esterifying tertiary acids (XXXV) and
2,6-disubstituted benzoic acids (XXXVIa)
3
CO H
a
CO,H\
Cff,
R CCO,H
3
(XXXV)
(XXXVIa)
(XXXVI/))
and then in the hydrolysis of the-esters, or other derivatives such as

amides, once made. That this effect is indeed steric is suggested by its
being much greater in magnitude than can be accounted for by any
influence the alkyl substituents might be expected to have on electron
availability and also by its non-occurrence in the aromatic species if
t h ^ ^ u b s t i t u e n t s are in the m- or /^-positions. Further, if the carboxyl
group is moved away from the nucleus by the introduction of a C H
group, the new acid (XXXVI6) may now bqjesterified as readily as the
unsubstituted species: the functional group is now beyond the steric
range of the methyl substituents.
It should be emphasised that.such steric inhibition is only an
extreme case and any factors which disturb or inhibit a particular
orientation of the reactants with respect t o each other, short of pre
venting their close approach, can also profoundly affect the rate of
reactions: a state of affairs that is often encountered in reactions in
biological systems.
2
CLASSIFICATION OF REAGENTS
Reference has already been made to electron-donating and electronwithdrawing groups, their effect being t o render a site in a molecule
electron-rich or electron-deficient, respectively. This will clearly in
fluence the type of reagent with which the compound will most
24
Classification of
Reagents
readily react. An electron-rich compound, such as phenoxide ion,

(XXXVII)
etc.
(XXXVII)
will tend to be most readily attacked by positively charged ions such
as P b N , ^ h e diazonium cation, or by other species which, though
not actually ions themselv, possess an a t o m or centre which is
electron-deficient, for example the sulphur atom in sulphur trioxide:
e
A.
*Azo-coupling (p. 112) or sulphonation (p. 108) takes place on a
carbon a t o m of the nucleus rather than on oxygen because of the
charge-transfer from oxygen tocarbon that can take place as shown
above and because of the greater stability of the carbon rather than the
oxygen-substituted products.
Conversely, an electron-deficient centre, such as the carbon atom
in methyl chloride (XXJ|VIIi)
m
H
\+
HC-*-Cl
/
H
(XXXVIII)
will tend to be most readily attacked by negatively charged ions such
as OH, C N , etc., or by other species which, though not actually
ions themselves, possess an a t o m or centre which is electron-rich, for
example the nitrogen a t o m in ammonia or amines, H N : or R N : .
It must be emphasised that only a slightly unsymmetrical distribution
of electrons is required for a reaction's course t o be dominated: the
presence of a full-blown charge on a reactant certainly helps matters
along but is far.from being essential. Indeed the requisite unsymmetri
cal charge distribution may be induced by the mutual polarisation of
e
o
25
r
Structure, Reactivity
and Mechanism
reagent and substrate on their close approach as when bromine adds

to ethylene (p. 137).
In reactions of the first type the reagent is looking for a position
in the substrate to be attacked where electrons are especially readily
available; such reagents are thus referred to as electrophilic reagents or
electrophiles. In reactions of the second type the reagent is looking for
a position where the atomic nucleus is short of its normal complement
of orbital electrons and is anxious to make it u p ; the reagents employed
are thus referred to as nucleophilic reagents or nucleophiles.
This differentiation can be looked upon as a special case of the
acid/base idea. The classical definition oV acids and bases^s that the
former are proton-donors and the latter proton-acceptors. This was
made more general by Lewis who defined acids as compounds pre
pared to accept electron pairs and bases as substances that could pro
vide such pairs. This would include a number of compounds not pre
viously thought of as acids and bases, e.g. boronJtrifluoride (XXXIX)
F
Me
\
/
FB + :NMe
F
(XjftCIX)
F
^
Me
Me
\ e
/
FB:NMe
*/
"F
(XL)
Me
j
which acts as an acid by accepting the electron pair on nitrogen in

trimethylamine t o form the complex (XL), and is therefore referred
to as a Lewis acid. Electrophiles and nucleophiles in organic reactions^
can be looked upon essentially as acceptors and donors, respectively,
of electron pairs from and to other atoms, most frequently carbon.
Electrophiles and nucleophiles also, of course, bear a relationship to*
oxidising and reducing agents for the former can be looked upon as
electron-acceptors and the latter as electron-donors. A number of the
more common electrophiles and nucleophiles are listed below.
Electrophiles
H, H O, H N 0 , H S0 ', H N 0 (i.e. N0 , S O a n d NO respec
tively), PhN
s
BF , AICI3, ZnCl , FeCl , Br ,1CI, NOCI, CNCI

3
O
O
O
v
II
II
Ml
> C = 0 , RC CI, RCOCR, C O ,
' *
*
*
*
26
Types of
Nucleophiles
Reaction
*
e
HO, RO, RS, Hal, H S 0 , C N , R CfeC, CH(COjEt),

3
(XLI)
x
'
R M g B r , RLi, LiAlH.,
*f^\jQ
*
Where aêagent is starred^the star indicates the a t o m that accepts
electrons from, or donates electrons to, the substrate as the case may
be. I t rapidly becomes apparent t h a t n o clear distinction can b e m a d e
between what constitutes a reagent and what a substrate, for though
H N O , O H , etc., are normally<hought of as reagents, the diethyl
malonate carbanion (XLI) could, at will, be either reagent or sub
strate, when reacted%ith, for example, an alkyl halide. The reaction
of the former on the latter is a nucleophilic attack, while that of the
"fatter on the former would be looked upon as an electrophilic attack;
but from the standpoint of whichever reactant a reaction itself is
viewed, its essential nature is not for a moment in doubt.
e
It should not be forgotten, however, that reaetions involving free

radicals as the reactive entities are also known. These are m u a b less
susceptible t o variations in electron density in the substrate than are
reactions involving polaj intermediates, but they are greatly affected
by the addition of small traces of substances that either liberate or
remove radicals'. They are considered in detail below (p. 240).
*
TYPES OF REACTION
Within this classification there are essentially four kinds of reaction

which organic compounds can undergo:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Displacement (or substitution) reactions.

Addition reactions.
Elimination reactions.
Rearrangements.
In (a) it-is displacement from carbon that is normally referred t o but

the atom displaced can be either hydrogen or another a t o m or group.
In electrophilic substitution reactions it is often hydrogen that is
27
Structure,
Reactivity
and Mechanism
displaced, classical aromatic substitution (p. 101) being a good

example:
+ NO,
+ H
In nucleophilic substitution reactions, it is often an a t o m other than

hydrogen that is displaced (pp. 58, 132):
NC + RBr
r f c - R + Br
CI
HO
OH
+
NO
NO,
but nucleophilic displacement of hydrogen is also known (p. 130)

H
i
,TlO
N0
NO
though hydride ion is not actually liberated as such as will be seen

subsequently (p. 131). Radical-induced displacement reactions are also""
known, for example the halogenation of alkanes (cf. p . 248).
Addition reactions, too, can be electrophilic, nucleophilic or
radical-induced depending on whether the process is initiated by ah
electrophile, a nucleophile or a radical. Addition t o simple c a r b o n carbon double bonds is normally either an electrophilic or radical
reaction; an example is the addition of HBr
Br
HBr
H
e
which can be initiated by the attack of either H (p. 141) or Br (p. 244)
on the double bond. By contrast, the addition reactions exhibited by
28
Types of
Reaction
the carbonyl group in simple aldehydes and ketones are usually

nucleophilic in character (p. 158). An example is the base-catalysed
formation of cyanhydrins in liquid H C N :
OH
>SOS"
CN
>
slow
HCN
+ CN
fast
CN
CN
Elimination reactions are, of course, essentially the reversal of

addition reactions; the mosUômmon is the loss of atoms or groups
from adjacent carbon atoms to yield defines:
H
>C C/\
,-HBr
Br
*
H
-H.O
OH
Rearrangements may also proceed via electrophilic, nucleophilic
or radical intermediates and can involve either the mere migration of
a functional group (p. 86) as in the allylic system
OH
>\
He
+ H O
a
CH=CH,
CHCH .
CH^CH,
\c
CHCH OH + H
a
or the actual rearrangement of the carbon skeleton of a compound as

in the pinacol (XLII) ->pinacolone (XLI1I) change (p. 90):
H
Me CCMe
2
Me CCOMe
3
OH OH
(XLII)
(XLIII)
29
Structure,
Reactivity
and
Mechanism
The actual rearrangement step is often followed by a displacement,

addition or elimination reaction before a final, stable product is
obtained.
ENERGETICS OF REACTION
The general path followed by the reactants in a n organic reaction as

they are converted into products is normally too complex to be fol
lowed in complete detail, but useful comments can be made on the
sequence of changes involved, and particularly on their energetics.
Broadly speaking, reactions proceed most readily when the products
constitute a more stable state than the original reactants, the difference
being the free energy of reaction, J F ; nevertheless it is seldom, if
ever, that the change involves, energetically, a mere direct run down
hill (XLIV): the more usual pictui$ is that an 'energy h u m p ' has to
be surmounted on the way (XLV):
X
(XLIV)
(XLV)
The horizontal co-ordinate in the above diagrams, often called the

reaction co-ordinate, need have n o exact quantitative significance and
merely represents the sequence of the reaction. It will be seen that in
order for reaction t o proceed in (XLV), energy will have to be supplied
t o the reactants in order t o carry them over the h u m p . This energy is
required, essentially, to stretch and ultimately to break any bonds as
may be necessary in the reactants. This proceeds more readily in
molecules that have absorbed energy and so become activated; the
well-known increase in reaction rates as the temperature is raised, is
indeed, due t o the larger proportion of molecules in an activated state
as the temperature rises. A probability factor is also involved as
molecules, although activated, will often only react with each other if
they are in a particular orientation or configuration and only a certain
30
Energetics of Reaction
proportion of the activated molecules will satisfy this condition. In
addition t o the straightforward energy term, an entropy factor is also
involved expressing essentially the relative randomness, a n d hence
probability, of the initial and final states of the reaction, i.e. of
reactants and products. The amount of work necessary t o get the
reactants u p the t o p of the h u m p , including both the energetic and
probability factors, is called the free energy of activation, AF .
The t o p of the energy hump, x, corresponds to the least stable
configuration through which the reactants pass on their way t o pro
ducts a n d this is- generally referred t o as the transition state or
activatedTomplex. It shoul<rt>e emphasised that this is merely a state
t h a t is passed through in a dynamic process and the transition state
is not a n intermediate that can actually be isolated. A typical transi
tion state is (XLVI) met with in the alkaline hydrolysis of methyl
iodide
X
H
e
HO + H^C-
/
H
aHO
"V
H
*rfXLVI)
a1
H
HOC^H+I
in which the C O H bond is being formed before the C I bond is

completely broken and the three hydrogen atoms are passing Tflrough
a configuration in which they all he in one plane (at right angles to
the plane of the paper}. This, reaction is discussed in detail below
(p. 66).
It will be realised from what has already been said that in discussing
the influence of structural factors, both electronic and steric, on the
reactivity of compounds, it is more pertinent to consider what effect
these factors will have on the transition state in a reaction rather than
on the ground state of the reactant molecule. F o r any factor that
serves t o stabilise the transition state, i.e. t o lower its energy content,
lowers A F* (the height of the h u m p that has to be surmounted) and so
offers an easier and less demanding path for the reaction t o traverse.
It is at this point that the time-variable, i.e. polarisability factors (p.
19), consequent on the close approach of reagent and substrate, may
exert their most potent, and possibly determining, effect on the course
of a reaction. Steric effects are also of the utmost significance at this
point, for a transition state in which the groups are highly crowded
will be notably loth t o form and the reaction, therefore, rendered
31
Structure,
Reactivity and Mechanism
that much more difficult and, hence, less likely t o proceed. The exact
nature of the transition state is not always known with certainty,
however, and the influence of structural factors on reactivity can then
only be considered, less satisfactorily, with reference t o the original
reactant molecule.
M a n y common reactions are, however, less simple than this, pro
ceeding not through a single transition state as in (XLV) but involv
ing the formation of one, or more, actual intermediates as in the
two-stage process (XLVII):
/ 1
/
/ AF, ]
/
Reactants J
'
/ a f ' | \
i
i
Inter
mediate
i
1
IAF
l
i
Jr.
Products
(XLVII)
This is essentially two separate reactions, reactants --intermediate
with a free energy of activation of J F f and intermediate - products,
with J F | ; the free energy of the overall reaction being J F . T h e stage
with the higher free energy of activationthe first, with J F f in the
above casewill usually be the slower and, therefore, rate-determin
ing step of the overall reaction, for clearly the overall reaction cannot
proceed more rapidly than its slowest stage a n d it will be this that
will be measured in a kinetic investigation of the overall reaction.
The degree of real difference between a n activated complex a n d a n
actual intermediate depends on the depth of the dip or energy mini
m u m characterising t h e latter. If it is sufficiently pronounced the
intermediate m a y actually be isolated as in the Hofmann reaction,
in which salts of the anion (XLVIII) may be recovered during
the conversion of an N-bromoamide t o a n isocyanate (c/.'p. 93):
Investigation
o
RCNHBr ^
of Reaction
Mechanisms
r fp
V
1
LR-C^NBr ~ R-C=NBrJ >
(XLVIII)
0=C=N-R
But as the minimum becomes less marked, the intermediate will be

come correspondingly less stable (b) and, therefore, less likely t o be
isolable until finally the minimum is indistinguishable (c), when
transition state and intermediate become synonymous (XLIX):
(XL1X)
It should, however, be emphasised that we are not forced to rely on
actual isolationwhich is a relatively rare occurrencefor the
identification of an intermediate. Physical, particularly spectroscopic,
methods supply us with a very effective and delicate alternative which
has proved immensely helpful in the investigation of reaction mech
anisms.
I N V E S T I G A T I O N OF REACTION MECHANISMS
It is seldom, if ever, possible t o provide complete and entire informa

tion about the course that is traversed by any chemical reaction: t o o
much is involved. Sufficient data can nevertheless often be gathered
to show that one theoretically possible mechanism is just not compa
tible with the experimental results, or t o demonstrate that one mech
anism is a good deal more likely than another. The largest body of
work has certainly come from kinetic studies on reactions, b u t the
interpretation of kinetic data in mechanistic terms is not always quite
33
Structure,
Reactivity and Mechanism
as simple as might, at first sight, be supposed. Thus in a very simple

case, if the aqueous hydrolysis of the alkyl halide, R - H a l , is found t o
follow the kinetics
Rate oc [R-Hal]
it is not safe to conclude that the rate-determining step does not in
volve the participation of water because [ H 0 ] does not figure in the
rate equation, for if water is being used as the solvent its concentra
tion would remain virtually unchanged whether or not it actually
participated in the reaction. Its participation might be revealed by
carrying out the hydrolysis with o n l y ^ small concentration of water
in another solvent; then the hydrolysis may be found to. follow the
kinetics
Rate oc [R-Hal] rHjO]
but the actual mechanism by which the reaction proceeds may have
changed on altering the environment, so that we are not, of necessity,
any the wiser about what really went on in t i e aqueous solution to
begin with!
The vast majority of organic reactions are carried out in solution
and quite small changes in the solvent used can have the profoundest
effects on reaction rates and mechanisms. Particularly is this so when
ionic intermediates; for example carbonium ions and carbanions, are
i n v o k e d for such ions normally carry an envelope of solvent mole
cules about with them, which greatly affects their stability (and hence
their ease of formation), and which is higher influenced, by the com
position and nature of the solvent employed.
Light may be thrown on reaction mechanisms from sources other
than kinetic experiments, however. Thus a study of alternative or
by-products in a reaction can often be of value. A case in point is the
elimination reaction (p. 189) that often accompanies a substitution
reaction (p. 201) in the action of alkali on alkyl halides and which can
be interpreted in some instances as involving a carbonium ion (L) as
a common intermediate:
RCH CH OH+H
2
Substitution
H.O
R C H C H H a l -> Hal + R C H CH (L)

2
-H
RCH=CH
,
Elimination
34
Investigation of Reaction
Mechanisms
In some cases, for example the Hofmann reaction mentioned

above, intermediates can actually be isolated, but where this is not
possible, various potential intermediates can be introduced into the
reaction t o see whether any of them will speed it u p , as a true inter
mediate in the process should. Alternatively, another species of mole
cule m a y be introduced into the system in an endeavour t o fix or trap
a transient intermediate. An example of this is provided in reactions
proceeding via radical intermediates where, by introducing an olefine
into the system, the radical intermediate induces polymerisation of
the olefine ajjd is itself therebyJixed at the end of the polymer chain
(c/.p.247):
nCH,= CH,
Ra- + C H , = C H
- RaCH,CH -
Polymer
T h e use of isotopes has also sheda good deal of light on a number

of difficult mechanistic problems. Thus the aqueous hydrolysis of
esters could proceed,*in theory, by cleavage at
(a)alkyl/oxygen
Ravage, o r (b)acyl/oxygen cleavage:
ii
"'RCOH + HOR
(a)
'
ii ! . 1
18
RC-^-O-J-R' H 0
I
ft
\
ifcK
o
\
II 18
RCOH + HOR'
2
l s
If the reaction is carried out in water enriched in the isotope O ,

(a) will lead to an alcohol which is O enriched and an acid which is
not, while (b) will lead t o an O enriched acid but a normal alcohol.
Most esters are found t o yield an O enriched acid indicating that
hydrolysis, under these conditions, proceeds via acyl/oxygen cleavage.
It should, of course, b e emphasised that these results only have
validity provided neither acid nor alcohol can, after formation, itself
exchange oxygen with water enriched in 0 , as has in fact been
shown to be the case. Heavy water, D 0 , has been much used in a
rather similar way, especially t o investigate whether particular hydro- .
gen atoms participate in a given reaction. Thus in the Cannizzaro
reaction with benzaldehyde (p. 167)
\
l s
l s
l s
1 8
'
*
Mechanism
the question arises of whether the second hydrogen a t o m that be

comes attached t o carbon in the benzyl alcohol formed comes from
the solvent (water) or from a second molecule of benzaldehyde.
Carrying out the reaction in D 0 leads t o the formation of no
P h C H D O H , indicating that the second hydrogen could not have
come from the solvent and must, therefore, arise by direct transfer
from a second molecule of aldehyde.
Compounds suitably 'labelled' with deuterium, or the radioactive
hydrogen isotope tritium, have also been used t o decide whether a
particular C H bond is broken during the rate-determining stage of
a reaction. Thus in the nitration of nitrobenzene (p. 105)
2
a C H bond is broken and a C N O bond formed, and the

question arises whether either or b o t h processes are involved in the
rate-determining step of the reaction. Repeating the nitration on
deuterium- and tritium-labelled nitrobenzene shows that there is n o
detestable difference in the rate at which the three compounds react,
thus indicating t h a t C H b o n d fission cannot b e involved in the
rate-determining step as it can be shown tfeat if it were there would
be a considerable slowing in reaction rate, o n going C H - CD -*
C H (kinetic isotope effect).
Another technique that has been of the utmost value is observing
the stereochemical course followed by a number of chemical reac
tions. Thus the addition of bromine, and a number of other reagents,
to suitable defines has been found to yield trans products
a
Br
indicating that the bromine cannot add on directly as BrBr for-this
would clearly lead t o a cis product. The prevalence of trans addition
reactions also provides further information about the mechanism of
the reactions (p. 139). Many elimination reactions also take place more
36
Investigation of Reaction
Mechanisms
readily with the trans member of a pair of cis/trans isomerides, as

seen in the conversion of syn and anti aldoxime acetates to nitriles:
Ph
H
\
/
C
Ph
I
OH C
II
N.
y
""'y
Ph
eoH
III <
H
\
/
C
II
'?,
readily
.N
^
MeCOO
OOCMe
Anti
Syn
This again sts limitations to yûch any mechanism advanced for the
reaction will have to conform.
A study of the fate of asymmetric centres in optically active com
pounds has also been of great value, particularly in the case of
nucleophilic substitution at a saturated carbon atom, for example, in
the hydrolysis of alkyl halides (p. 66). Thus reaction via the type of
transition state that wfe have already mentioned (XLVI, p . 31), will
lead to a product having the opposite configuration to the starting
material as the asymmetric centre will have been 'turned inside o u t ' :
ir
HO
H O + R'-CI
/
>
C
HOC-R + I
I
R*
R*
R*
This establishes a test i y which the occurrence of this type of

mechanism may be detected (p. 66).
The degree of success with which a suggested mechanism can be
said to describe the course of a particular reaction is not determined
solely by its ability to account for the known facts; the acid test is
how successful it is at forecasting a change of rate, or even in the
nature of the products formed, when the conditions under which the
reaction is carried out or the structure of the substrate are changed.
Some of the suggested mechanisms we shall encounter measure up to
these criteria better than d o others, but the overall success of a
mechanistic approach to organic reactions is demonstrated by the way
in which the application of a few relatively simple guiding principles
can bring light and order t o bear on a vast mass of disparate inform
ation about equilibria, reaction rates and the relative reactivity of
organic compounds. We shall now go on to consider some simple
examples of this.
C
37
THE STRENGTHS OF ACIDS AND BASES
M O D E R N electronic theories of organic chemistry have been highly

successful in a wide variety of fields in relating behaviour with
structure, but nowhere has this been m W e marked than flaccounting
for the relative strengths of organic acids and bases. According to the
definition of Arrhenius, acids are compounds that yield hydrogen
ions, H , in solution while bases yield hydroxide ions, OH. Such
definitions are reasonably adequate if reactions in water only are t o
be considered, b u t the acid/base r e l a t i o n s h i p ' s proved so useful in
practice that the concepts of both acids and bases have become con
siderably more generalised. Thus Brensted defined acids as s u b *
stances that would give u p protons, i.e. proton donors, while bases
were proton acceptors. T h e first iqnisation of sulphuric acid in
aqueous solution is then looked upbn a s :
e
H S0 +H O
Acid
Base
s
H O + H S 0
ConCon
jugate
jugate
acid | base
g
Here water is acting as a base by accepting a proton and is thereby

converted into its so-called conjugate acid, H O , while the acid,
H S 0 , by donating a proton is converted into its conjugate base,
HS0 .
The more generalised picture provided by Lewis who denned acids
as molecules or ions capable of co-ordinating with unshared electron
pairs, and bases as molecules or ions which have such unshared
electron pairs available for co-ordination, has already been referred
t o (p. 26). Lewis acids include such species as boron trifluoride (I)
which reacts with trimethylamine t o form a solid salt (m.p. 128):
a
Me
1
MeN:
|
Me
38
F
1
BF
l1
F
(D
MeF
el le
MeN:BF
i i
1 1
MeF
Other common examples are aluminium chloride, stannic chloride,

zinc chloride, etc. We shall, at this point, be concerned essentially
with proton acids and the effect of structure on the strength of a
number of organic acids and bases will now be considered in turn.
Compounds in which a C H bond is ionised will be considered
subsequently (p. 210), however.
ACIDS
(0
pK
The strengtbôf an acid, H X , in water, i.e. the extent t o which it is

dissociated, may be estimated oy considering the equilibrium:
H O : + H X ^ H O + X
a
Then the equilibrium constant is j i v e n by

f
[HX]
jjje concentration of water being taken as constant as it is present in

such large excess. It should be emphasised that K , the acidity constant
of the acid in water, is only approximate if concentrations instead of
activities have been used. The constant is influenced by the composi
tion of the solvent in which the acid is dissolved fjsee below) and by
other factors but it does, nevertheless, serve as a useful-guide t < ^ c i d
strength. In order t o avoid writing negative powers of 10, K is
generally converted into $K (j>K = - l o g K J ; thus while K for
acetic acid in water at 25 is 1 79 x 10~ , p K = 4 76. The smaller the
numerical value of pK , the stronger is the acid t o which it refers.
a
1 0
(ii) Effect of solvent

The influence of the solvent on the dissociation of acids (and of bases)
can be profound; thus hydrogen chloride which is a strong acid in
water is not ionised in benzene. Water is a most effective ionising
solvent on account (a) of its high dielectric constant, and (b) of its
ion-solvating ability. The higher the dielectric constant of a solvent the
smaller the electrostatic energy of any ions present in it; hence the
more stable such ions are in solution.
Ions in solution strongly polarise solvent molecules near them and
the greater the extent to which this can take place, the greater the
stability of the ion, which is in effect stabilising itself by spreading
its charge. Water is extremely readily polarised and ions stabilise
39
The Strengths of Acids and Bases

themselves in solution by collecting around themselves a solvation
envelope of water molecules.
Water has the advantage of being able t o function as an acid or a
base with equal facility, which further increases its usefulness and
versatility as an ionising solvent. It does however have the disadvan
tage as an ionising solvent for organic compounds that some of them
are insufficiently soluble in the unionised form to dissolve in it in the
first place.
(iii) The origin of acidity in organic compounds
Acidity in an organic compound, Y H ^ n a y be influenced by
(a) The strength of the YH bond,
(b) The electronegativity of Y,
(c) Factors stabilizing Y compared with YH,
but of these (a) is normally f o u n d t o be of little significance. The effect
of (b) is reflected in the fact that the p K of methanol, C H O H , is
1 6 while that of methane, H C H , is 50, oxygen being consider
ably more electronegative than carbon. By contrast, the pK of formic
acid,
e
O
.
II
H-C-OH
is 3ml3. This is in part due to the electron-withdrawing carbonyl group

enhancing the electron affinity of the oxygen a t o m to which the
incipient p r o t o n is attached b u t much moretimportant is the stabilisa
tion possible in the resultant formate anion compared with the
undissociated formic acid molecule:
HC
HC
o
+ H.O
O
HC
O
HC
OH
40
+ H O
The Origin of Acidity in Organic
Compounds
There is extremely effective delocalisation, with consequent stabilisa

tion, in the formate anion involving as it does two canonical structures
of identical energy and though delocalisation can take place in the
formic acid molecule also, this involves separation of charge and will
consequently be much less effective as a stabilising influence (cf. p . 12).
The effect of this differential stabilisation is somewhat to discourage
the recombination of proton with the formate anion, the ^ is to this
extent displaced t o the right, and formic acid is, by organic standards,
a moderately strong acid.
With alcohols there is no such factor stabilising the alkoxide ion,
R O , relative to the alcohol itself and alcohols are thus very much less
acidic than carboxylic acids. With phenols, however, there is again the
possibility of relative stabilisation of the anion (II) by delocalisation
of its negative charge through interaction with the IT orbitals of the
aromatic nucleus:
E
Delocalisation also ocdlirs in the undissociated phenol molecule

(cf. p . 17) but, involving charge separation, is less effective than in the
anion (II), thus leading to some reluctance on the part of the latter to
recombine with a proton. Phenols are indeed found t o be stronger
acids than alcohols (the pK of phenol itself is 9 95) but considerably
weaker than carboxylic acids. This is due to the fact that delocalisation
of the negative charge in the carboxylate anion involves structures of
identical energy content (see above), and of the centres involved two
are highly electronegative oxygen a t o m s ; whereas in the phenoxide
ion (II) the structures involving negative charge on the nuclear carbon
atoms are likely to be of higher energy content than the one in which it
is on oxygen and, in addition, of the centres here involved only one is
a highly electronegative oxygen atom. The relative stabilisation of the
anion with respect t o the undissociated molecule is thus likely to be
less effective with a phenol than with a carboxylic acid leading to the
lower relative acidity of the former.
41
9J

(iv) Simple aliphatic acids
The replacement of the non-hydroxylic hydrogen atom of formic
acid by an alkyl group would be expected to produce a weaker acid
as the electron-donating inductive effect of the alkyl group will
reduce the residual electron affinity of the oxygen atom carrying the
incipient proton and so reduce the strength of the acid. In the anion
the increased electron availability o n oxygen will serve t o promote its
recombination with proton as compared with the formate/formic acid
system:
.
i.
The ^ is thus shifted to the left compared with formic acid/formate
and it is found that the pK of acetic acid is 4-76, compared with 3 77
for formic acid. Further substitution of alkyl groups in acetic acid has
much less effect than this first introduction and, being now essentially"
a second-order effect, the influence on acid strength is not always
regular, steric and other influences also playing a part; pK values are
observed as f o l l o w s
_
Me CHCO,H
4-86
MeCH COjH
4-88
,
Me-(CH ) :C0 H
4-82
Me,C-.CO H
5-05
CHrCOjH
4-76
Me(CH ) CO,H.
4-86.
If there is a doubly bonded carbon atom adjacent t o the carboxyl

group the acid strength is increased. Thus acrylic acid, C H j = C H C 0 H , has a pJST,, of 4-25 compared with 4-88 for the saturated
analogue, propionic acid. This is due to the fact that the unsaturated acarbon atom is s p hybridised; which means that electrons are d r a w n
closer to the carbon nucleus than in a saturated, sp hybridised atom
due to the rather larger s contribution in the sp hybrid. The result is
that sp hybridised carbon atoms are less electron donating than satur
ated sp hybridised ones, and so acrylic acid though still weaker than
formic acid is stronger than propionic. The effect is much more marked
with the sp hybridised carbon atom of a triple bond, thus the pJSL of
propiolic acid, H C = C C O H , is 1 84. An analogous situation occurs
with the hydrogen atoms of ethylene and acetylene; those of the
2
42
Substituted
Aliphatic
Acids
former are little more acidic than the hydrogens in ethane, whereas
those of acetylene are sufficiently acidic to be readily replaceable by
a number of metals!
(v) Substituted aliphatic acids
The effect of introducing electron-withdrawing substituents into fatty
acids is more marked. Thus halogen, with an inductive effect acting in
the opposite direction to alkyl, would be expected to increase the
strength,of an acid so substituted, and this is indeed observed as
fK values show:
^
CI
\
F-<-CH -+-C0 H
CH -v-CO H
(C H - ^ C 0 H
2-66
4-76
CI
Cl-<-CH --C0 H
1-29
2-86
CI
Br--CH --C0 H
I
2-90
Cl-^C-<-C0 H
a
i-<-CH -<-C0 H
16
2
CI
0-65
The action of this effect results in increased Stabilisation of the

substituted anion, by spreading of its charge,
m
O
CH
F--CH --C
2
and the halogenated acids are thus stronger than their unsubstituted
analogues. The relative effect of the different halogens is in the
expected order, fluorine being the most electronegative (electronwithdrawing) and producing a hundredfold increase in strength of
fluoracetic acid as compared with acetic acid itself. The effect is very
much greater than that produced, in the opposite direction, by the
introduction of an alkyl group, and the introduction of further
halogens still produces large increases in acid strength: trichloracetic
is thus a very strong acid.
The introduction of a halogen further away than in the a-position
to the carboxyl group has much less effect, its inductive effect quickly
dying in a saturated chain as the following pK values show:
43

MeCH CH C0 H
4-82
Me C H C H C 1 C 0 H
2-84
MeCHClCH CO H
4 06
CH C1 C H C H
4-52
C0 H
Other electron-withdrawing groups, e.g. R N - , ^ C N , - N 0 ,

^ C O , - C 0 R increase the strength of fatty acids, as also d o hydroxyl
and methoxyl groups; the unshared electrons on the oxygen atoms
of the last t w o groups are n o t able t o exert a mesomeric effect in
the opposite direction t o their inductive effect owing to the inter
vening saturated carbon atom. T h e s S effects are seen*in the pJT
values:
3
0N--CH -*-CO H
1-68
a
EtO C-^-CH -*-C0 H

3-35
Me N-*-CH -<-C0 H
1-83
3
MeCO-^-CH --C0 K
3-58
NC-*-CH --<-CO H
2-47
a
Me6-*-CH -^-C0 H
3-53
a
HO-*-CH -e-CO H
3-83
a
(vi) Phenols
Analogous effects can be observed with substituted phenols, the
presence of electron-withdrawing groups in the nucleus increasing
their acidity. In the case of a nitro-group, the inductive effect will fall
off with distance as we go o- ->/- ->/>-nitrophenol but there will be
an electron-withdrawing mesomeric effect when the nitro-group is in
the o- or />-, but not in the /n-position, and this, too, will promote
ionisation by stabilisation of the resultant anion. We might therefore
expect o- and />-nitropheno1s-to be more acidic than the m-compound
which is, in fact, found to be the case:
C,H
o-OjNCjH
m-0 NC H
P-O NC H
2:4-(0 N) C,H
2:4:6-(O N) CH
S
44
OH
.OH
OH
OH
OH
O H
4
3
2
Aromatic Carboxylic
Acids
Thus picric acid is a very strong acid. The effect of introducing

electron-donating alkyl groups is small:
C,H OH
o-MeQH OH
m-Me-CH -OH
P-Me-C.H.-OH
6
9-95
10-28
1008
10-19
The resulting substituted phenols are very slightly weaker acids, but
the effect is marginal and irregular, indicating that the effect of such
substituentsin destabilising ^fle phenoxide ion by disturbing the
interaction of its negative charge with the delocalised w orbitals of the
aromatic nucleus is small, as might have been expected.
(vii) Aromatic carboxylic acids
Benzoic acid, with a pK of 4-20, is a stronger acid than its saturated

analogue cyclohexane carboxylic acid (pK = 4 - 8 7 ) indicating that a
phenyl group, like a double bond, is here exerting an electron-with
drawing effectcompared with a saturated carbon atomon the
carboxyl group, due to the stf hybridised carbon a t o m to which
the carboxyl group is attached (p. 42). Benzoic acid is nevertheless
weaker than formic acid (pK = 3 77), showing that the phenyl group
exerts an overall electron-donating effect compared with hydrtgen.
T h e difficulty in forecasting the relative effects a phenyl group will
have on electron-density* in the undissociated acid and in its anion
arises from the fact that its n electron system can act as an electron
source or an electron sink at will, depending on the nature of the
group to,which it is attached. This is well illustrated by its equally
effective stabilisation of the phenoxide anion, PhO (p. 17) and the
a
benzyl carbonium ion P h C H (p. 63).

The introduction of alkyl groups has vejy little effect on the strength
of benzoic acid (cf. similar introduction in aliphatic acids)
2
C,H CO,H
m-Me-C,H CO H
p-MeC H C0 H
5
4-20
4-24
4-34
but electron-withdrawing groups increase its strength, the effect, as

with the phenols, being most pronounced when they are in the oand ^-positions:
45
CH C0
o-0 NC H C0
m-0 NC H C0
P-0 NC,H C0
:5-(0 N) C,H C0
5
H
H
H
H
H
4-20
2-17
3-45
3-43
2-83
The particularly marked effect w i t h ^ - N 0 is probably due to the

very short distance over which the powerful inductive effect is opera
ting.
The presence of groups such as O H , O M e or halogen having an
electron-withdrawing inductive effect but an electron-donating mesomeric effect when in the o- and />-positions irjay, however, cause the
/7-substituted acids t o be weaker than the m- and, on occasion,
weaker even than the unsubstituted acid itself, e.g. />-hydroxybenzoi
acid:
2
pK ot
a
XC H C H
6
ci
Br
OMe
OH
o-
4-20
2-94
2-85
4 09
2-98
m-
4-20
3-83
3-81
4-09
4 08
P-
4-20
3-99
400
4-47
4-58
It will be noticed that this .compensating effect becomes m o r e

pronounced in going CI B r - * O H , i.e. in increasing order of
readiness with which t h e a t o m attached t o the nucleus will part with
its electron pairs. The behaviour of o-substituted acids is,-as seen
above, often anomalous. Their strength is sometimes considerably
greater than expected due to direct interaction of the adjacent groups,
e.g. intramolecular hydrogen bonding stabilises the anion (IV) from
46
Dicarboxylic
Acids
salicyclic acid (III) by delocalising its charge, an advantage not

shared by the m- and /^-isomers nor by o-methoxybenzoic acid:
The effect is even more pronounced where hydrogen bonding can

occur with a hydroxyl group in both o-positions and 2,6-dihydroxybenzoic acid has a pK of 1 - 30.
j^viii) Dicarboxylic acids

As the carboxyl group itself has an electron-withdrawing inductive
effect, the presence of a second such group in an acid would be
expected t o make it stronger, as shown by the following pK values:
HCO,H
HOJCCOJH
3-77
1-23
CH C0 H
.4-76
3
H0 CCH,CO H
2-83
CH CH C0 H
4-88
HO C C H C H C 0 H
4-19
C,H C0 H
4-17
H 0 C C H . COjH
o2-98
m- 3-46
p3-51
The effect is very pronounced but falls off sharply as soon as the
carboxyl .groups are separated by more than one saturated carbon
atom. Maleic acid (V) is a much stronger acid than fumaric (VI)
(pK. is 1 -92 compared with 3-02) due t o the hydrogen bonding that
can take place with the former, but not the latter, stabilising the anion
(cf. salicylic acid):
1
47
II
o
II
O
CO
II
CO
H -H<
O
\
/
c
OH
II
HO
A
C - 0 -
C
/
\
C
H
O
(VI)
(V)
The second dissociation of fumaric occurs more readily than that

of maleic acid, however ( p K is 4-38 compared with 6-23) because
of the greater difficulty in removing the proton from the negatively
charged cyclic system of the latter. Oxalic, malonic and succinic acids
are each weaker in their second dissociations than formic, acetic and
propionic acids, respectively, because the second proton has t o be
removed from a negatively charged species containing an electron
donating substituent, i.e. O C , which will destabilise the anion with
respect to the undissociated acid as compared with the unsubstituted
system:
a
O n
1
CH.
OjC-^-CHj^-C
BASES
(0 Pff
fc
The strength of a base, R N , in water, may be denned by considering

the equilibrium:
v
3
RjN:+ H O H
R N:H+ OH
3
Then the equilibrium constant, in water, is given b y
Kb
[R NH] [ O H ]
8
[RaN]
the concentration of water being taken as constant as it is present in

such large excess. As with K , K is, on the grounds of convenience,
a
48
Aliphatic
Bases
usually expressed as pK (pK = -log K ),

then the smaller the
numerical value of pK , the stronger is the base t o which it refers.
The strengths of bases may also be expressed in terms of pK , thus
providing a continuous scale for acids and bases. K (and hence p K j
b
10
for a base R N is a measure of the readiness with which R N H will

part with a proton
3
R N H + H O ^ R N + H O
e
i.e. of the acidity of R N H , a n < l ^ defined by:
3
[R N][H Q]
3
[R NH]
3
pK values in water may be converted into pJK by use of the relation:

b
pK + pK = 14-00 (at 25)

a
(ii) Aliphatic bases

i t s increasing strength in nitrogenous bases is related to the readiness
with which they are prepared to take u p protons and, therefore, to the
availability of the unshared electron pair on nitrogen, we should
expect to see an increase in basic strength as we g e : N H - + R N H ,
-t-RjNH-t-RgN, due t o the increasing inductive, effect of succes^ve
alkyl groups making the nitrogen a t o m more negative. An actual
series of amines have p K values as follows, however:
3
Me
Me--NH
3-36
\
a
Me
NH
Me->-N
y
Me
4-20
y
Me
3-23
NH
4-75
S
Et
Et
\
Et-NH
333
.
NH
y
Et
3-07
\
Et->-N
y
Et
3-12
It will be seen t h a t the introduction of an alkyl group into ammonia

increases the basic strength markedly as expected, ethyl having a
very slightly greater effect than methyl. The introduction of a second
49

alkyl group further increases the basic strength but the net effect
of introducing the second alkyl group is much less marked than with
the first. The introduction of a third alkyl group to yield a tertiary
amine, however, decreases the basic strength in both the series quoted.
This is due to the fact that the basic strength of an amine in water
is determined not only by electron-availability on the nitrogen atom,
but also by the extent to which the cation, formed by uptake of a
proton, can undergo solvation and so becomes stabilised. The more
hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen in the cation, the greater the
possibilities of solvation via hydrogen bonding between these and
water:
*
H
R $'
>
R NH<*:0
\.
OH
H
Thus as we go along the series N H - > R - N H - > - R N H - * R 3 N ,
though the inductive effect will increase the basicity, progressively
less stabilisation of the cation by hydration will occur, which will tend
to decrease the basicity. The net effect of introducing successive alkyl
groups thus becomes progressively smaller, and an actual changeover
takes place on going from a secondary t o a tertiary amine. If this is
the real explanation, n o such changeover should occur if measure
ments of basicity are made in a solvent in which hydrogen-bonding
cannot take place; it has, indeed, been found that in chlorobenzene
the order of basicity of the butylaminesls
3
BuNHj
<
Bu NH
2
<
Bu N
s
though their fK values in water are 3 39,2 72 and 4 - 1 3 , respectively.

Quaternary alkylammonium salts, e.g. R NI, are known, on
treatment with moist silver oxide' A g O H ' t o yield basic solutions
comparable in strength with the mineral alkalis. This is readily
understandable for the base so obtained, R N O H , is bound to be .
b
f f i 0
50
Aliphatic
Bases
completely ionised as there is n o possibility, as with tertiary amines

etc., of reverting to an unionised form:
s
R NH+ OH
-+
R N: + H 0
3
The effect of introducing electron-withdrawing groups, e.g. CI,

N 0 , close to a basic centre is, naturally, to decrease the basicity, due
to their electron-withdrawing inductive effect (see substituted
anilines below, p . 53); thus
2
F C^
3
F C--N:
3
/
FC
3
is virtually non-basic due to the three powerfully electron-withdraw

ing C F groups.
The change is particularly pronounced with groups such as
y>C=0 when these are adjacent to the basic centre for they are then
able t o act via a mesomeric effect:
3
Ip .
RC^NH
I
2
*->
RC=NH,
Thus amides are only very weakly basic in water (pK for acetamide
= 14-5) and if two ^ C = 0 groups are present, the resultant imides,
far from being basic, are often sufficiently acidic to form alkali metal
salts, e.g. phthalimide:
b
The effect of delocalisation in increasing the basic strength of an

amine is seen in guanidine, H N = C ( N H ) , which, with the exception
of the quaternary alkylammonium hydroxides above, is among the
strongest organic bases known, having too small a vK in water for it
2
51

to be accurately measured. Both the neutral molecule and the cation,
H N = C ( N H : J ) , resulting from its protonation, are stabilised by
delocalisation
2
:NH
HNC
:NH
ANH
NH
HI f).
N H - H N C ^ N H , - H N C = N H
2
fNH
NH
H
2
H N=rCNH
<- H NC-^-NH
NC-^NH <-* H fl
NC=NH
4==CNH N(
2
22
22
Neutral Molecule
Cation
but in the cation the positive charge is spread symmetrically by the

contribution t o the hybrid of three exactly equivalent structures of
equal energy. N o comparably effective delocalisation occurs in the
neutral molecule (in which two of the contributing structures involve
separation of charge) with the result that the cation is greatly stabi
lised with respect to it, thus making protonation 'energetically profit
a b l e ' and guanidine an extremely strong base.
(iii) Aromatic basts

Thaaexact reverse 06 the above is seen with aniline which is a very
weak base, having a p K of 9 38 compared to 4 75 for ammonia and
3-46 for methylamine. In aniline, the unshared electron pair on
nitrogen can interact with the delocalised n orbitals of the nucleus:
6
If the aniline is protonated, any such interaction, with resultant

stabilisation, is prohibited, as the electron pair on nitrogen is n o
longer unshared:
H,N:H
(VII)
52
Aromatic
Bases
Here the aniline molecule is stabilised with respect to the anilinium

cation (VII) and it is, therefore,' energetically w/rprofitable * for aniline
to take u p a p r o t o n ; it thus functions as a base with the utmost
reluctance which is reflected in its p K of 9 38, compared with that of
cyclohexylamine, 3 32. The effect is naturally more pronounced when
further phenyl groups are introduced on nitrogen; thus diphenylamine, P h N H is an extremely weak base (pK = 13-2) while triphenylamine, P h N is, by ordinary standards, not basic at all.
The overriding importance of this mesomeric destabilising of the
anilinium cation (VII) with resuect to the aniline molecule in deter
mining the t>asic strength ofîniline is confirmed by the relatively
small and irregular effects produced in j>K when methyl groups are
introduced on the nitrogen a t o m or in the ring; for these groups
would not be expected to influence markedly the interaction of the
nitrogen's unshared pair with the delocalised ir orbitals of the benzene
nucleus (cf. the small effect produced" by introducing alkyl groups
into the nucleus of phenol, p . 45). Thus the substituted anilines have
p K values:
Ph-NHj
Ph NHMe
Ph-NMe,
Me Q H N H ,
9-38
9-60
,
9-62
o9-62
m- 9-33
j*
900
The small, base-strengthening inductive effect they usually eiart is
not large enough to modify the destabilisation of the cation to any
significant extent. A group with a more powerful inductive effect, e.g.
N O , has rather more influence. This is intensified when the nitro
group is in the o- or. ^-position for the interaction of the unshared
electron pair of nitrogen with the delocalised it orbitals of the benzene
nucleus is then enhanced and the cation even further destabilised
with respect to the neutral molecule resulting in further weakening of
the base. Thus the nitro-anilines have p K values:
6
Ph-NHj
9-38
0 NC,H NH
. o- 14-28
m- 11-55,
P- 13-02
2
H N:>
^
2
The extra base-weakening effect when the substituent is in the

o-position is due in part to the short distance over which its inductive
53

effect is operating and also t o direct interaction, both steric and by
hydrogen bonding, with the N H group {cf the case of o-substituted
benzoic acids, p . 47). o-Nitroaniline is such a weak base that its salts
are largely hydrolysed in aqueous solution, while 2,4-dinitroaniline
is insoluble in aqueous acids, and 2,4,6-trinitroaniline resembles
an amide; it is indeed called picramide and readily undergoes hydro
lysis to picric acid.
With substituents such as O H and O M e having unshared electron
pairs, an electron-donating, i.e. base-strengthening, mesomeric effect
can be exerted from the o- and p-, but not from the m-position with
the result that the ^-substituted aniune is a stronger tfkse than the
corresponding m-compound. The m-compound is a weaker base than
aniline itself due to the electron-withdrawing inductive effect exerted
by the oxygen atom in each case. As so often, the effect of the o-substituent remains somewhat anomalous due to direct interaction with
the N H group by both steric and polar effects. The substituted
anilines have p K values as follows:
2
Ph-NH,
HOCJHINHJ
9-38
o- 9-28
m- 9-83
8-50
MeOC H NH
o- 9-51
m- 9-80
p8-71
6
H N
2
*-:OMe
An interesting case is provided by 2,4,6-trinitroaniline (VIII) and

2,4,6-trinitrodimethylaniline (IX), the latter being about forty thou
sand times as strong as the former while aniline itself is only about
twice as strong as dimethylaniline. This is due t o the fact that the
influence of nitro groups in the substituted dimethylaniline (IX) is
essentially confined t o their inductive effects. The dimethylamino
group is sufficiently large to interfere sterically with the very large nitro
groups in both o-positions, and the p orbitals on the nitrogen atoms
of both N M e and N 0 groups are thus prevented from becoming
parallel t o the orbitals of the nuclear carbon atoms. .As a conse
quence, mesomeric shift of unshared electrons from the amino-nitrogen atom t o the oxygen atom of the nitro groups via the delocalised
orbitals of the nucleus (cf. p . 52) is also prevented, and base-weaken
ing by mesomeric electron-withdrawal does not, therefore, occur.
2
In trinitro-aniline (VIII), however, the N H group is sufficiently

small for no such limitation to be imposed and hydrogen-bonding
2
54
Heterocyclic
Bases
between the o - N 0 groups and the hydrogens of the N H may help

t o hold these groups in the required orientation: the p orbitals may
become parallel a n d interact; and the base is thus enormously
weakened by the very powerful electron-withdrawing mesomeric
effects of the three nitro groups:
2
(IX)
(iv) Heterocyclic bases

(pK 8 96) is a very much weaker base than
b
the aliphatic tertiary amines (e.g. p K of E t N = 3-12) and this weak

ness is found to be characteristic of bases in which the nitrogen atom
is multiply bonded. This is due to the fact that as the nitrogen atom
becomes progressively more multiply bonded its lone-pair of elec
trons is accommodated in an orbital that has progressively more s
character; they are thus drawn closer t o the nitrogen nucleus and
held more tightly by it, thereby becoming less available for forming
a bond with proton, with a consequent decline in the basicity of the
b
compound. As we go -^N -*
-* ==N in, for example, R N -+

3
55
r
3
C H N --R C==N, the unshared pairs are in sp*, sp and sp orbitals,

respectively, and the declining basicity is reflected in the two p K
values quoted above and the fact that the basicity of alkyl cyanides is
too small t o measure.
With quinuclidine, however,
5
the unshared electron pair is again in an sp orbital and its pJf

(3 *42) is almost identical with that of triethylamine (3-12).
Pyrrole (X) is found to exhibit some aromatic character (though
this is not so pronounced as with benzene or pyridine) and does not
behave like a conjugated diene as might otherwise have been expected:
HC
CH
\ . . /
N
H
(X)
F o r such aromaticity to be achieved, six n electrons of the ring atoms

must occupy stable delocalised orbitals. This necessitates the contri
bution of two electrons by the nitrogen atom and, though the com
pleted orbitals will be deformed towards nitrogen because of the
more electronegative nature of that atom as compared with carbon,
nitrogen's electron pair will thus not be available for taking u p a
proton:
H
(X)
The situation resembles that already encountered with aniline (p. 52)
in that the cation (XI), obtained if protonation is forced upon pyrrole
(protonation is shown as taking place on nitrogen, but it may occur
on the a-carbon atom as happens with C-alkylated pyrroles),
56
Heterocyclic
Bases
CHCH
LI*
N
\
H
H
(XI)
is destabilised with respect to the neutral molecule (X); but the effect
is here more pronounced, for to function as a base pyrrole has to lose
all its aromatic character andytonsequent stability. This is reflected
in its pK of 1 3 6 compared with 9 38 for aniline; it is thus only a
very weak base and functions as an acid, albeit a very weak one, in
t h a t the hydrogen a t o m attached t o nitrogen may be removed by a
strong base, e.g. N H .
N o such considerations can, of course, apply to the fully-reduced
pyrrole, pyrrolidine ,
b
CHCHo
s
which has a p K of 2 73, closely similar to that of diethylamine, 3 * 07.
6
57
N U C L E O P H I L I C S U B S T I T U T I O N AT A
SATURATED CARBON
ATOM
A T Y P E of reaction that has probably received more study than any

otherlargely due to the monumental work of Ingold and his school
is nucleophilic substitution at a saturated carbon a t o m : the classical
displacement reaction exemplified by the conversion of an*alkyl halide
to an alcohol by the action of alkali:
H O + RHal -* HOR + Hal
Investigation of the kinetics of such reactions has shown that there
are essentially two extreme types, one in which
Rateoc [R-Hal][OH] .
.
(1)
and another in which:
Rateoc [R-Hal] i.e. is independent of [OH]
(2)
In many examples the kinetics are mixed, showing both types of rate
law simultaheously, or are otherwise complicated, but cases are known
which d o exempliffthe simple relations shown above.
RELATION OF K I N E T I C S TO MECHANISM
The hydrolysis of methyl bromide in aqueous alkali has been shown to

proceed according to equation (1) and this is interpreted as involving
the participation of both halide and hydroxyl ion in the rate-determin
ing (i.e. slowest) step of the reaction. Ingold has suggested a transition
state in which the attacking hydroxyl ion becomes partially bonded to
the reacting carbon atom before the incipient bromide ion has become
wholly detached from it; thus part of the energy necessary to effect the
breaking of the CBr bond is then supplied by that produced in
forming the H O C bond. Calculation shows that an approach by the
hydroxyl ion along the line of centres of the carbon and bromine atoms
is that of lowest energy requirement. This can be represented:
H
H ~\
H O + H-CBr - + H O C
58
Br -* H O C - H + Br
H
Transition state
Relation of Kinetics to
Mechanism
The negative charge is spread in the transition state in the course of

being transferred from hydroxyl to bromine, arid the hydrogen atoms
attached to the carbon atom attacked pass through a position in
which they all lie in one plane (at right angles to the plane of the paper
as drawn here). This type of mechanism has been named by Ingold
SJV2, standing for Substitution Nucleophilic bimolecular.
A certain element of confusion is to be met with both in text-books
and in the literature over the use of the term bimolecular, particularly
in its confusion with second order as applied to reactions. It is probably
simplest to reserve the latter nurely for a description of the type of
kinetic equation that a reaction follows: thus equation (1) represents a
second order reaction, being first order in each reactant and equation
(2) represents a first order reaction; while molecularity is reserved for
a description of the mechanism proposed, being used in the sense
of specifying the number of species that are actually undergoing
covalency changes in the rate-determining stage. Thus, hydrolysis of
methyl bromide under the conditions specified, not only exhibits
second order kinetics but, as represented mechanistically, is clearly a
bimolecular reaction.
By contrast, the hydrolysis o f t-butyl chloride in alkali is found
kinetically to follow equation (2), i.e. as the rate is independent of
[ O H ] , this can play n o part in the rate-determining step. This has
been interpreted as indicating that the hllide u n d e r g o e s ^ l o w
ionisation (in fact, completion of the R->Hal polarisation that
has already been shown to be present in such a molecule) as the ratedetermining step, followed by rapid, non rate-determining attack by
OH or, if that is suitable, by solvent, the latter often predominating:
e
Me
Me
Me
Me
slow \
Me*-CCI>CI
Me
otyr
/'
^tet
HOC-Me
\
'
I
Me
Me
-H
MCB-COH
/
Me-COH
/
Me
Me
This type of mechanism has been named S l, i.e. Substitution
Nucleophilic unimolecular. The energy necessary to effect the initial
N
59
Nucleophilic Substitution
at a Saturated Carbon
Atom
ionisation is largely recovered in the energy of solvation of the ions so

formed. The cation (I) in which the carbon atom carries a positive
charge is a carbonium ion and during its formation the initially
tetrahedral carbon atom collapses to a more stable planar state in
which the three methyl groups are as far apart as they can get; attack
by O H or solvent can then take place from either side. If this assump
tion of a planar state is inhibited by steric o r other factors (cf. p . 65),
the carbonium ion will be formed only with difficulty if at all, i.e.
ionisation, and hence reaction by the S l mechanism, may then not
take place.
^
Kinetics alone can, in some casesôe an insufficient'guide as to
which mechanism is being followed, unless the reaction is investigated
under more than one set of conditions. Thus where the solvent can
act as a nucleophilic reagent, e.g. H 0 under S^2 conditions:
Rate oc [R-Hai][H,0].
e
But as [ H O ] is effectively constant, the rate becomes proportional tc

[R-Hal] and study of the kinetics in water alone would erroneously
suggest that the reaction was of the S l type. Such attack by the
solvent, in this case H 0 , is known as solvolysis.
a
EFFECT OF SOLVENT
The*3olvent in which'a reaction is carried out may exert a profound

effect on the mechanism by which such reaction takes place. So far as
the hydrolysis or solvolysis of a given halide is concerned, the more
polar the solvent employed the more likely is the reaction t o proceed
via the S \ rather than the. Sjy2 mode, and such changeovers, as the
solvent is varied, are well known. This change in mechanism is in part
due to a solvent of high dielectric constant promoting ionisation but
also to the fact that ions so produced will become-highly solvated in
suitable solvents, e.g. water. This solvation process is attended by the
liberation of considerable amounts of energy which may go a long way
towards providing the energy necessary for ionisation, which is thus
further promoted. That such solvation effects are of great importance
is confirmed by the fact that though S \ reactions are not unknown in
the vapour phase, where solvation of ions is naturally impossible, they
are very much less common than those in solution.
N
For a halide that undergoes hydrolysis by the Sjyl mode in a number

of different solvents, the rate of hydrolysis is observed to increase as
the solvent becomes more polar and/or a better medium for solvating
60
Effect of
Structure
ions: thus the rate of hydrolysis (Sjyl) of t-butyl chloride is 30,000

times as fast in 50 per cent aqueous ethanol as in ethanol alone. The
effect of change of solvent on a halide wh,ose hydrolysis proceeds by
the Sjy2 mechanism throughout is much less marked and the direction
of the effect on rate of reaction is not always readily predictable. This
difference in the effect of change of solvent on reaction rate in the two
cases may be of help in determining whether a particular displacement
reaction is proceeding by the S \ or Sjv2 mechanisms.
N
E F F E C p O F STRUCTURE
An interesting contrast is provided by hydrolysis of the series of

halides:
Me
Me
CH Br
3
MeCH Br
S
^HBr
Me-^CBr
Me
Me
The first and last members are described in the literature as under
going ready hydrolysis, the two intermediate members being more
resistant. Measurement of rates of hydrolysis with dilute alkali in
aqueous ethanol gives the plot*
i-Pr
t-Bu
Based on Ingold, Structure and Mechanism

in Organic Chemistry, by permission of
Cornell University Press.
61
Atom
and further kinetic investigation shows a change in order of reaction,

and hence presumably of mechanism, as the series is traversed. Thus
methyl and ethyl bromide show second order kinetics, isopropyl
bromide shows a mixture of second and first order, with the former
predominatingthe total rate here being a minimum for the s e r i e s while t-butyl bromide exhibits first order kinetics.
The reason for the changeover is not far to seek: methyl groups
exert an inductive effect as already mentioned (p. IS), so that in
M e - - C H B r the carbon atom attached to bromine will be more
negative than that in CH Br, it will tj|us be less susceptible to attack
by O H and the S 2 mechanism will be inhibited. This effect will be
2
more pronounced in ^ ^ C H B r and SJV2 attack will be further

inhibited, but transmission of some of the negative charge accumulated
on carbon to the bromine a t o m will promote ionisation, i.e. attack on
the carbon a t o m by the S \ mechanism will be facilitated. By the time
N
M e - - C B r is reached, Sjy2 attack is entirely inhibited, but that by

Me^
.
Sjyl is now considerably promoted, a complete changeover in the
mechanistic type of the reaction has been effected and the overall rate
increases. T h e stability of the carbonium ion produced o n going
C H - > M e ' C H - > M e C H - - M e C will be increasingly promoted by

hyperconjugation
3
etc
CH
via the hydrogen atoms attached to the a-carbons, the above series of
ions having 0, 3, 6 and 9 such hydrogen atoms, respectively. Such
hyperconjugative stabilisation can only take place in a planar ion,
hence the need for a carbonium ion t o be able t o attain such a
planar state if it is to be formed at all (cf. p . 84). This increasing
stabilisation of the carbonium ion as the series is traversed will
naturally further promote the S \ mechanism at the expense of SJV2.
There will also be an increasing steric resistance to S ^ 2 as the series
is traversed. N o t only will O H find it more difficult to attack the
carbon atom attached to bromine as the former becomes more heavily
N
62
Effect of
Structure
substituted, but the SJV2 mechanism involves a transition state in

which there are five groups around the carbon atom attacked, while
the Sjyl intermediate involves only three, and even these at their
maximum distance apart in a planar state. The divergence between the
two will naturally increase, with consequent favouring of S \ at the
expense of S ^ , as alkyl substitution at the carbon atom being attacked
is increased.
A similar change of mechanism is observed, but considerably sooner,
in traversing the series:
N
CH,CI
PhCH^-Cl
Ph CHCI
Ph,CCI
S l hydrolysis is here observed at the second member and with

P h C C I the ionisation is so pronounced that the compound
shows electrical conductivity when dissolved in liquid S O . The
reason for the greater promotion of ionisation, with consequent more
rapid changeover to the S \ mechanism, is the considerable stabilisa
tion of the carbonium ion that is here possible by delocalisation of the
positive charge
w
i.e. a classical example of an ion stabilised by charge delocalisation

via the agency of the delocalised w orbitals of the benzene nucleus
{cf. the negatively charged phenoxide ion, p . 17). In terms of overall
reactivity, benzyl chloride is rather similar to t-butyl chloride; the
effect will become progressively more pronounced, and S^l attack
further facilitated, with P h C H C l and P h C C I as the possibilities of
delocalising the positive charge are increased in the carbonium ions
obtainable from these halides.
Similar carbonium ion stabilisation can occur with allyl halides:
a
CH =CHCH C1 -* [CH =^CH^-CH <_> C H C H = C H ] + C l

2
Sjyl attack is thus promoted and allyl, like benzyl, halides are
normally extremely reactive as compared with e.g. C H j ' C H a - C H a C I
and P h - C H - C H - C H C 1 respectively where such carbonium ion
stabilisation cannot take place.
2
63
Atom
By contrast, vinyl halides such as C H ^ C H C I and halogenobenzenes are very unreactive. The reason in each case is that some
overlap occurs between the p orbital on chlorine and an orbital on
the adjacent carbon a t o m :
T h e effect is to make this carbon a t o m more negative and hence less

readily attacked by, e . g . O H , and also to introduce a certain a m o u n t
of double bond character into the linkage between carbon and chlorine
(confirmed by the slightly shorter CCI bond distances observed in
the above compounds compared with M e - C H C I ) ; features that
will discourage attack by either S \ or Sjy2 mechanisms.
The influence of steric factors on mechanism is particularly observed
when substitution takes place at the /J-position. T h u s in the series
9
Me
CH,CH,Hal
MeCH,CH,Hal
CHCH,Hal
Me
Me
\
MeCCH,Hal
Me^
Effect of
Structure
it is found that the S 2 reaction rate falls as we pass along the series,
the d r o p being particularly marked as we go from the isobutyl to the
neopentyl halide, in which a t t a c k ' from the back * by e.g. O H on the
oc-carbon atom along the line of centres might be expected to be very
highly hindered. The main factor inhibiting S, 2 attack is however the
highly crowded transition state
N
Me
I
MeCMe
l-f
|
8
WJ
H
CI
H
that would have to be formed. The d r o p in rate probably owes little

to the inductive effect of the increasing number of substituent methyl
groups owing to the interposition of a saturated carbon atom (the
jS-carbon) between them and the carbon a t o m (a-) t o be attacked.
A very interesting example of the effect of structure on the reactivity
of a halide is provided by 1-brgmotriptycene (II):
q
T h e bromine a t o m in this compound is virtually inert to nucleophiles.

SJV2 'attack from the b a c k ' is inhibited sterically by the cage-like
structure, and the formation of a transition state, in which the three
groups attached t o the carbon a t o m attacked must pass through a
co-planar arrangement, is prevented as this atom is held rigidly in
position by the substituents attached to it. S \ attack is also inhibited
because the carbonium ion that would be formed by ionisation is
unable to stabilise itself for, being unable t o achieve coplanarity with
its substituents, charge-delocalisation with them (p. 84) cannot take
place.
N
65
Atom
STEREOCHEMICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MECHANISM
T h e hydrolysis of a n optically active halide presents some interesting

stereochemical features. Thus considering both mechanisms in t u r n :
(i) S^2 mechanism
R
e
H O + R'*-CBr
R*
Dextro, i.e. ( + )
R'
HO
R
C
R
Br
HOC-R'+Br
R'
\
^
R'
It will be seen that the arrangement or pattern of the three groups

attached to the carbon atom attacked has been effectively turned inside
out. The carbon atom is said to have undergone reversal or, as more
usually expressed, inversion of its configuration (the pattern or arrange
ment in space of the groups attached to it). Indeed, if the product
could be the bjomide instead of the corresponding alcohol it would be
found to rotate the plane of polarisation of plane polarised light in the
opposite direction (i.e. laevo or ()) to the starting material for it
would, of course, be its mirror image. The actual product is the alcohol,
however, and we are unfortunately not able to tell merely by observing
its direction of opticlll rotation whether it has the same or the opposite
configaration t o the bromide from which it was derived; for com
pounds, other than mirror images, having opposite configurations do
not necessarily exhibit opposite directions of optical rotation, any
more than d o compounds having the same configuration necessarily
exhibit the same direction of optical rotation. Thus in order to confirm
that the above Sjy2 reaction is, in practice, actually attended by an
inversion of configuration, as the theory requires, it is necessary to
have an independent method for relating the configuration of, e.g., a
halide and the corresponding alcohol.
,
(ii) Determination of relative configuration
This turns essentially on the fact that if an asymmetric compound
undergoes a reaction in which a bond joining one of the groups to the
asymmetric centre is broken, then the centre maythough it need not
of necessityundergo inversion of configuration; while if the com
pound undergoes reaction in which n o such bond is broken then the
centre will preserve its configuration intact. Thus in the series of
reactions on the asymmetric alcohol (III)
66
Stereochemical
Implications of
Mechanism
R
p-Me-C.HcSO.-a
R'-COH
R*
(+)
(IV)
an)
MeCO,
(VII)
R
e
OH
MeCOOC-R'
HOC-R'
\
R*
(VI) ( - )
(V)
formation of an ester with toluene /^-sulphonyl chloride is known not

to break the CO bond of the alcohol,* hence the tosylate (IV) must
have the same configuration as the original alcohol. Reaction of tl.'s
ester with acetate ion is known to be a replacement in which pM e - C H - S < V O is expelled and M e C O O introduced,* hence
the C O bond is broken in this reaction a n d inversion of configura
tion can take place in forming the acetate (V). Alkaline hydrolysis of
the acetate (V->VI) can be shown not to involve fission of the alkyloxygen CO linkage.f so the alcohol (VI) must have the same con
figuration as the acetate (V). As (VI) is found'to b ? t h e mirror image of
the starting material, an inversion of configuration must h a v e ^ a k e n
place during the series of reactions and it can only have taken place
during the reaction of acetate ion with the tosylate (IV). A number of
further reactions with the tosylate show that an inversion of configura
tion takes place with a variety of anions and hence it may be concluded
with a considerable degree of confidence that it takes place on reaction
with chloride ion, so that the chloride (VII), like the acetate (V), has
the opposite configuration to the original alcohol (HI). N o w that it is
thus possible to show that S 2 reactions are normally attended by
inversion of configuration, independent demonstration t h a t a par
ticular reaction takes place by an S 2 mechanism is often used to
relate the configuration of product and starting material in that
reaction.
e
* That such is the case may be shown by using an alcohol with O in the -OH
group and showing that this atom is not eliminated on forming the tosylate; it
is, however, eliminated when the tosylate is reacted with Me - CO,.
t Hydrolysis of an acetate in which the alcohol-oxygen atom is labelled with
O fails to result in its replacement, showing that the alkyl-oxygen bond is not
broken in the hydrolysis (cf. p. 35).
l s
67
Atom
(Hi) S, l mechanism
v
As the carbonium ion formed in the slow, rate-determining stage

of the reaction is planar, it is to be expected that subsequent attack by
a nucleophilic reagent such as O H or the solvent (e.g. H 0 ) will take
place with equal readiness from either side of the planar ion leading,
in fact, to a 50/50 mixture of species having the same and the opposite
configuration as the starting material, i.e. that racemisation will take
place yielding an optically inactive ( ^ product.
What actually happens, depends on how rapidly the attack by a
nucleophile follow s*n the initial ionisation step. If the second reaction
follows closely upon trie first, it may be that the receding anion, e.g.
B r , may still be only a few molecular diameters away and thus attack
by an approaching nucleophile is inhibited on the side of the car
bonium ion to which the bromine was originally attached. Attack on
the 'backside' of the carbonium ion is unaffected, however, and will
thus preponderate, leading to more inversion than retention of con
figuration in the product, i.e. racemisation with some inversion will
be observed in the product.
What is thus observed in practice, under S^l conditions, may range
from virtually complete racemisation to almost total inversion of
configuration depending on how rapidly attack by a nucleophile fol
lows on the initial ionisation. The most common situation is mainly
racemisation attended by some inversion, the relative proportions of
the two seen with a particular substrate being profoundly influenced
by the conditions under which the reaction is carried out. If the solvent
can act as a nucleophile, e.g. H 0 , attack is likely to be more rapid,
because of its very large relative concentration, than if the presence of
an added nucleophile, Y , is necessary, thus leading to a relatively
e
68
Syi
Mechanism
higher proportion of inversion. A good solvating solvent such as water

is particularly effective in this respect because of the rapidity with
which the incipient carbonium ion collects a solvating envelope around
itself.
(iv) S i mechanism
N
Despite what has been said above of replacement reactions leading t o

inversion of configuration or racemisation or, in some cases, a mixture
of both, a few cases are known of reactions that proceed with retention
of configuration, i.e. in whicbAhe starting material and product have
the same configuration. One case in which this has been shown t o
occur is in the replacement of O H by CI by the use of thionyl chloride.
This reaction has been shown to follow second order kinetics, i.e.
rate [ R - O H ] [SOCl ], but it clearly cannot proceed according to an
unmodified S 2 mechanism for this would lead to inversion of con
figuration which is not observed. It has been interpreted mechanis
tically as follows:
2
R
R'^COH+SOCl
R
8
R
S=0
RVC
/
R"
o
S=0
\
CI..
N o change in configuration can take place in stage (i) as the CO

bond is not broken and in the second stage, where this bond is broken,
attack by CI takes place from the same side of the carbon a t o m because
of the orientation of the intermediate (VIII). A close study of the
reaction has suggested that the second stage exhibits some S 1
character in that the breakdown of (VIII) probably proceeds through
an ion pair (cf. p . 80):
N
s=o
9
The chlorosulphite anion then breaks down to S 0 and C I so rapidly

that Cl is available for frontal attack on the carbonium ion before the
2
69
Atom
latter has had time to collapse to the planar state, thus leading to a
product having the same configuration as the starting material. This
is admittedly an ad hoc explanation but support for it has been obtained
by the fact that compounds such as (VIII), alkyl chlorosulphites, can
actually be isolated and then shown to undergo extremely ready
conversion to alkyl h a l i d e + S 0 . If, however, the reaction is carried
out in the presence of base, e.g. pyridine, the hydrogen chloride
liberated in forming the chlorosulphite in stage (i) is converted to C l ;
this then readily attacks (VIII) 'from the b a c k ' with the expulsion of
O S O C l . The reaction is now of a j i o r m a l S 2 type, proceeding
with inversion, and the somewhat specialised S i (Substitution
Nucleophilic internal) mechanism, with retention of configuration, is
no longer observed.
2
(?) Neighbouring group participation

There are also a number of other cases of replacement reactions in
which retention of configuration takes place but these can all be
shown to have one feature in c o m m o n : an atom, close t o the carbon
undergoing the displacement reaction, which carries a negative charge
or has an unshared pair of electrons, i.e.. which can act as a n ' internal'
nucleophilic reagent. Thus in the alkaline hydrolysis of the /J-chlorohydrin(IX)
*
R
CRjOH
\ /
Ji
CI
H
(IX)
ci
OH
CR.Of
\ y
>
CR,
jin<nalS*2
C-
v
CI
first
'
\ _ / |
e
> H O - * C
inversion
vl
Qp
(X)
(XI)
normal
S2
N
CR O H
* \
H.O
OH
second
inversion
' CR O
< c
* \
HO
H
HO
H
(XIII)
(XII)
the first stage is conversion of the O H to the corresponding alkoxide
ion (X). This ion,acting as a nucleophile, then attacks the carbon atom
carrying chlorine 'from the b a c k ' in an internal S 2 reaction that
N
70
Neighbouring
Group
Participation
results in inversion of configuration at this carbon and the formation

of the cyclic intermediate (XI), a n alkylene oxide or epoxide. The
three-membered ring is then reopened by the action of O H , attack
taking place a t the less heavily substituted of the two carbon a t o m s
(i.e. the one that originally carried the chlorine in this case) as this will
be the more positive of the two, its electron availability being enhanced
by the inductive effect of only one rather than of two alkyl groups.
This attack will also be of the Sjv2 type, from the side to which the
chlorine was originally attached, resulting in a second inversion of
configuration at this carbon atom. The reaction is completed by con
version of (he alkoxide ion (XfT) to the alcohol (XIII). This alcohol will
have the same configuration as the original chloride (IX) but it would
hardly be true t o say that the overall reaction had proceeded with
retention of configuration for, in fact, the apparent retention of con
figuration has been brought about by two successive inversions. This,
of course, distinguishes such a reaction type from S / w h i c h is attended
by a real retention of configuration.
e
Evidence for this overall picture of the reaction is provided by the

actual isolation of the epoxides postulated as intermediates and the
demonstration that they m a y be hydrolysed under the conditions of
the reaction and with results as observed above.
A similar apparent retention of configurationTccurs in the hydro
lysis of a-halogenated acids in dilute alkaline
felution
O
R
C
\
/V
Br
cÔs
0 internal SJV2
' first inversion
C
\C
HO0
* -*
y
/
VI
Cb
H
(XIV)
<=>OH
normal Sjy2
x
x
second inversion
c
4
HO
but here the suggested cyclic intermediate (XIV), an a-lactone, has not
actually been isolated. If the reaction is carried out in extremely
concentrated base, [ O H ] is then large enough to compete effectively
with the internal attack by - C O
and the normal one stage S 2
reaction then yields a product whose configuration has undergone
inversion. At intermediate concentrations of base both reactions take
place, i.e. retention of configuration with a varying degree of racemi
sation is observed.
e
71
Atom
Even if n o stereochemical point is a t issue, participation of neigh

bouring groups can b e of interest because of their possible effect on
the rate of reaction. Thus C l C H C H S E t m a y be hydrolysed
approximately 10,000 times as rapidly as C l C H - C H - O E t under
the same conditions. This is far too large a difference for it to be due t o
inductive o r steric effects in such simple molecules a n d is thought t o
arise from the rate-determining formation of a cyclic sulphonium salt
(XV) which, being highly strained, undergoes extremely ready a n d
rapid hydrolysis:
a
EtS:
CHgJ-Cl
/
CH
> EtSCH*
determining
> EtS:
verv
CH
C1 (XV)
CH OH
2
N.
r a p , d
CH
+H
The oxygen in the ether, C I C H C H O E t , being more electro

negative, does n o t part with its unshared electrons so readily as
sulphur, hence n o cyclic salt is formed and the chlorine undergoes
hydrolysis by a normal displacement reaction. Suitable nitrogencontaining compounds also show such enhanced ease of hydrolysis
proceeding via ethyleneimmonium iorfs such as (XVI):
m
a
f\
Me m
rate
* CHj-J-CI
\^y/
CH
ffi
> Me NCH
2
determining
OH
> Me N:
CH OH
rapid
CH
(XVI)
CH
CI
Their hydrolysis normally proceeds less rapidly than that of similar

sulphur compounds, however, reflecting the greater stability of the
cyclic nitrogen, as compared with the cyclic sulphur, intermediates.
These features are of interest in relation t o the classical vesicant
agents of chemical warfare such as mustard gas itself, S ( C H - C H C 1 ) ,
'a
and the related nitrogen mustards such as M e N ( C H - C H C l ) . T h e
cyclic immonium derivatives obtained as intermediates during the
hydrolytic destruction of the latter have the additional hazard of being
powerful neurotoxins.
2
EFFECT OF ENTERING AND LEAVING GROUPS
Changing the nucleophilic reagent employed, i.e. the entering group,

is not going t o alter the rate of an S 1 displacement reaction, e.g. of a
N
72
Effect of Entering and Leaving Groups
halide, for this reagent does not take part in the rate-determining step
of the reaction. With an Sjy2 displacement, however, the more strongly
nucleophilic the reagent the more the reaction will be promoted. The
' nucleophilicity' of the reagent can broadly be equated with the extent
to which it has available electrons, i.e. with its basic strength. This
parallel, though useful, is by no means exact, however, for in a
displacement reaction an ion such as Y is usually showing nucleo
philicity for carbon while when acting as a base it is exhibiting nucleo
philicity for hydrogen and nucleophilic attack on carbon is usually
much more subject to stericynfluences than is coordination with a
proton. The parallel can however be used as a general guide with fair
success, particularly if the attacking atom of the nucleophiles con
sidered is the same in each case. Thus strong bases such as E t O and
HO are more strongly nucleophilic agents than weak bases such as
M e C 0 . From what has already been said about the effect of change
of reagent on the two types of mechanism, it follows that in the dis
placement of any particular atom or group, the more powerfully
nucleophilic the reagent employed the greater is the chance of the
reaction proceeding by the S^2 route. Thus as the series H 0 ,
M e - C O , PhO, HO, EtO is traversed, it may well be that a
displacement reaction of R - Hal which started bvjjeing S \ with H 0
or M e CO has changed over to SJV2 by the time EtO is reached.
e
So far as change of attacking atom in a nucleophile is concerffPd, it is

broadly true, within a single group or subgroup of the periodic table,
that the larger the atom the greater its nucleophilic reactivity; thus
decreasing reactivities I > Br > CI > F and RS > RO are
observed. This is probably due to the fact that as the atom increases
in size, the hold the nucleus has on the peripheral electrons decreases,
with the result that they become more readily polarisable leading to
bonding interaction at greater internuclear distances. Also the larger
the ion or group the less its solvation energy, which means the less
energy that has to be supplied to it in order to remove, in whole or in
part, its envelope of solvent molecules so as to get it into a condition
in which it will attack a carbon atom. It is a combination of these two
factors which makes the large I a better nucleophile than the small
F, despite the fact that the latter is a considerably stronger base than
the former.
So far as the leaving group, i.e. the one expelled or displaced, in an
S 2 reaction is concerned, the more easily the C-leaving group bond
can be distorted the more readily the transition state will be formed,
s
73
Atom
so here again ready polarisability is an advantage. Thus ease of

expulsion decreases in the series I > Br > CI > F; this, of course,
exemplifies the well-known decrease in reactivity seen as we go from
alkyl iodide to alkyl fluoride. The fact that I can both attack and be
displaced so readily means that it is often used as a catalyst in nucleo
philic reactions, the desired reaction being facilitated via successive
attacks on and displacements from the centre under attack:
0
slow
R C 1 + H , 0 > R O H + H + CI
e
RCI + I C t e + Rl
f
fast
I
fast
H.O
l + H + R - O H
The overall effect is thus facilitation of the hydrolysis of RC1, which
does not readily take place directly, via the easy formation of RI
(I as an effective attacking agent) followed by its ready hydrolysis
(I as an effective leaving agent).
In general terms, it can be said that the more basic the leaving group
the less easily can it be displaced by a n attacking nucleophile; thus
strongly basic grouos such as RO, HO, H N and F , bound to
carbon by small atoms that may not readily be polarised, cannot
norrrfSTly be displaced Tinder ordinary conditions. They can, however,
be displaced in acid solution due to initial protonation providing a
positively charged species (rather than a neutral molecule) for the
nucleophile to attack, and resulting in readier displacement of the
much less basic Y H rather than Y:
0
R OH
Br
> R O H RBr + H O
s
Thus even the extremely tightly held fluorine in alkyl fluorides may
be displaced by nucleophilic reagents in concentrated sulphuric acid
solution. The use of hydrogen iodide to cleave ethers
PhOR
t-Ph-O-R
s-PhOH+RI
is due to the fact that I is the most powerful nucleophile that can be
obtained in the strongly acid solution that is necessary to make
reaction possible.
74
Nitrosation
of
Amines
T h e leaving group in an S l reaction determines the reaction r a t e ;

the lower the energy of the C-leaving group bond and the greater the
tendency of the leaving group to form an anion, the more readily the
reaction will proceed via the S \ mechanism.
w
NITROSATION OF AMINES
In the examples considered t o date it is carbon that has been under

going nucleophilic attack but similar attack may also take place o n
nitrogen as, for example, in the flitrosation of amines where the amine
acts as the nucleophile:
H
I
I A
R *
N = 0
H
H
R-NN=0
->- R N N = 0
H >X
H
R'N=NOH
-H.O
In the familiar reaction of primary amines with nitrites and acid, the
species that is acting as the effective nitrosating agent has been shown
t o depend on the conditions though it is apparently never HNOjtVself.
Thus at low acidity N 0 ( X = O N O ) obtained by
2
2HN0
^ ONONO + H O
a
is thought to be the effective nitrosating agent while as the acidity

9
increases it is first protonated nitrous acid, H 0 N O ( X = H 0 )

and finally the nitrosonium ion NO (cf. p . 106), though nitrosyl
halides, e.g. NOCI, also play a part in the presence of halogen acids.
Though the latter are more powerful nitrosating agents than N 0 ,
the reaction with aliphatic amines is nevertheless inhibited by increas
ing acidity as the nucleophilic R N H is a relatively strong base which
is progressively converted into the unreactive cation, R- N H .
With aliphatic primary amines the carbonium ion obtained by
breakdown of the highly unstable R-N can lead to the formation of
a wide range of ultimate products (cf. p . 85). The instability of the
diazonium cation is due to the very great stability of the N that may be
2
Atom
obtained by its breakdown, but with aromatic primary amines some

stabilisation of this cation is conferred by delocalisation via the n
orbital system of the aromatic nucleus
a n d diazonium salts may be obtainedfrom such amines provided the

conditions are mild. Such diazotisation must normally be carried
out under conditions of fairly high acidity (a) to provide a powerful
nitrosating agent, for primary aromatic amines are not very powerful
nucleophiles (due to interaction of the electron pair on nitrogen with
the it orbital system of the nucleus, p . 118) and (b) to reduce the ^
concentration of A r - N H by converting it to A r - N H ( A r - N H is a
very much weaker base than R - N H , p . 52) so as to avoid as yet
undiazotised amine undergoing azo-coupling with the first formed
a
A r - N ( c / . p . 115).
Reaction also takes place with the secondary amines but cannot
proceed further than the N-nitroso compound, R N N = 0 , while
with"Tertiary aliphatic amines the readily decomposed nitroso2
e
trialkylammonium cation, R N N O is obtained. With aromatic
tertiary amines such as N-dialkylanilines, however, attack can take
place o n the activated nucleus (cf. p . 106) to yield a C-nitroso
compound:
NR
3
N=0
OTHER N U C L E O P H I L I C DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
In the discussion of nucleophilic substitution at a saturated carbon

atom, the attack on halides by negatively charged ions, e.g. H O and
E t O , has been used almost exclusively to illustrate the mechanism
of the reactions involved. In fact this type of reaction is extremely
9
76
Other Nucleophilic
Displacement
Reactions
widespread in organic chemistry and embraces very many more types

than those of which passing mention has been made. Thus other
typical examples include:
(i) The formation of a tetralkylammonium salt
R N : + RBr
R N:R+Br
where the unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen attack carbon with

the expulsion of a bromide i o n ; and also the breakdown of such a
salt
Br + R : N R -> BrR + :NR

3
in which it is the bromide ion that acts as a nucleophile and : N R that

is expelled as the leaving group. An exactly similar situation is, of
course, met with in the formation of sulphonium salts
3
RS: + RBr -> R S : R + Br

a
and in their breakdown.

(ii) The alkylation of reactive methylene groups etc. (cf. p . 221):
e
EtO + CH (CO Et), -> EtOH + CH{CO Et),
a
(EtO,C) HC + RBr -> ( E t O j Q j H f R+Br

^
Here, and in the next two examples, a carbanion or a source of negative
carbon is acting as the nucleophile.
(iii) Reactions of acetylene in the presence of strong base, e.g.
N a N H g i n liquid N H :
a
H N + H G E C H a
H N + GEECH
3
H C ^ C + RBr - * HC=C R + Br
(iv) Reaction of Grignard reagents:

B r M g R + R ' B r - B r M g + R R '
3
(v) Decomposition of diazonium salts in water:

H O : + PhN -* H O : P h + N
a
HO:Ph ^-HO:Ph + H
H
77
Atom
(vi) The formation of alkyl halides:

R - O H + H - R - O H
H
Q
B r + R O H -* BrR + H O
H
a
(vii) The cleavage of ethers:

Ph O R + H - > P h O R
P h O R + I
H
PhOH+RI
(viii) The formation of esters:

R' CO, + RBr -* R ' - C 0 R + Br
2
(ix) The formation of ethers:

RO+R'Br - f R ' O R ' + B r
m
(x) LiAIH reduction of halides:
LfAlH.+RBr -* LiAlH Br+HR

3
Here the complex hydride is, essentially, acting as a carrier for hydride
ion, H, which is the effective nucleophile.
(xi) Ring fission in epoxides:
Cl^CHjCH
C1CH CH, O + H 0
2
-> C l C H j C H j O
C1CH, C H O H + O H
2
Here it is the relief of strain achieved on opening the three-membered

ring that is responsible for the ready attack by a weak* nucleophile.
This is only a very small selection: there are many more displace
ment reactions of preparative utility and synthetic importance.
78
Other Nucleophilic Displacement
Reactions
It will be noticed from these examples that the attacking nucleophile

need not of necessity be an anion with a full-blown negative charge
(e.g. HO, Br, ( E t 0 C ) H C ) but it must at least have unshared
electron pairs available (e.g. R N : , R S : ) with which to attack a
positive carbon or other atom. Equally the species that is attacked may
2
e
be a cation with a full-blown positive charge (e.g. R N : R ) , but more
commonly it is a neutral molecule (e.g. RBr). It must, of course, also
be remembered that what is a nucleophilic attack from the point of
view of one participant will be an electrophilic attack from the point
of view of the other. Our attitude, and hence normal classification of
reactions, tends to be formed by somewhat arbitrary preconceptions
about what constitutes a reagent as opposed to a substrate (cf. p . 27).
Overall, the most common nucleophile of preparative significance is
probably HO or, producing essentially the same result, H 0 ,
especially when the latter is the solvent and therefore present in
extremely high concentration.
Hardly surprisingly, not all displacement reactions proceed so as to
yield nothing but the desired product. Side reactions may take place
yielding both unexpected and unwanted products, particularly elimin
ation reactions to yield unsaturated compounds; the origin of these is
discussed subsequently (p. 189).
79
CARBONIUM IONS,
ELECTRON-DEFICIENT
N AND O ATOMS AND THEIR
REACTIONS
R E F E R E N C E has already been made in the last chapter t o the gener

ation of carbonium ions as intermediates in displacement reactions
at a saturated carbon atom, e.g. the hydrolysis of a n alkyl halide
that take place via the S \ mechanism. Carbonium ions are, however,
fairly widespread in occurrence and although their existence is
normally only transient, they are of considerable importance in a wide
variety of chemical reactions.
N
METHODS OF FORMATION OF CARBONIUM IONS
(i) Direct ionisation

This has already been commented onin the last chapter, e.g.
Me,CCl -> Me C + C I
P h C H , C l -> P h C H , + C l
C H , = C H C H , C I - C H , = C H C H , + C l
M e O C H , C l -> M e O C H , + Cl
It should be emphasised however that a highly polar, ion-solvating
medium is usually necessary and that it is ionisation (i.e. the formation
of a n ion pair) rather t h a n dissociation t h a t may actually b e taking
place.
The question of how the relative stability, and consequent ease of
formation, of carbonium ions is influenced by their structure will be
discussed below (p. 82).
(ii) Protonation
This may, for instance, occur directly by addition t o an unsaturated
linkage, e.g. in the acid-catalysed hydration of defines (p. 143):
H.O
-CH=CH-
- C H , C H - v = -CH,CH
-CH,CHOH
80
Methods of Formation of Carbonium
Ions
This reaction is, of course, reversible and the reverse reaction, the
acid-catalysed dehydration of alcohols, is probably more familiar.
A proton may also add on t o a carbon-oxygen double bond
OH
H
=0
Y9
yCOH
\c \
as in the acid-catalysed addition of some anions, Y, to an aldehyde

or ketone, the addition of proton to the ^ > C = 0 providing a highly
positive carWbn atom for attack by the anion. That such protonation
does indeed take place is confirmed by the fact that many ketones
showed double the theoretical freezing-point depression when dis
solved in concentrated sulphuric acid due t o :
^ C = 0 + H , S 0 4 ^ ^>COH + HSO.
That the ketones undergo n o irreversible change in the process
may be shown by subsequent dilution of the sulphuric acid solution
with water when the ketone may be recovered unchanged.
A similar result may also be obtained by the use of other electron
deficient species, i.e. Lewis acids:
^>C=< > + AlCl ^
s
>COA1C1,
Carbonium ions may also be generated where an atom containing

unshared electrons is protonated, the actual carbonium ion being
generated subsequently by the removal of this a t o m :
ROH + H ^ ROH ^ R + H O
H
a
This is, of course, one of the steps in the acid-catalysed dehydration

of alcohols mentioned above. It may also be encountered in the acidcatalysed decomposition of ethers, esters, anhydrides, etc.:
ROR+H
RO.R
H
R + H O R
R C O O R ' + H * R C O O R '
H
RCOOCOR+H
^ RCOOCOR
H
RCO+HOR*
^ R C O + HO.CR
81
Carbonium Ions, Electron-deficient
N and O Atoms
In the two latter cases it is an acyl carbonium ion that may be

momentarily formed, in contrast to the alkyl ones that we have seen
so far. This acyl carbonium ion reacts with water to yield the corres
ponding fatty acid and regenerates a p r o t o n :
R-CO + HiO ^ R C O O H ^ R C 0 H + H
H
2
The reversal of this, and of the second reaction above, are involved
in some examples of the acid-catalysed formation of an ester from the
corresponding acid and alcohol (p. 187).
(iii) Decomposition
The most common example is the decomposition of a diazonium
salt, R-N,:
[ R _ N ^ N - R _ N = N | -> R + N
This may be observed with both aromatic and aliphatic diazonium

compounds but, under suitable conditions, these may also undergo
decomposition to yield free radicals (p. 2 5 5 ) .
The catalysis ofî number of nucleophilic displacement reactions
of hSItdes by Ag is due to 'electrophilic p u l l ' on the halogen atom by
the heavy metal cation:
Agffi + BrR -> AgBr+R
The presence of Ag may thus have the effect of inducing a shift in

mechanistic type from SJV2 to S l but the kinetic picture is often
complicated by the fact that the precipitated silver halide may itself
act as a heterogeneous catalyst for the displacement reaction.
It should be emphasised that the methods of formation of car
bonium ions considered above are not intended t o constitute a
definitive list.
N
THE S T A B I L I T Y OF CARBONIUM IONS
The major factor influencing the stability of carbonium ions is that

the more the positive charge may be shared among nearby atoms the
greater will be the stability of the ion. This is particularly marked
82
The Stability of Carbonium
Ions
where the charge-spreading may take place through the intervention

of suitably placed it orbitals, e.g.
C H r ^ C H ^ - C H - C H C H = C H
3
MeO^-CHj <- Me6=CH,

leading t o carbonium ions characteristically stabilised by delocalisa
tion.
An interesting example of a carbonium ion being more stable than
might have been envisaged is the one that can arise from j3-phenylethyl
derivatives, P h C H C H Y . The carbonium ion, P h C H C H ,

supposedly involved, would not be markedly stabilised by the phenyl
group on the j8-carbon atom for this is too far away to exert any
marked inductive effect and def^calisation via its IT orbitals is prevented
by the intervening saturated carbon atom. It has, therefore, been
suggested on this and other evidence that the caffionium ion involved
is actually a bridged structure, a phenonium iofl
*
2
that can stabilise itself by delocalisation via the ir orbitals of the

aromatic nucleus.
The most stable carbonium ion of all is derived from cycloheptatrienyl (tropylium) bromide which ostensibly has the structure:
&
It is found, however, to be highly water-soluble, yielding bromide

ions and the evidence is overwhelming that it produces, in solution,
83
N and O Atoms
a carbonium ion that is so stable that its reaction with water, alcohols,
etc., is quite slow. The reason for this quite outstanding stability is
that in the tropylium cation, the seven-membered ring possesses six
w electrons, which can spread themselves over the seven carbon
atoms in delocalised orbitals (cf. benzene, p . 9), thereby conferring
on the ion quasi-aromatic stability:
Br
The simple alkyl carbonium ions have already been seen (p. 62)
to follow the stability sequence
Me C > Me CH > MeCH, > CH,
3
due to the fact that increasing substitution of the carbonium ion

carbon a t o m by methyl groups results in increasing delocalisation of
the charge by both inductive and hyperconjugative effects. But stabil
isation here and in other cases requires that the carbonium ion should
be planar, for it is drily in this state that effective delocalisation can
o c c u m A s planarity fe departed from or its attainment inhibited,
instability of the ion, with consequent difficulty in its initial forma
tion, increases very rapidly. This has already been seen in the extreme
inertness of 1-bromotriptycene, where inability to assume a planar
state prevents formation of a carbonium ion with consequent inert
ness to Sjyl attack (p. 65).
This great preference for the planar state, if at all possible, effec
tively settles the question of the stereochemistry of simple carbonium
ions.
TYPES OF REACTION UNDERGONE BY CARBONIUM IONS
Essentially, carbonium ions can undergo three main types of reac

tion:
(a) combination with a nucleophile,
(b) elimination of a proton,
(c) rearrangement of structure.
It should be noted that (c) will result in a further carbonium ion

which may then undergo (a) or (b) before a stable product is obtained.
84
Types of Reaction
Undergone by Carbonium
Ions
All these possibilities are nicely illustrated in the reaction of nitrous

acid with n-propylamine:
MeCH CH N
2
Ha
<
MeCH CH NH
a
NaNO,
M e C H , C H O H + H
2
M/H.O
(
N +Me CH CH ^ ^ M e C H = C H
(I)
\
f
a
(LTJ)
(a)
Me CH Me
(TV)
H,o
> Me CH(OH) M e + H
(V)
Thus reaction of the n-propyl cation (I) with water as nucleophile,

i.e. (a), yields n-propanol (II), elimination of a proton from the
adjacent carbon atom, (b), yields propylene (III), while rearrange
ment, (c), in this case migration of hydrogen, yields the isopropyl
cation (IV), which can then undergo (b) or (a) t o yield more propy
lene (III) or isopropanol (V), respectively. The products obtained in a
typical experiment were n-propanol, 7 per cent, propylene, 28 per
cent and isopropanol, 32 per cent; the greatenstability of the iso-,
rather than the n-, propyl cation being reflected in the muchjreater
amount of the secondary alcohol produced.
This has not exhausted the possibilities however for reaction of
either carbonium ion with other nucleophiles present in the system
can obviously lead to further products. Thus N O f from sodium
nitrite may lead to the formation of R - N 0 and R- O N O (the latter
may also arise from direct esterification of first formed R- O H ) , C l
from the acid may lead to R- CI, first formed R* O H be converted to
R O R and as yet unchanged R - N H to R - N H - R . The mixture of
products actually obtained is, hardly surprisingly, greatly influenced
by the conditions under which the reaction is carried out but it will
come as n o surprise that this reaction is, in the aliphatic series, seldom a
satisfactory preparative method for the conversion of R - N H - ROH!
A n analogous situation is observed in the Friedel-Crafts alkylation
of benzene witk n-propyl bromide in the presence of gallium bromide.
Here the attacking species, if not an actual carbonium ion, is a highly
2
polarised complex (p. 109) R G a B r , and the greater stability of the

4
85
N and O Atoms
complex which carries its positive charge o n a secondary, rather than

e+ -
a primary, carbon atom, i.e. M e C H G a B r rather than M e - C H *

2
C H G a B r , again results in a hydride shift so that the major product

of the reaction is actually isopropylbenzene.
That such rearrangements need not always be quite as simple as
they look, however, i.e. mere migration of hydrogen, is illustrated by
the behaviour with AIBr of propane in which a terminal carbon
atom is labelled with C , when partial transfer of the labelled carbon
to the 2-position occurs. This is presumably due t o
2
1 3
MeCH CH + AlBr ^ ( M ^ C H ^ C H
2
HAlBr
CH CH Mc + AlBr ^ CH CH Me HAlBr
*
*
3
which may happen in cases such as the above where it is only hydro
gen that has apparently moved.
The elimination reactions of carbsnium ions will be discussed
further below (p. 191^when elimination reactions in general are dealt
with, but their rearrangement merits further study.
THE REARRANGEMENT OF CARBONIUM IONS
Despite the apparent confusion introduced above by the isomerisation of propane, the rearrangement reactions of carbonium ions can
be divided essentially into those in which a change of actual carbon
skeleton does, or does not, take place; the former are the more impor
tant but the latter will be briefly mentioned first.
(i) Without change in carbon skeleton
(a) Allylic rearrangements: A classical example of this variety may
occur where the carbonium ion formed is stabilised by delocalisation,
e.g. in the S l solvolysis of 3 - c h l o r o b u t - l - e n e , M e - C H C l - C H = C H ,
in ethanol. After formation of the carbonium ion
N
MeCH-^CH=*=CH
M e C H C I C H = C H ^ i : Cl
2
+
Me-CH=CHCH,
86
The Neopentyl
Rearrangement
attack by E t O H can be at C or C and a mixture of the two possible

ethers is indeed obtained:
t
MeCH-*-CH^=CH
Me CH (OEt) C H = C H
EtOH.
Me C H = C H C H
Me C H = C H C H OEt
2
If, however, the reaction is carried out in ethanol with ethoxide ions
present as p'owerful nucleophilic reagents, the reaction proceeds as a
straightforward S 2 displacement reaction, OEt displacing CI,and
only the one product, M e - C H ( O E t ) C H = = C H , is obtained. Allylic
rearrangements have been observed, however, in the course of dis
placement reactions that are undoubtedly proceeding by a bimolecular
process. Such reactions are designated as S ^ ' and are believed t o
proceed:
N
Y^CH^CH^CH-^Cl
-> YCH CH=CH + C1

2
S;v2' reactions tend to occur more particularly^vhen there arelftilky

substituents on the a-carbon atom for these markedly reduce the rate
of the competing, direct displacement reaction by the normal S,v2
mode. Allylic rearrangements, by whichever mechanism they may
actually be proceeding, are relatively common.
(ii) With change in carbon skeleton
(a) The neopentyl rearrangement: A good example is the hydro
lysis of neopentyl chloride (VI) under conditions favouring the S l
mechanism (it may be remembered that the S^2 hydrolysis of these
halides is highly hindered in any case, p . 65); this might be expected to
yield neopentyl alcohol (VIII):
N
Me
Me
M e C C H C f c - ^ > MeCCH
2
Me
(VI)
Me
(VII)
Me
2
MeCCH O H + H
Me
(VIII)
87
N and O Atoms
In fact no neopentyl alcohol (VIII) is obtained, the only alcoholic

product is found to be t-amyl alcohol (X); this is due to the initial
carbonium ion (VII) rearranging to yield a second one (IX). It will be
seen that the latter is a tertiary carbonium ion whereas the former is a
primary one, and it is an interesting reflection that the tertiary ion is so
much more stable than the primary as to make it energetically worth
while for a carbon-carbon bond to be broken and for a methyl group
to migrate:
Me
MeCCH,Me
H,Cy*
Me
Me
OH
(X)
MeCCH -> MeCCH,Me

2
iMeT
fOm
^
\
( I X
v n ;
Me
>
C=CHMe
/
Me
(XI)
Such reactions in which a rearrangement of carbon skeleton takes

place are known collectively as Wagner-Meerwein rearrangements.
The rearranged car oonium ion (IX) is also able to eliminate H to yield
an olBfine and some 2*-methylbut-2-ene (XI) is, in fact, obtained. The
rearrangement, with its attendant consequences, can be avoided if the
displacement is carried out under conditions to promote a n
reaction path but, as has already been mentioned, the reaction is then
very slow.
The possible occurrence of such rearrangements of a compound's
carbon skeleton during the course of apparently unequivocal
reactions is clearly of the utmost significance in interpreting the
results of degradative and synthetic experiments aimed at structure
elucidation. Some rearrangements of this type are highly complex,
e.g. in the field of natural products such as the terpenes, and have
often rendered the unambiguous assignment of structure extremely
difficult.
It is interesting that if the halide M e C - C H C l - P h is hydrolysed

under S l conditions,no rearrangement like the above takes place for
the first formed carbonium ion (XII) can stabilise itse*lf by delocalisa
tion via the n orbitals of the benzene nucleus, and rearrangement such
as the above is thus n o longer energetically advantageous:
3
88
Rearrangement
of
Hydrocarbons
Me
-ch^
Me
MeC
CH/ X
I I
Me
CI
MeC
I
Me
Me
I
Me
(XII)
MeC
CH
etc.
(b) Rearrangement of hydrocarbons: Wagner-Meerwein type re

arrangements are also encountered in the cracking of petroleum
hydrocarbons where catalysts of a Lewis acid type are used. These
generate carbonium ions from the straight-chain hydrocarbons (cf.
the isomerisation of C labelled propane above), which then tend to
rearrange to yield branched-chain products. Fission also takes place,
of course, b u t the branching is of importand?as the branched hydro
carbons produced cause less knocking in the cylinders of internal
combustion engines than d o their straight-chain isomers. It should,
however, be mentioned that cracking can also be brought about by
catalysts that promote reaction via radical intemediates (p. 236).
1 S
Rearrangement of unsaturated hydrocarbons takes place (geadily

in the presence of acids:
This tendency can be a nuisance when acid reagents, e.g. hydrogen

halides, are being added preparatively to olefines: mixed products
that are difficult to separate may result or, in unfavourable cases,
practically none of the desired product may be obtained.
89
N and O Atoms
(c) The pinacol/pinacolone rearrangement: Another case of migra

tion of an alkyl group t o a carbonium ion carbon atom occurs in the
acid-catalysed rearrangement of pinacol (cf. p . 168) to pinacolone,
Me C(OH) C(OH) M e - M e CO C M e :
2
Me
Me
H-H
MeCCMe
CMe,
OH OH
I
M
'e
OH
-H O
MeCCMe
OH OH
H
I
"
Me
.(XIII)
MeCCMe
MeCCMe
II
O
o*lh
It might be expected that an analogous reaction would take place

with any other compounds that could yield the crucial carbonium
ion (XIII) and this is, in fact, found to be the case; thus the corres
ponding bromohydrin (XIV) and hycVoxyamine (XV) yield pinaco
lone when reacted wijh Ag and N a N 0 / H C I , respectively:
2
Me
Me
I
MeCCMe
Ag
> MeCCMe
2
e.AgBr
OH
O H Br
(XIV)
(XIII)
-N,
Me
Me
MeCCMe
II
OH
(XV)
NH
N a N
2
' > MeCCMe
/HC
Id
OHNsN
'
It seems likely that the migration of the alkyl group follows

extremely rapidly on the loss of H O , Br or N , or probably takes
place simultaneously, for in a compound in which the carbonium
ion carbon is asymmetric, the ion does not get Time t o become
planar and so yield a racemic product, for the product obtained is
found to have undergone inversion of configuration
a
90
The PinacoljPinacolone
/Me\_
Rearrangement
Me
Me
MeCC;
-> M e C C - R -> MeCCR
I cH R'
K
v
II
>
OHTfeN
O-J-H R'
O
R'
v
e
attack taking place 'from the b a c k ' in an internal S 2 type displace
ment reaction. T h a t the migrating group prefers to move in from the
side opposite to that of the leaving group may be demonstrated in
cyclic systems where there is restricted rotation about the C C
b o n d ; it is then found that compounds in which migrating and leav
ing groups are trans to each other rearrange very much more readily
than d o those in which the groups are cis. It is noteworthy that the
migrating alkyl group in this and other cases is migrating with its
bonding electrons and so can obviously act as a powerfully nucleo
philic reagent. Where the migrating group is asymmetric, it has in
certain other cases, though not in this particular one, been shown t o
retain its configuration as it migrates, indicating that it never actually
becomes wholly free from the rest of the molecule; other evidence is
also against the migrating group ever becoming free, e.g. n o 'crossed
p r o d u c t ' when two different but very similar piqgcols (that undergo
rearrangement at approximately the same rate)^re rearranged^njhe
same solution: thus the reaction is said to be a typical in/romolecular,
as opposed to /n/ermolecular, rearrangement. Indeed, it is probable
that the migrating group begins to be attached to the carbonium ion
carbon before becoming separated from the carbon a t o m that it is
leaving. A state such as
N
>-'<
probably intervenes between the initial and the rearranged carbon
ium ions (cf. bromonium ion structures encountered in the addition
of bromine to blefines, p . 138)
A s the migrating group migrates with its electron pair i.e. as a
nucleophile, it might be expected that where the groups on the noncarbonium ion carbon are different, it would be the more nucleo
philic of them, i.e. the more powerful electron donor, that would
actually migrate. Thus in the example
N and O Atoms
it is the p - M e O - C H that migrates in preference to C H owing t o

the electron-donating effect of the M e O group in the /7-position.
Steric factors also play a part, however, and it is found that
o-MeO-CgHa migrates more, than a thousand times less readily than
the correspondingjjp-substituted groupless readily indeed than
phenyl itselfdue toîts interference in the transition state with the
non-migrating groups.
In pinacols of the form
Ph Ph
6
I I
RCCR
I I
OHOH
Ph will migrate in preference to R because of the greater stabilisation

it can, by delocalisation, confer on the intervening bridged inter
mediate (cf. p . 83).
(d) The Wolff rearrangement: This involves the loss of nitrogen
from a-diazoketones (XVI) and their rearrangement t o highly
reactive ketenes (XVII):
o
RCCH-r-N^N
I " ^>
o
(XVI)
92
Ag.o s - * x
N
> (wR - 5 C - T - C H -
-- llly
o
(XVIII)
> 0=*=C=CHR
(XVII)
Migration to Electron-deficient
Nitrogen
Atoms
The intermediate (XVIII) is not a carbonium ion but it is never

theless an electron-deficient species, known as a carbene, so the R
group migrates with its electron complement complete as in the cases
we have already considered. The diazoketone may be obtained by
the reaction of diazomethane, C H N , on the acid chloride and the
Wolff rearrangement is of importance because it constitutes part of
the Arndt-Eistert procedure by which an acid may be converted into
its homologue:
2
II
'
II
SOCl,
RC-OH
II
CH.N,
> R-CCI - > R C C H N

Ag.O
RCH COH
2
H.O
-N,
RCH=C=0
In aqueous solution, the acid is obtained directly by addition of

water t o the ketene b u t if the reaction is carried out in ammonia or
an alcohol the corresponding amide or ester, respectively, may be
obtained directly.
MIGRATION TO E L E C T R O N - D E F I C I E N T NITROGEN ATOMS
The reactions involving rearrangement of structure that we have

already considered all have one feature in c o m m o n : the migration of
an alkyl or aryl group with its electron pair t o a carbon a t o m which,
whether a carbonium ion or not, is electron-deficient. Another atom
that can similarly become electron-deficient is nitrogen in, e.g.,
R N or RN, and it might be expected that the nitrogen atoms in
2
such species should be able t o induce migration to themselves as is

observed with R C
3
or R C . This is indeed found to be the case.

2
(i) The Hofmann, Curtius and Lossen reactions

A typical example is the conversion of an amide to an amine con
taining one carbon less by the action of alkaline hypobromite, the
Hofmann reaction (see p . 94).
It will be noticed that the species (XXI) has an electron-deficient
nitrogen atom corresponding exactly t o the electron-deficient carbon
a t o m in the carbene (XVIII) from the Wolff rearrangement, and that
the isocyahate (XXII) obtained by the former's rearrangement
93
II
R-C-NH
N and O Atoms
BrO
3
II
OH
II
> R - C - N H Br A - R _ C - N ^ B r
(XIX)
(XX)
OCNR
(XXII)
H.O
HO CNHR
(XXIII)
a
> 0 C+H NR
2
corresponds closely to the ketene (XVII) obtained from the latter.

The reaction is completed by hydration of the isocyanate t o yield the
carbamic acid (XXIII) which undergoes spontaneous decarboxyla
tion to the amine. The N-bromamide (XIX), its anion (XX) and the
isocyanate (XXII) postulated as intermediates can all be isolated
under suitable conditions.
TJj^rate-determiniig step of the reaction is the loss of Br from
the ion (XX) but it is probable that the loss of Br and the migration
of R take place simultaneously, i.e. effectively internal S 2 once again.
It might be expected that the more electron-releasing R is, the more
rapid would be the reaction: this has been confirmed by a study of
the rates of decomposition of benzamides substituted in the nucleus
by electron-donating substituents.
There are two reactions very closely related t o that of Hofmann,
namely the Curtius degradation of acid azides (XXIV) and the
Lossen decomposition of hydroxamic acids (XXV), both of which
also yield amines; all three reactions proceed via the isocyanate as a
common intermediate (see p . 95).
The Lossen reaction is, in practice, normally carried out not on the
free hydroxamic acids but on their O-acyl derivatives which tend t o
give higher yields; the principle is, however, exactly analogous except
that now R ' - C O O instead of HO is expelled frojn the anion. In
the Curtius reaction, the azide is generated as required by the action
of sodium nitrite and acid on the hydrazide; if the reaction is carried
out in solution in an alcohol instead of in water (nitrous acid being
N
94
The Beckmann
R - C - N H O H <(XXV)
e
OH
O
II
R_COEt
Rearrangement
R-C-NHNH,
NaNO^ H Q
(XXIV)
0=C=NR
derived from amyl nitrite and hydrogen chloride), the urethane is
obtained:
O
RCN
II- ..
ROH
RCN
RN=C=0
> RNHCOjR'
In all these cases, the R group that migrates conserves its configur
ation as in the carbon - ^ c a r b o n rearrangements already discussed and,
as with them, n o mixed products are formed wfcen two different, but
very similar, compounds are rearranged in the*ame solution, sjnwing
that the R groups never became free in the solution when migrating,
i.e. these too are vrt/YzmolecuIar rearrangements.
(ii) The Beckmann rearrangement
The most famous of the rearrangements in which R migrates from
carbon t o nitrogen is undoubtedly the conversion of ketoximes to
N-substituted amides, the Beckmann transformation:
RR C = N O H R ' C O N H R
or
RCONHR'
The reaction is catalysed by a wide variety of acidic reagents, e.g.

H S 0 , P 0 , S O , S O C l , B F , P C 1 , etc., and takes place not only
with the oximes themselves but also with their O-esters. Only a very
few aldoximes rearrange under these conditions but more can be
made to d o so by use of polyphosphoric acid as a catalyst. The most
interesting feature of the change is, that unlike the reactions we have
already considered,it is not the nature, e.g. relative electron-releasing
ability, but the stereochemical arrangement of the R, R' groups that
2
95
Nand O Atoms
determines which of them in fact migrates. Thus it is found, in prac

tice, to be always the anti-R group that rearranges:
R
R'
HO
R'
VC
||
.N
\
C
||
N
'
OH
(i.e.R'-CO-NHR)wi/>>
\
Confirmation of this fact requires an initial, unambiguous assign

ment of configuration t o a pair of oximes. This was effected as fol
lows: working with the pair of oximes (XXVI) and (XXVII), it was
shown that one of them was converted into the cyclic isoxazole
(XXVIII) on treatment with alkali even in the cold, while the other
was but little attacked even under very much more vigorous condi
tions. The oxime undergoing ready cyclisation was, on this basis,
assigned the configuration (XXVI) in which the oxime O H group
and the nuclear bromine atom are close together and the one resisting
cyclisation, the configuration (XXVII), in which these groups are
far apart and correspondingly unlikely to interacfwith each other:
ON
a
Br H O '
(XXVI)
^ ^ B r
(XXVII)
OH
cold
(XXVIII)
OH
Subsequently, configuration may be assigned to other pairs of

ketoximes by correlation of their physical constants with those of
pairs of oximes whose configuration has already been established.
Once it had been clearly demonstrated that it was always the anti-B.
group that migrated in the Beckmann reaction, however, the product
obtained by such transformation of a given oxime has normally been
used to establish the configuration of that'oxime. Thus, as expected,
(XXVI) is found to yield only a substituted N-methylbenzamide,
while (XXVII) yields only a substituted acetanilide.
That a mere, direct interchange of R and O H has npt taken place
96
The Beckmann
Rearrangement
has been shown by rearrangement of benzophenone oxime to benzanilideinH 0:

Ph
Ph
HO
Ph
O
Ph
\ /
\
/
\
/
1 8
-*
II
II
.N
.N
* \
c
I
HN
* \
OH
Ph
Ph
Provided that neither the initial oxime nor the anilide produced
will exchange their oxygen for 0 when dissolved in H 0 (as has
been confirmed), a mere intramolecular exchange of Ph and O H
cannot result in the incorporation of any O in the rearranged pro
duct. In fact, however, the benzanilide is found to contain the same
proportion of O as did the original water so that the rearrangement
must involve loss of the O H group and the subsequent replacement
of oxygen by reaction with water.
The rearrangement is believed to take place as follows:
1 8
1 8
l s
R
\
R COCI
C=N
R'
R
\
K S
OH
e,c
C=N
(XXX)
OX
OX
R'
( T \
H,OL
\m
OH
H
O
||
>N- C=*C
/
"
R'
(XXIX)
HO
>
R'CNHR <
C=N
/
R'
C=N
R'
H
HO
R
\
V
y
C=N
/
R'
_ \
>
-H9
<
C=N
R'
In fairly strong acid, the rearrangement proceeds by protonation

of the oxime, followed by loss of water t o yield the species (XXIX)
having an electron-deficient nitrogen a t o m ; while with acid chlor
ides, etc., the ester (XXX) is obtained which loses an anion, O X , to
yield the same intermediate. Support for the latter interpretation is
provided by the fact that such O-esters may be prepared separately
and shown t o undergo the subsequent rearrangement in neutral
e
N and O Atoms
solvents in the absence of added catalysts. Also, the stronger the acid
X O H , i.e. the more stable the anion O X , the more readily OX
should be lost t o yield (XXIX) and the more rapid the reaction should
be. This is borne out by the fact that the rate of reaction increases in
the series where XO is C H C 0 < C I C H C 0 < P h S O .
That such ionisation is the rate-determining step in the reaction is
also suggested by the observed increase in the rate of reaction as the
solvent is made more polar.
It is not certain, in either case, whether the fission of the N O
bond and migration of R are actually simultaneous but, if not, the
rearrangement follows extremely rapidly after the fission for it has
been demonstrated that the migrating group attacks the back of the
nitrogen atom, i.e. the side remote from the leaving group, and that
if R is asymmetric it migrates without undergoing any change of
configuration. In addition, n o cross-migration of R groups has been
observed when two different, but similar, oximes are rearranged
simultaneously in the same solution, i.e. this is another intramolecular
rearrangement in which R never becomes wholly detached from the
molecule.
e
After migration of R, the rearrangment is completed by attack of

water on the p o s i t i ^ carbon (it is, of course, at this stage that O is
introduced in the rearrangement of benzophenone oxime referred t o
above), followed by loss of proton t o yield the enol of the amide
which then reverts to the amide proper.
The stereochemical use of the Beckmann rearrangement in assigning
configuration t o ketoximes has already been referred t o and one
large-scale application is in the synthesis of the textile polymer,
perlon:
l s
OH
OH
NOH
o
II
NH.-OH
o
Perlon
98
Migration
to Electron-Deficient
Oxygen
Atoms
MIGRATION TO E L E C T R O N - D E F I C I E N T OXYGEN ATOMS
It might reasonably be expected that similar reactions could occur in

which the migration terminus is an electron-deficient oxygen a t o m :
such rearrangements are indeed known.
(i) The Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of ketones
Treatment of ketones with hydrogen peroxide or organic peracids,
O
RCOOH,
results in their conversion to esters:

O
II
O
H.O,
R C R ^-V
I!
ftCOR
The rate-determining step has been shown t o be the acid-catalysed

addition of the peracid t o the ketone and the reaction is believed t o
follow the course:
O
II
RCR
< H
=s=i Ri
H
:R
Oil
1
R' COOH
I
1 .
2)H
> RtR
If*
O
C R'
oJ-o
,-ft'
O
II
IIc - o
OH
RC
I
RCOR <
(XXXI)
OR
(XXXIII)
RC^$)
o-^
(XXXII)
(XXXIV)
The initial adduct (XXXI) undergoes ready loss of an anion and
migration of one of the R groups with its electron pair to yield a
protonated form (XXXIII) of the final ester (XXXIV). In support of
the above mechanism it has been shown by using O labelled oxygen
that the carboqyl oxygen in the original ketone becomes the carbonyl
oxygen in the final ester. T h e R group has been shown to migrate with
retention of configuration and bearing in mind that a cation of the
RO type, such as.(XXXIIX is likely t o be extremely unstable, it
99
w
N and O Atoms
seems probable that the rearrangement occurs simultaneously with

loss of the anion as a concerted process reminiscent of the Hofmann
reaction (p. 94). When an unsymmetrical ketone is oxidised it is
usually t h e more nucleophilic group that migrates, as in the pinacol/
pinacolone rearrangement (p. 91), but as in the latter reaction steric
effects may also be involved and can have the effect of markedly
changing the expected order of relative migratory aptitude of a series
of groups based on their electron-releasing abilities alone.
(ii) Rearrangements of peroxides
A rather similar rearrangement is observed during the acid-catalysed

decomposition of a number of peroxides. T h u s the hydroperoxide
(XXXV) obtained by the air oxidation (cf. p . 252) of isopropylbenzene
(cumene) is used on the commercial scale for the production of
phenol + acetone by treatment with acid:
Me
(XXXV)
PhOH
PhO
JI/H,0
0 = C M e < : HOCMe < '

|
|
2)-H
Me
Me
(XXXIX)
CMe
|
Me
(XXXVIII)
Here again it seems likely that the species (XXXVII) has no separate
existence and that loss of H O from (XXXVI) and migration of the
phenyl group with its electron pair occur as a concerted process to
yield the acetone hemiketal (XXXIX), which then undergoes ready
hydrolysis to yield the end-products, phenol and acetone.
In these examples we have been considering the heterolytic fission
of peroxide linkages, 0 : 0 > 0 + : 0 , and though this
takes place in more polar solvents, the linkage may also undergo
homolytic fission to yield free radicals, - 0 : 0 > 0 - + - O , as
we shall see below (p. 240).
a
100
E L E C T R O P H I L I C
S U B S T I T U T I O N
AND
IN
N U C L E O P H I L I C
A R O M A T I C
S Y S T E M S
R E F E R E N C E has already been made to the structure of benzene and,

in particular, t o its delocalised it orbitals (p. 9); the concentration
of negative" charge above and below the plane of the ring-carbon
atoms is thus benzene's most accessible feature:
This concentration of charge might be expected to shield the ringcarbon atoms from the atta'ck of nucleophilic reagents and, by
contrast, t o promote attack by cations, X ^ ) r electron-deficient
species, i.e. by electrophilic reagents; this is indeed found t o j j e the
case.
ELECTROPHILIC ATTACK ON BENZENE

(i) n and o complexes
It might be expected that the first phase of reaction would be inter
action between the approaching electrophile and the delocalised
it orbitals and, in fact, so-called it complexes such as (I) are formed:
Thus toluene forms a 1:1 complex with hydrogen chloride at - 7 8 ,

the reaction bSing readily reversible. That n o actual bond is formed
between a ring-carbon atom and the proton from HC1 is confirmed
by repeating the reaction with DCI; this also yields a it complex, but
101
Electrophilic and Nucleophilic Substitution
in Aromatic
Systems
its formation and decomposition does not lead t o the exchange of

deuterium with any of the hydrogen a t o m s of the nucleus, showing
that n o CD b o n d has been formed in the complex.
In the presence of a compound having an electron-deficient orbital,
e.g. a Lewis acid such as A1C1 , a different complex is formed, however.
If DC1 is now employed in place of HC1, rapid exchange of deuterium
with the hydrogen atoms of the nucleus is found to take place
indicating the formation of a a complex (II) in which H or D, as
the case may be, has actually become bonded to a ring-carbon atom.
T h e positive charge is shared over the remaining five carbon atoms
of the nucleus via the n orbitals and the deuterium and* hydrogen
atoms are in a plane at right angles to that of the ring:
3
D
\ s
AIC1,
(H)
T h a t the n and a complexes with, e.g. toluene and HCI, really are
different from each other is confirmed by their differing behaviour.
Thus*Hjrmation of the* former leads to n o colour change and but
little difference in absorption spectrum, indicating t h a t there has been
practically n o disturbance in the electron distribution in toluene;
while if AICI3 is present the solution becomes green, will conduct
electricity and the absorption spectrum of toluene is modified,
indicating the formation of a complex such as (II) as there is n o
evidence that aluminium chloride forms complexes of the type,
HA1C1 .
The reaction may be completed by A1C1 removing a proton from
the a complex (II)(IV). This can lead only to exchange of hydrogen
atoms when H Q is employed but to some substitution of hydrogen
by deuterium with DC1, i.e. the overall process is electrophilic
substitution. In theory, (II) could, as a n alternative, react by removing
CI from A I C I 4 resulting in an overall electrophilic addition reaction
(II) (III) as happens with the w orbital of a simple carbon-carbon
double bond (p. 141); but this would result in loss of tffe stabilisation
conferred on the molecule by the presence of delocalised n orbitals
involving all six carbon atoms of the nucleus, so that the product, an
4
102
Electrophilic Attack on Benzene

addition compound, would n o longer be aromatic with all that that
implies. By expelling H, i.e. by undergoing substitution rather than
addition, the complete delocalised n orbitals are regained in the
product (IV) and characteristic aromatic stability recovered:
H
D
V
ci
H
(III)
*
Addition
D
v
A1CI.G ( r \ \
( + CIO)
<-
(II)
A1C1.0
(-H)
(IV)
Substitution
The gain in stabilisation in going from (II) -*(IV) helps to provide

the energy required to break the strong CH bond that expul
sion of H necessitates; in the reaction of, for example, HC1 with
alkenes (p. 141) there is n o such factor promoting substitution and
addition reactions are therefore the rule.
In the face of the concentration of negative charge presented to
an attacking reagent it might be expected that the substitution of
benzene by the common electrophiles (i.e. halogehation, nitration,
sulphonation and the Friedel-Crafts reaction) would be extremely
easy. Though the electrophilic substitution of be'Bzene is not difficult,
that it is not easier than it is, is due to the enftTgy barrier to l ^ u r mounted in converting the very readily formed IT complex to a a
complex in which actual bonding of the reagent to a ring-carbon
atom has taken place. F o r in the IT complex, the aromatic nature of
the nucleus (i.e. the delocalised n orbitals) is largely undisturbed,
while in the a.complex some of the characteristic stabilisation has
been lost as the orbitals now only involve five carbon atoms. The loss
of stabilisation involved is greater than might be expected as the ir
orbitals are now no longer symmetrical; it is the symmetry of the
orbitals in the intact aromatic nucleus that underlies its characteristic
stability and relative unwillingness to undergo change. The regaining
of this symmetry (or near symmetry, for the orbitals will be deformed
to a certain extent by the introduction of any substituent other than
hydrogen into the nucleus) is responsible for the ease with which the
relatively strong CH bond undergoes fission in order to allow the
conversion of (H)-*(IV).
How this basic theory is borne out in the common electrophilic
substitution reactions of benzene will now be considered.
103
in Aromatic
Systems*
NITRATION
The aromatic substitution reaction that has received by far the closest
study is nitration and, as a result, it is the one that probably provides
the most detailed mechanistic picture. Preparative nitration is most
frequently carried out with a mixture of concentrated nitric and
sulphuric acids, the so-called' nitrating mixture'. The classical explan
ation for the presence of the sulphuric acid is that it absorbs the
water formed in the nitration proper
O H . + H N O , -* C . H N O , + H , 0
6
and so prevents the reverse reaction from proceeding. This explan

ation is unsatisfactory in a number of respects, not least that nitro
benzene, once formed, appears not to be attacked by water under the
conditions of the reaction! W h a t is certain is that nitration is slow in
the absence of sulphuric acid, yet sulphuric acid by itself has virtually
n o effect on benzene under the conditions normally employed. It
would thus appear that the sulphuric acid is acting on the nitric acid
rather than the benzene in the system. This is borne out by the fact
that solutions of nitric acid in concentrated sulphuric acid show a
four-fold molecular freezing-point depression, which has been inter
preted as being dueTo formation of the four ions:
HNO,+2H S0
2
I , e
"
H.SOi
HONO,
N0 +H 0+2HS0
2
e
4
H.SO,
HSO +HO-^NO,
H
> H,0+HS0 +N0
The presence of N 0 , the nitronium ion, in this solution and also in

a number of salts has now been confirmed spectroscopically, and
some of the salts, e.g. N 0 C l O f , have actually been isolated. Nitric
acid itself is converted in concentrated sulphuric acid virtually entirely
into N 0 , and there can be little doubt left that this is the effective
electrophile in nitration under these conditions. If the purpose of the
sulphuric acid is merely t o function as a highly acid medium in which
N 0 can be released from H O N 0 , it would be expected that
other strong acids, e.g. H C 1 0 , would also promote nitration. This is
indeed found t o b e the, case, H F and B F also being effective. T h e
poor performance of nitric acid by itself in the nitration of benzene
2
104
Nitration
is thus explained for it contains but little N 0 ; the small amount
that is present is obtained by the two-stage process
2
fast
HONO + H N 0
a
HO-LN0 +HN0
H
3
NO
HO
ffi
+ HON0
H
+ NO + N0
s
in which nitric acid is first converted rapidly into its conjugate acid
and that then more slowly into nitronium ion.
The kinetics of nitration are not easy t o follow under normal
preparative conditions for the solubility of, e.g., benzene in nitrating
mixture is sufficiently low for the rate of nitration to be governed by
the rate at which the immiscible hydrocarbon dissolves in the
mixture. This apart, the rate-determining step is, however, almost
certainly the initial attack by N O
a
rather than the subsequent removal of proton by H S 0 4 or other

anion. T h a t the latter step cannot be rate-determining has been con
firmed by studying the nitration of nitrobenzene in which the hydro
gen atoms have been replaced by deuterium. Nitrobenzene is chosen
rather than benzene itself as the former is more soluble in nitrating
mixture so that the overall rate of the reaction is n o longer controlled
by the rate at which it dissolves. Studies of the relative rates of fission
of C H and C D in general would lead us to expect an approximately
ten-fold d r o p in nitration rate on going C H - N 0 - > - C D - N 0 . In
fact there is n o detectable difference in rate, indicating that the fission of
the CH or C D bond is not involved in the rate-determining stage
of nitration. The species (V) is thought to enjoy an actual existence
albeit an extreirlely transient onein solution and is thus looked upon
as a real intermediate, though a metastable orie>(c/ p . 33), rather than
merely as a transition state. An added significance of the existence of
6
105
in Aromatic
Systems
(V) is that the energy that becomes available from the formation of the
C N 0 linkage may be used to assist in the subsequent fission of the
strong C H bond, which would otherwise be a relatively difficult
undertaking.
A further point of preparative significance still requires explana
tion, however. Highly reactive aromatic compounds, such as phenol,
are found to undergo ready nitration even in dilute nitric acid and at
a far more rapid rate than can be explained on the basis of the con
centration of N G that is present in the mixture. This has been
shown to be due to the presence of nitrous acid in the system which
nitrosates the reactive nucleus via the nitrosonium ion, N O :
2
HN0 + 2HN0
2
OH
OH
(VI)
- H 0 + 2 N O f + NO
3
OH
OH
(VII)
(VIII)
The*^Stroso-phenol (VII) so obtained is k n o w n t o be oxidised very

rapidly by nitric acid t o yield the nitrophenol (VIII) and nitrous
acid; thus more nitrous acid is produced and the process is pro
gressively speeded u p . N o nitrous acid need be present initially in the
nitric acid for a little of the latter attacks phenol oxidatively t o yield
H N O g . The rate-determining step is again believed t o be the forma
tion of the intermediate (VI). Some direct nitration of such reactive
aromatic compounds by N 0 also takes place simultaneously, the
relative amount by the two routes depending on the conditions.
2
HALOGENATION
Halogenation, e.g. bromination, with the halogen itself only takes

place in the presence of a catalyst such as Z n C l , FeBr , AlBr , etc.
The nature of the catalyst is usually that of a Lewis acid and it acts
by inducing some degree of polarisation in the halbgen molecule,
thereby increasing its electrophilic character, so that its now more
positive end attacks the w electrons of the nucleus:
2
106
Halogenation
H
Br
V - '
After fission of the bromine-bromine bond in forming the a complex

with benzene, the anionic complex, Br-FeBr , so obtained then re
moves the proton to yield bromobenzene.
Halogenation may also be carried but with the aqueous hypohalous
acid, H O - H a l , provided that a strong acid is also present. Here the
evidence is very strong that in, for example, chlorination, the chlor
inating agent is actually CI, produced as follows:
3
HOQ
HOCI
fast
J-J
> HjO + Cl
slow
The further attack on benzene is then exactly*analogous t o Hfffation by N 0 . A further similarity between the two is provided by
the fact that H O C 1 alone has, like H N 0 , very little action on ben
zene; the presence of a further entity, i.e. strong acid, is necessary in
either case t o release the highly electrophilic species, CI or N 0
by protonation of their 'carrier molecules':
2
H O ^ C I and H O ^ - N 0
H
H
Further support for the idea that a halonium ion or a positively

polarised halogen-containing complex is the effective substituting
agent is provided by a study of the reactions of interhalogen com
pounds with aromatic substances. Thus Br-CI leads only to bromination and I-CI only t o iodination, i.e. it is the./ess electronegative
halogen that is introduced, due t o :
+
Br--CI, etc.
107
in Aromatic
Systems
In the absence of a catalyst and in the presence of light, chlorine will

add on t o benzene; this proceeds by a radical mechanism and will b e
discussed subsequently (p. 244).
SULPHONATION
The intimate details of sulphonation are less well known than those
of nitration and there has been a good deal of debate about whether
the effective electrophilic agent is the bisulphonium ion, S 0 H , or
free S O . The weight of evidence for sulphonation under normal
conditions, however, resides with the latter produced in "the following
way:
3
2H,S0
^ SO +H 0 + H S 0
s
e
4
The sulphur a t o m of the trioxide is highly electron-deficient

O
|s=o
o
and it is this a t o m ^ h e r e f o r e , that becomes bonded t o a ring carbon
a t f l l * T w o features^f sulphonation that distinguish it from nitration
are that it is reversible and that it is slowed down when the hydrogen
atoms of a n aromatic nucleus are replaced by the heavier, radioactive
isotope tritium, H . The latter observation indicates, of course, that
the removal of proton from the a complex of benzene and sulphur
trioxide (IX) must, by contrast t o nitration, be the rate-determining
step of the reaction, the formation of (IX) being fast and n o n ratedetermining:
8
(IX)
Practical use is made of the reversibility of the reaction in the

replacement of S 0 H by H on treating sulphonic acids with steam.
Partly because of low miscibility, the reaction of hot concentrated
sulphuric acid with benzene is slow and fuming sulphuric acid in the
3
108
Friedel-Crafts
Reaction
cold is generally used instead; the more rapid reaction is, of course,
due to the concentration of free S O that this acid contains.
a
F R I E D E L - C R A F T S REACTION
This can be conveniently divided into alkylation and acylation.

(i) Alkylation
The reaction of primary alkyl halides, e.g. MeCl, with aromatic
compounds n the presence of Lewis acidssuch as aluminium
halides, B F , etc.closely resembles the mechanism of catalysed
halogenation that has already been discussed:
3
8+ 8
MeC1-A1CI,
8+
8-
MeCl-AlCls
*
+ HC1+A1CI,
T h a t such polarised complexes between the halide and the aluminium

halide are undoubtedly formed is shown by the fact that the halogen
of isotopically-labelled aluminium halides is found to exchange with
that of the alkyl halide. With secondary and tertiary halides, how
ever, the carbon atom carrying the halogen is increasingly more
able to accommodate positive charge (i.e. it will form a more
stable carbonium ion, cf. p . 84), and there is thus an increasing
tendency towards ionisation of the complex to yield R, in an
ion pair {cf. p . 80), as the effective electrophilic species. N o clear
distinction can be made between primary and other halides in
the extent t o which they form actual carbonium ions, however,
as the nature of the catalyst used and of the halogen in the halide
also play a part. Thus with the halide M e C - C H C l in the presence
of AICI3, benzene yields almost wholly P h - C M e j - O V M e ,
due t o isomerisation of the first-formed primary carbonium ion,
3
M e C - C H , t o the tertiary carbonium ion, M e C - C H ' M e

3
(cf.
109
in Aromatic
Systems
p. 88) before it reacts with benzene. In the presence of F e C I as

catalyst, however, the major product is M e C - C H - P h from the
unrearranged ion, indicating that it never became fully-formed in the
complex. Similarly n-propyl bromide in the presence of gallium bro
mide, G a B r , yields isopropylbenzene as the major product (p. 85),
whereas n-propyl chloride with aluminium chloride yields very largely
n-propylbenzene.
Alkenes can also be used in place of alkyl halides for alkylating
benzene, the presence of an acid being required t o generate a car
bonium i o n ; B F is then often used as the Lewis acid catalyst:
3
MeCH=CH,
MeCHMe
PhCHMe,
BF,
Several of the usual catalysts, especially AICI , also bring about

ready dealkylation: i.e. the reaction is reversible. Thus heating of
p-xylene (X) with hydrogen chloride and AIC1 results in the conver
sion of a major part of it to the thermodynamically more stable
m-xylene (XI). This is normally explained as taking place by alkylation
(the MeCl necessary t o start the process being derived by a little
initial dealkylation) followed by dealkylation:
3
+ MeCl
(X)
Me
(XI)
Me
The presence of hydrogen chloride is, however, essential for the

isomerisation to take place and it has therefore been suggested that
an alkyl group may also migrate directly by a Wagner-Meerwein type
rearrangement (p. 88):
He
Me
-He
Me
Against this is the fact that //ifer-molecular migration of alkyl

groups has been observed in some cases indicating, unlike a WagnerMeerwein rearrangement, that the alkyl group actually becomes free.
110
Friedel-Crafts
Reaction
The main drawback in the preparative use of the Friedel-Crafts

reaction is polyalkylation, however (p. 118).
(ii) Acylation
Acid chlorides or anhydrides in the presence of Lewis acids yield
e
an acylium ion, R - C = 0 , which acts as the effective electrophile to

form a ketone (XII):
RCOCI+AlCl
-> A1C1
4
+ R C = O
R C O O C O R + A1C1.
RCOOAICI.
|c.H.
H
PhCR
II
O
(XII)
-H8
Ph
CR
II
O
The ketone, once formed, complexes with aluminium chloride

Ph
COA1CK
removing it from the sphere of reaction. Thus rather more than one
equivalent of the catalyst must be employed, unlike alkylation where
only small amounts are necessary. There is however some evidence
that such AIC1 complexing of the ketone is an essential rather t h a n
merely a nuisance feature of the reaction as otherwise the ketone forms
a complex with the acylium ion
3
Ph
O
COCR
and thus prevents the latter from attacking its proper substrate, in
this case C H .
6
Ill
in Aromatic
Systems
Rearrangement of R does not take place as with alkylation, but if

it is highly branched loss of C O can occur leading ultimately t o
alkylation rather than the expected acylation:
C 11^
Me,C -o=o
CO+Me,C
PhCMe,
A useful synthetic application of Friedel-Crafts acylation is the use

of cyclic anhydrides in a two-stage process to build a second ring on to an aromatic nucleus:
O
II
C.H.
H.SO.
A1C1,
IlOH
O
HCOC1 is very unstable but formylation may be accomplished by
e
protonating carbon monoxide to yield H 0 = 0 , i.e. by use of C O ,
HC1 and A1C1 (the^rattermann-Koch reaction):
3
Aid.
C.H+HC=0
PhCHO+H
DIAZO C O U P L I N G
Another classical electrophilic aromatic substitution is diazo coupling,

in which the effective electrophile has been shown to be the diazonium
-cation:
4
Ph-N^N P h N = N
4J "
"
"
This is, however, a weak electrophile compared with species such as

N 0 and will normally only attack highly reactive aromatic com
pounds such as phenols and amines; it is thus without effect on the
otherwise highly reactive P h - O M e . Introduction of electronwithdrawing groups into the o- or/j-positions of the diazonium cation
2
112
Diazo
Coupling
enhance its electrophilic character, however, by increasing the

positive charge on the diazo g r o u p :
Thus the 2,4-dinitrophenyldiazonium cation will couple with

P h - O M e and the 2,4,6-compound with the hydrocarbon mesitylene.
Diazonium cations exist in acid and slightly alkaline solution (in more
strongly alkaline solution they are converted into diazohydroxides,
P h N = N O H and further into diazotate anions, P h N = N - O )
and coupling reactions are therefore carried out under these conditions,
the optimum p H depending on the species being attacked. With
phenols this is at a slightly alkaline p H as phenoxide ion is very much
more rapidly attacked than phenol itself because of the considerably
greater electron-density available to the electrophile:
0
Coupling could take place on either oxygen or carbon and though

relative electron-density might be expected to favour the former, the
strength of the bond formed is also of significance and as with
electrophilic attack on phenols in general it is a C-substituted product
that normally results:
The proton is removed by one or other of the basic species present in

solution.
E
113
in Aromatic Systems
"
Aromatic amines are in general somewhat less readily attacked than

phenols and coupling is often carried out in slightly acid solution,
thus ensuring a high [PhN J without markedly converting the amine,
ffi
A r N H , into the unreactive, protonated cation, ArNH such

aromatic amines are very weak bases (cf. p . 52). The initial diazo tisation
of aromatic primary amines is carried out in strongly acid media t o
ensure that as yet unreacted amine is converted to the cation and so
prevented from coupling with the diazonium salt as it is formed.
With aromatic amines there is the possibility of attack o n either
nitrogen or carbon, and, by contrast with phenols, attack takes place
largely on nitrogen in primary and secondary amines (i.e. N alkylanilines) to yield diazo-amino compounds:
a
With most primary amines this is virtually the sole product, with
N-alkylated anilingg some coupling may also take place on the
benzene nucleus while with tertiary amines (N-dialkylanilines) only
the product c o u p l e d ^ n carbon is obtained:
NR
N=N-Ph
This difference in position of attack with primary and secondary
aromatic amines, compared with phenols;probably reflects the relative
electron-density of the various positions in the former compounds
exerting the controlling influence for, in contrast to a number of other
aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions, diazo coupling is sen
sitive t o relatively small differences in electron density (reflecting the
rather low ability as an electrophile of P h N ) , Similar differences in
electron-density d o of course occur in phenols b u t t i e r e control over
the position of attack is exerted more by the relative strengths of the
bonds formed in the two products: in the two alternative coupled
e
114
Diazo
Coupling
products derivable from amines, this latter difference is much less

marked.
The formation of diazoamino compounds by coupling with primary
amines does not constitute a preparative bar to obtaining the products
coupled on the benzene nucleus for the diazoamino compound may
be rearranged to the corresponding amino-azo compound by warming
in acid:
+ N=N'Ph
The rearrangement has been shown undjjr these conditions to be a n
//j/ermolecular process, i.e. that the diazonium cation becomes free,
for the latter may be transferred to phenols, aromatic amines or other
suitable species added to the solution. It is indeed found that the
rearrangement proceeds most readily with an aid catalyst plus an
excess of the amine that initially underwent coupling t o yiejd^he
diazoamino compound, it may then be that this amine attacks the
protonated diazoamino compound directly with expulsion of
Ph* N H and loss of a p r o t o n :
2
y
J(j
-H
Ha
NNH Ph
N
-* r^^/^ + NH Ph
N
II
Ar
Ar
H N - < ^ ^ N = N Ar+H
8
It should perhaps be mentioned that aromatic electrophilic substi

tution of atoms or groups other than hydrogen is also known. An
example is
P h l + H I - Ph-H + I,
115
0
in Aromatic
Systems
which shows all the characteristics (in the way of effect of substi
tuents, etc.) of a typical electrophilic substitution reaction, but such
displacements are not common and are usually of little preparative
importance.
In the face of the wholly polar viewpoint of aromatic substitution
that has so far been adopted, it should be emphasised that examples
of homolytic aromatic substitution by free radicals are also known
(p. 250).
THE EFFECT OF A SUBSTITUENT ALREADY PRESENT
The effect of a substituent already present in a benzene nucleus in

governing not only the reactivity of the nucleus towards further
electrophilic attack, but also in determining what position the in
coming substituent shall enter, is well known. A number of empirical
rules have been devised to account for these effects but they can be
better explained on the basis of the electron-donating o r -attracting
powers of the initial substituent.
(i) Inductive effect of substituents

Alkyl groups are ejectron-donating and so will increase electronavailability over tfae^nucleus. The effect in toluene
H
etc.
(XIII)
probably arises in part from a contribution to the hybrid by. forms
such as (XIII), i.e. by hyperconjugation (p. 20). The inductive effect
of most other substituents, e.g. halogens, O H , O M e , N H , S 0 H , N O
etc. will be in the opposite direction as the a t o m next t o the nucleus
is more electronegative than the carbon to which it is attached, e.g.:
2
CI
116
The Effect of a Substituent
already
Present
But this is not the only way in which a substituent can affect electronavailability in the nucleus.
(ii) Mesomeric effect of substituents

A number of common substituents have unshared electron pairs
on the a t o m attached to the nucleus and these can interact with its
delocalised n orbitals
MeO:-,
MeO
MeO
and the same consideration clearly applies to O H , S H , N H , halo

gens, etc.
It will be noticed that electron-availability over the nucleus is there
by increased. An effect in the opposite direction can take place if the
substituent atom attached t o the nucleus itself carries a more elec
tronegative atom t o which it is multiply bonded, i.e. this a t o m is then
conjugated with the nucleus and can interact with its delocalised w
orbitals:
2
In
co
Co
H*
I
co
The same consideration clearly applies t o C O R, C 0 H , S O H , N O , ,

CN, etc. Here it will be seen that electron-availability over the
nucleus is thereby decreased.
2
(iii) The overall effect

Clearly any group that, overall, is electron-donating is going t o
lead to more rapid substitution by an electrophilic reagent than in
benzene itself, for the electron-density on the ring carbon atoms is
now higher; correspondingly, any group that is, overall, electronwithdrawing is going t o lead to less rapid substitution. This is re
flected in the relative ease of attack of oxidising agents, which are, of
117
in Aromatic Systems
course, electrophilic reagents (e.g. K M 1 1 O 4 ) , on phenol, benzene and

nitrobenzene; phenol is extremely readily attacked with destruction
of the aromatic nucleus, while benzene is resistant to attack and
nitrobenzene even more so.
It is also reflected in the Friedel-Crafts reaction. Alkylation of
benzene leads t o an initial product, P h - R , which is more readily
attacked than benzene itself due to the electron-donating substituent
R. It is thus extremely difficult t o stop the reaction a t the m o n o alkylated stage and polyalkylation is the rule (p. 111). In acylation,
however, the initial product, P h - C O - R , is less readily attacked
than is benzene itself and the reaction can readily be stopped at this
stage. It is indeed often preferable t o synthesise a mono-alkyl benzene
by acylation followed by Clemmensen or other reduction, rather than
by direct alkylation, because of difficulties introduced during the
latter by polyalkylation and possible rearrangement of R. The presence
of a n electron-withdrawing substituent is generally sufficient to
inhibit the Friedel-Crafts reaction and, for example, nitrobenzene is
often used as a solvent as it readily dissolves A1C1 .
3
The overall electron-withdrawing effect is clear-cut with, for

example, N 0 , for here inductive a n d mesomeric effects reinforce
each other, but withê.g. N H , these effects are in opposite directions
2
and it is not possible t o say, a priori, whether the overall effect on the
nucleus will be activation or de-activation. Here the direction and
magnitude of the dipole moment of P h Yean be some guide (see p. 119).
The overall electron-donating effect of O H and N H , as compared
with the overall electron-withdrawing effect of CI, reflects the con
siderably greater ease with which oxygen and nitrogen will release
their electron pairs as compared with chlorine; this is more than
sufficient t o outweigh the inductive effect in the two former cases but
not in the latter. It should, however, be remembered that the moments
of a number of the composite groups, e.g. O H , are not collinear with
2
118
The Effect of a Substituted
already Present
Direction in
Y
OH
NH,
OMe
Me
1-6
1-5
1-2
0-3
00
ci
1-6
2-8
3-8
3-9
CHO
SO,H
NO,
*-+
+-*
the axis of the benzene ring and hence the component of the moment
actually affecting the bond to the ring may thus be different from the
observed moment of the molecule as a whole:
^
The relation between electron-availability and ease of electrophilic

substitution may, however, be seen by comparing the direction and
magnitude of dipole moments (p. 119) with the following relative
rates of attack by N 0 :
2
PhOH
10
3
PhMe
2-5
PhH
1
PhCl
3xl0-
PhNO,
< 10-
(iv) The position* of substitution

Which position, o-, m- or p- is actually entered by the incoming group
will depend on which leads to the most readily formed transition state.
119
in Aromatic Systems
As the transition state usually resembles the related metastable inter

mediate or a complex reasonably closely energetically (p. 32), it may
be assumed that it also resembles it in structure. Thus structural
features that stabilise a particular a complex might be expected to
stabilise the related transition state in a similar way. Thus considering
the three possibilities for nitration when the initial substituent is
O M e (i.e. with anisole),
clearly O M e , being a n electron-donating group, is able to stabilise

the intermediate by assisting in the delocalisation of its charge when
the incoming group has entered the ,o- or p-, (XlVa and XVIa), but
no/them-position, (XV). It should be noted that additional structures
(two in each case), in which the positive charge is delocalised merely
'within the benzene nucleus (cf. nitrobenzene below), have, for con
venience, been omitted as their contribution will be essentially the
same whether the incoming substituent has entered the o-; m- or
/-position. T h e effect of stabilising a transition state (cf. related a
complex) is to lower the activation energy of the reaction leading to
its formation, and preferential 0/jp-substitution thus takes place. With
nitrobenzene, however,
120
The Position of
Substitution
NO,
(XVII)
(XVIIa)
(XVII6)
NO,
(XVIII)
'NO,
(XVIIIa)
NO,
(XVIII6)
0,N
H
(XlXa)
0 N
H
"* ( X I X
2
the group already present has a positively charged nitrogen atom

adjacent t o the nucleus so it will clearly not function in helping to.
delocalise the positive charge that is introduced on t o the nucleus by
nitration. The three possible intermediates can thus only stabilise
themselves by delocalisation of the charge over the nucleus itself.
This will, however, clearly be less effective if substitution takes place
in the o- and /^-positions, for in each case one of the contributing
structures (XV1I6 and X l X a ) would have to carry a positive charge
on a carbon atom which is already bonded t o a positively charged
nitrogen atom, a far from stable juxtaposition. With the intermediatearising from m-substitution (XVIII) there is n o such limitation; this
intermediate is thus more stable than those that would be obtained
by o- or /^-substitution and preferential m-substitution thus takes
place.
*
It should be remembered, however, that whatever the nature of the
substituent already present what we are actually considering are the
121
Electrophilic and Nucleophilic
Substitution
in Aromatic Systems
relative rates of attack on o-, m- and /'-positions and though either

o/p- or m-substitution is usually preponderant, neither alternative is
of necessity exclusive. Thus nitration of toluene has been found t o
lead to 3 per cent of wi-nitrotoluene and of r-butylbenzene to
9 per cent of the w-nitro derivative.
A somewhat less satisfactory explanation of a substituent being
predominantly either o/p- or w-directing is provided by
MeOx
MeO
MeO
O M e activating thtfo- and /^-positions preferentially leading, therefor?*le o//>-substitulfon and N 0 deactivating the o- and /-positions
preferentially leading, therefore, to /M-substitution by default as this
is the least deactivated position. This, however, is considering the
state of affairs in the starting material, the substrate, whereas the
previous argument compared the several alternative metastable inter
mediates or a complexes. As the formation of the transition state is
the determining step in the reaction, a consideration of the factors
that influence the stability of the related a complex is likely t o prove
the more reliable guide as the a complex resembles the transition state
more closely than does the substrate.
This is readily seen with styrene which, considering the substrate
only, might be expected to substitute m- due to electron-withdrawal
(XX):
2
CH^CH,
122
CHCH,
The Position of
Substitution
In practice, however, it substitutes ojp- (it also undergoes substitution

o n the C H of the vinyl group) owing t o the fact that the metastable
intermediates or o- complexes arising from o- a n d ^-substitution are
stabilised, by delocalisation due to the vinyl group, in a way that the
intermediate arising from m-substitution cannot be (cf. anisole above):
2
CHjCH,
CH=CH
CHjCH,
ON
m-
o-
p-
The behaviour of chlorobenzene is interesting for although C I is,

overall, electron-withdrawing and the nucleus is therefore more diffi
cult t o nitrate than is benzene itself (a circumstance normally
associated with m-directive groups) it does nevertheless substitute
ojp-. This is due t o the electron pairs o n chlorine being able to assist in
the stabilisation by delocalisation of the intermediates for o- and pbut not for m-substitution (cf. anisole, p . 120):
o-
nt-
p-
These electron pairs are somewhat more loth than those on oxygen
or nitrogen to interact with the n orbital system of the nucleus
(p. 119), but such interaction is enhanced by a temporary polarisation,
sometimes called the electromeric effect, superimposed on the per
manent polarisation of the molecule at the close approach of the
attacking electrophile N 0 :
2
123
in Aromatic Systems *
The rate of reaction will remain slower than in benzene itself, however,
due t o the overall deactivation of the nucleus by chlorine's inductive
effect in the opposite direction. A very similar situation is encountered
in the addition of unsymmetrical adducts to vinyl halides, e.g.
CHa==CHBr, where the inductive effect controls the rate, but mesomeric stabilisation of the carbonium ion intermediate governs the
orientation, of addition (p. 142).
(v) Conditions of reaction
T h e conditions under which an electrophilic substitution reaction
is carried out can modify or even alter completely the directing effect
of a group. Thus phenol is even more powerfully o//>-directing in
alkaline than in neutral or acid solution, for the species undergoing
substitution is then the phenoxide ion (XXI), in which the inductive
effect is now reversed compared with phenol itself and, m o r e
important, a full blown negative charge is available for interaction
with the IT orbital system of the nucleus; the electron density over the
nucleus is thus notably increased:
(XXI)
Conversely aniline, normally o/p-directing, becomes in part at least
m-directing in strongly acid solution, dUe t o protonation t o form
the anilinium cation:
e
H:NH
This is due to the fact that there can n o longer be any interaction of
the unshared electron pair on nitrogen with the delocalised IT orbitals
of the nucleus, for the former are now involved in bond formation
with the proton that has been taken u p and the inductive effect,
drawing electrons away from the nucleus, is now* enormously en
hanced by the positive charge on nitrogen. The reason that any oand /7-nitroanilines are obtained at all under ordinary conditions with
124
Ortho/Para
Ratios
nitrating mixture is due to the small, residual concentration of free

aniline, a very weak base (cf. p . 52), that is still in equilibrium with
the anilinium cation in the acid medium. The free base, having an
activated nucleus, undergoes o/p-substitution very, very much faster
than the deactivated cation suffers attack at the m-position. The
difference in rate is so marked that the presence of less than one part
per million of free base will still lead t o more than 50 per cent ojpsubstitution, but the proportion of m-nitroaniline obtained does
increase as the acid concentration of the medium increases, as would
be expected*
As soon as more than one saturated atom is interposed between a
positive charge and the nucleus, however, its inductive effect falls off
very sharply (cf. strengths of acids, p . 43) and so does the percentage
of the m-isomer produced, as seen in the nitration of:
Compound
Percentage m-
PhNMe,
100
PhCHjNMe,
-88
Ph C H , C H , NMe,
Ph C H , C H , C H , NMe,
19
(vi) o/p-ratios
It might, at first sight, be expected that the relative proportions of
o- and p-isomers obtained during substitution of a nucleus contain
ing an o/p-directive substituent would be 67 per cent o- and 33 per
cent /-,as there are two o-positions to be substituted for every one
Apart from the fact that a little w-product is often obtained (the ex
tent t o which a position is substituted is merely a matter of relative
rates of attack, after all), the above ratio is virtually never realised and
more often than not more p- than o-product is obtained. This may
be due to the substituent already present hindering attack at the re
positions adjacent to it by its very bulk, an interference to which the
125
in Aromatic
Systems
more distant /"-position is not susceptible. In support of this it is

found that as the initial substituent increases in size from C H - * M e C ,
the proportion of the o-isomer obtained drops markedly (57 per cent ->
12 per cent) while that of the p- increases (40 per c e n t - * 8 0 per cent).
Increase in size of the attacking agent has the same effect; thus
substitution of chlorobenzene leads t o :
3
Group introduced
Cl
NO,
Br
SO H
Percentage o-
39
30
11
Percentage p-
55
70
87
100
That a steric factor is not the only one at work, however, is seen in
the nitration of fluoro-, chloro-, bromo^ and iodobenzenes where the
percentage of o-isomer obtained increases as we go along the series,
despite the increase in size of the substituent. This is due to the fact
that the electron-withdrawing inductive effect influences the adjacent
o-positions much more powerfully than the ihore distant p-position.
The inductive effecrtfecreases considerably on going from fluoro- to
iodoTJBBzene (the biggest change being seen in going from fluoro- to
chlorobenzene) resulting in easier attack at the o-positions despite the
increasing size of the group already present.
With o/p-directive groups having unshared electrons, e.g. O M e ,
the metastable intermediate leading to /--substitution has a contribu
tion from a quasi p-quinohoid structure (XVIc, p . 120), as compared
with the intermediate leading to o-substitution which has a contribu
tion from a quasi o-quinonoid structure (XIVc, p . 120); as with the
corresponding quinones themselves, the former is likely to be more
stable than the latter thus leading to preferential p-substitutioh.
T h e o/p-ratio is also a good deal influenced by the actual conditions,
e.g. temperature, under which substitution is carried out, arid there'
are a number of anomalies that have not yet been adequately
explained.
COMPETITION BETWEEN SUBSTITUENTS

If two substituents are already present in a benzene nucleus, the posi
tion of entry of a third can, in a number of cases, be forecast with fair
accuracy. Thus if an o/p- and a m-directive substituent are present, as
126
Electrophilic
Substitution
of Other Aromatic
Species
in m-nitrotoluene (XXII), we should expect nitration to take place

at the positions indicated by arrows:
Me
(XXII)
T h a t is o- and p- t o the activating substituent, M e , but not m- to the
deactivating substituent, N 0 . This is borne out in practice, i.e. where
a n ojp- and a m-directive substituent are in competition the latter
can often be looked upon as merely occupying a position in the
nucleus; though any possible steric effects it may exert must also be
taken into account in deciding which positions, out of several alterna
tives, are likely to be most readily attacked. With two suitably
situated o/p-directive substituents, however, actual competition
does take place. It is not always possible accurately to forecast the
outcome, but normally those groups that exert their effects via un
shared electron pairs are more potent than those operating via induc
tive or hyperconjugative effects, possibly due to tfcadded electromeric
effect (p. 123) exerted on approach of the electnaphile. Thus njtprtion
of acet-p-toluidide (XXIII) leads to
2
Me'
jj^jY
Me
Me
NO.
QNH-CO-Me
' (XXIII)
cyirtually n o attack at all taking place o- to M e .
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION0F OTHER AROMATIC SPECIES

With naphthalene, electrophilic substitution, e.g. nitration, takes
a
place preferentially at the a- rather than the jS-position. This can be

accounted for by the fact that more effective stabilisation by delocal
isation can take place in the .metastable intermediate or transition
127
in Aromatic
Systems
state froma-substitution than that from 0- attack (cf. benzene with an

o/p-directive substituent):
More forms can also be written in each case in which the positive
charge is now delocalised over the other ring, leading t o a total of
seven forms for the a-intermediate as against sue for the /?-, but the
above, in which the second ring retains intact, fully delocalised n
orbitals, are probably the most important and the contrast, between
two contributing forms in the one case and one in the other, corres
pondingly more marked.
The sulphonatioa^jf naphthalene is found to lead to almost
compJit? a-substitutifln at 80 but to approximately 85 per cent
/J-substitution at 160. This is due to the fact that the rate of /?substitution is essentially negligible below ca. 110 but a-substitution,
although very rapid, is reversible and as the /J-sulphonic acid is
thermodynamically more stable than the a- (primarily due to the large
S 0 H group occupying a less hindered position in the former),
kinetic ot rate control of product (-<) a t low temperatures gives
place t o thermodynamic control of product (->-j3-) at higher tempera
tures (cf. p . 220). That this is the real explanation is confirmed by
heating the a-sulphonic acid with H S 0 when a n ^ mixture contain
ing largely the j3-acid is obtained, the detailed evidence being against
a mere /w/romolecular rearrangement having taken place.
;
3
The possibility of the charge becoming more widely delocalised

in the naphthalene intermediate, as compared with benzene, would
lead us t o expect more ready electrophilic attack on naphthalene which
is indeed observed.
J>
Pyridine (XXIV), like benzene, has six w electrons (one being
supplied by nitrogen) in delocalised w orbitals but, unlike benzene,
the orbitals will be deformed by being attracted towards the nitrogen
128
Electrophilic Substitution
of Other Aromatic
Species
a t o m because of the latter's being more electronegative than carbon.

This is reflected in the observed dipole moment of pyridine
,1
= 2-30
(XXIV)
,* =
3-9D
(XXV)
and the compound would therefore be expected to have a deactivated

nucleus towards electrophilic substitution (cf. nitrobenzene (XXV)).
The deactivation of t h e ^ u c l e u s is considerably increased o n electro
philic attack, for the positive charge introduced on nitrogen by pro
tonation, or by direct attack on it of the substituting electrophile,
withdraws electrons much more strongly:
H
In fact electrophilic substitution is extremely difficult, sulphonation,
for example, requiring twenty-four hours heating with oleum at 230.
Substitution takes place at the /^-position (m- t o the electron-with
drawing centre), the explanation being similar t o that already
discussed for nitrobenzene (p. 121).
Pyrrole (XXVI) also has delocalised n orbitals but nitrogen has
here had to contribute two electrons so becoming virtually non-basic
(p. 56) and the dipole moment is found to be in the opposite direction
t o that of pyridine:
/I
i-
= 1-8 D
(XXVI)
It is thus referred t o as a n excessive heterocycle as compared with

pyridine which is a n deficient one. It behaves like a reactive benzene
derivative, e.g. aniline, and electrophilic substitution is very easy.
129
in Aromatic Systems
Substitution is complicated, however, by the fact that if protonation

is forced on pyrrole in strongly acid solution (this probably takes
place on an a-carbon a t o m rather than on nitrogen, XXVII, cf. p .
56), the aromatic character is lost, the compound behaves like a
conjugated diene and undergoes extremely rapid polymerisation:
H C = C H
I
H
I,.H
.
C
^N/ *H
H
(XXVII)
Electrophilic substitution can, however, be carried out under

highly specialised conditions leading to preferential attack at the
a-position, reflecting the greater delocalisation, and hence stabilisa
tion, possible in the metastable intermediate leading to a-, as com
pared with /J-, substitution:
The difference in stability between the two is not very strongly

marked, however, reflecting the highly activated state of the nucleus,
and ready attack will take place at the j8-position if the a- is already
substituted.
NUCLEOPHILIC ATTACK ON AROMATIC SPECIES

(i) Substitution of hydrogen
As it :s the IT electrons that are initially responsible for the normal

substitution of benzene being an electrophilic process, the presence
of a strongly electron-withdrawing substituent might be expected to
render attack by a nucleophile possible provided electron-withdrawal
130
Nucleophilic Attack on Aromatic
Species
from the nucleus was sufficiently great (cf. the addition of nucleo
philes t o alkenes carrying electron-withdrawing substituents, p . 153).
In fact, nitrobenzene can be fused with potash, in the presence of air,
to yield o-nitrophenol (XXVIII):
(XXVIII)
The nitro-group is able t o stabilise the anionic intermediate (XXIX)

by delocalising its charge if O H enters the o- or p-positions but not
if it goes into the m-positiom The o-attack is likely to be preferred,
despite the size of the adjacent N 0 , as the inductive effect of the
ilitro-group, acting over a shorter distance, will make the o-position
more electron-deficient t h a n the p-. The overall reaction is exactly
what we should expect, namely that a substituent promoting attack
on the m-position by an electrophile would promote o/p-attack by a
nucleophile.
Once (XXIX) has been formed, it can eliminate O H (i) and so be
reconverted to nitrobenzene as readily as it can eliminate H (ii) to
yield the product (XXVIII). T o drive the reaction over to the right an
oxidising agent must be present t o encourage the elimination of
hydride ion and t o destroy it asformed. Thus the fusion is either
carried out i i ^ t h e air, or an oxidising agent such as potassium
nitrate or ferricyanide is added.
Pyridine behaves in an exactly analogous manner undergoing
attack by sodamide (i.e. N H , the Tschitschibabin reaction), t o
e
131
in Aromatic
Systems
yield a-aminopyridine (XXX), a compound of value in the synthesis

of sulphapyridine:
(XXX)
These are analogous to S 2 reactions but with attack taking place
from the side rather than from the back of the carbon atomtlndergoing
nucleophilic attack; they differ also in that this atom never becomes
bonded to more than four other atoms at once (cf. p . 58). This
mechanism is probably sufficiently different from the normal S 2 for
it to be designated specifically as S ^ 2 (aromatic).
N
(ii) Substitution of atoms other than hydrogen

Aromatic nucleophilic substitution more commonly refers t o the
replacement of atoms other than hydrogen and both S l and SJV2
(aromatic) mechanisms are encountered. The only important examples
proceeding via the
mechanism are the replacement reactions of
diazaijjujn salts
N
A r O H + H
Arl
in which the rate-determining step is the elimination of nitrogen
from the diazonium cation followed by rapid reaction of the aryl
cation with a nucleophile, the rates being first order in ArN and
independent of the concentration \>f the nucleophile. A number of
the reactions of diazonium salts, particularly in less .polar solvents,
proceed by a radical mechanism, however (p. 255).
The most common example of an S^2 (aromatic) reaction is the
replacement of an activated halogen atom,
a
132
Species
OEt
ci
EtO
e/
(XXXI)
kinetic stuSies in a number of examples supporting the bimolecularity
of the reaction. T h a t an actual intermediate such as (XXXI) is
formed, unlike aliphatic bimolecular nucleophilic substitution where
the bond to the leaving group is being broken as that to the entering
group is being formed, is shown by the fact that chlorides and bro
mides react in a number of cases a t essentially the same rate. T h e
breakage of the carbon-halogen bond can thus not be involved in the
rate-determining step for a CCl bond is more difficult to break than
a n analogous CBr one and the chloride would, a priori, be expected
t o react more slowly than the bromide.
Confirmation of the formation of such an intermediate is provided
by the actual isolation of the same species (X^fHII) from the action
of OEt on 2,4,6-trinitroanisole (XXXIII) . a n d O M e . a ^ * , 4 , f >
trinitrophenetole (XXXIV):
e
(ii)
(0
NO,
0,N
It is also found that acidification of the reaction mixture obtained

from either substrate yields exactfy the same-proportion of (XXXIII)
and (XXXIV)?
We have thus now encountered nucleophilic displacement reactions
in which the bond to the leaving group is broken (a) before that to the
133
in Aromatic Systems
attacking nucleophile has been formed ( S l ) , (b) simultaneously with

the formation of the bond t o the attacking nucleophile (S^2), and
(c) after the bond to the attacking nucleophile has been formed
(Sjy2 (aromatic)).
The reason for the activating effect of electron-withdrawing groups,
especially N 0 , on nuclear halogen atoms is their ability to stabilise
intermediates such as (XXXI) by delocalisation; it would therefore
be expected that nitro-groups would be most effective when o- and pto the substituent to be replaced, for in the m-position they can only
assist in spreading the charge via their inductive effects. The presence
of nitro-groups in the 2-, 4- and 6-positions in picryT chloride,
( O g N V C e l V C I , thus confers almost acid chloride reactivity on the
halogen, their effect is so pronounced. 2- and 4-, but not 3-, halogenopyridines also undergo ready replacement reactions for exactly the
same reasons (the electron-withdrawing group here being the
heterocyclic nitrogen a t o m ) ; they d o , indeed, resemble the corres
ponding o- and /-nitrohalogenobenzenes though the activation of the
halogen is slightly less than in the latter.
w
If nitro-groups are to stabilise, and so assist in the formation of,

intermediates such as (XXXI) the p orbitals on the nitrogen atom
of the N O group must be able t o become parallel to those on the
adjacent nuclear carTJFJn atom. F o r this t o happen the oxygen atoms
attacflMto nitrogen mflst also lie in or near the plane of the nucleus. If
such atoms are forced out of this plane by steric factors, the N 0 group
becomes a much less effective activator as only its inductive effect can
then operate. Thus the bromine in (XXXV) is replaced much more
slowly t h a n in /*-nitrobromobenzene (XXXVI) because the o-methyl
groups in the former prevent the oxygen atoms of the nitro-group
from becoming coplanar with the nucleus and so inhibit the
withdrawal of electrons from it by the mesomeric effect (cf. p . 23):
a
O
Me
\ /
N
II
Br
(XXXV)
134
e
O
Me
Br
(XXXVI)
Species
(iii) Replacement of halogen in an unactivated nucleus

The chlorine in chlorobenzene only undergoes replacement by
OH under extreme conditions due to the fact that the expected
S 2 (aromatic) intermediate (XXXVII), not being stabilised like the
examples already considered, is reluctant to form:
N
(XXXVII)
Nevertheless aryl halides having n o activating groups are found to

undergo ready conversion to amines with sodamide, but this reaction
has been shown to proceed via an entirely different mechanism t o that
already considered. It has been shown not to be a direct replacement,
but t o involve elimination of hydrogen halide followed by addition
of ammonia:
-HO
S ^%
NH,
(XXXVIII)
The benzyne intermediate (XXXVIII) proposed seems inSerently

unlikely but the evidence in its favour is extremely strong. Thus
when chlorobenzene, in which chlorine is attached t o an isotopicallylabelled carbon atom, reacts with sodamide the intervention of
a benzyne intermediate should lead to equal quantities of two
amines; in one of which the amino-group is attached directly t o the
labelled carbon and.in the other in the o-position t o it. This has,
indeed, been confirmed experimentally. Similarly in the reaction of
a-halogeno-naphthalenes with R N H , two isomeric compounds
should be obtained'
NR
2
NRj
135
in Aromatic Systems
and the proportion of them in the product should be independent of

the nature of the original halogen; this, t o o , has been confirmed
experimentally. Support for the intervention of benzyne intermediates
is also provided by the fact that aryl halides having no hydrogen in the
o-positions, and so unable to eliminate H - Hal, are extremely resistant
to amination. But, perhaps most conclusive of all, it has proved
possible to ' t r a p ' benzyne intermediates by reacting them with
dienes to produce recognisable addition products in the Diels-Alder
reaction (p. 151).
It has been shown using isotopically-labelled chlorobenzene that
its conversion to phenol proceeds both via a benzyne intermediate
and by an S^2 (aromatic) reaction simultaneously. A strong base is
always required for a replacement to proceed via a benzyne inter
mediate for the initial removal of a proton from the aromatic nucleus
is far from easy:
136
ADDITION TO CARBON-CARBON
DOUBLE
BONDS
A s we have already seen (p. 6), a carbon-carbon double bond con

sists of a strong a bond plus a weaker w bond, in a different position
(I):
H
B
N ^ . - '
":
C
(I)
H
\ .
e/
CC
<-
C=C
dD
H
\ .
-*
H
. /
CC
(IN)
The pair of electrons in the IT orbital are less firmly held between
the carbon nuclei and so more readily polarisable than those of the
o bond, leading t o the characteristic reactivity of such unsaturated
compounds. Addition t o such compounds can oroceed through ionic
(II) or free radical (III) mechanisms, depending^!? the way in which
the w electrons become polarised either by the*^pproaching^S|ent
or other causes. Thus the 'former tends t o predominate in polar
solvents, the latter in non-polar solvents, especially in the presence
of other radicals o r of light. Free radical addition reactions are dis
cussed subsequently (p. 242) and attention will here be confined to the
ionic mechanism.
As the ir electrons are the most readily accessible feature of a
carbon-carbon double bond, we should expect them t o shield the
molecule from attack by nucleophilic reagents. Thus the character
istic reactions of such a system should be with cations, X, or electrondeficient species, i.e. with electrophilic reagents, and this is indeed
found t o be the case.
ADDITION 9f BROMINE
The addition o f halogens, e.g. bromine, is envisaged as taking place
not as a one-stage process, in which both bromine atoms become
attached simultaneously, but as a stepwise addition which is initiated
137
Addition to Carbon-Carbon
Double
Bonds
by a species containing positively polarised bromine: in this case the:

bromine molecule which becomes polarised on its close approach to
the IT electron layer of the define. The bromine first interacts with
the IT electrons t o form a so-called w complex (IV) and .then breaks
through to form a a bond with carbon, yielding the carbonium ion
(V):
Br
The addition is then completed by B r attack to yield the dibromide (VI); the evidence suggests that the formation of (V) is the ratedetermining step of the reaction. If an intermediate such as (V) is
indeed formed then mixed products should result if the addition of
bromine is carried out in the presence of other anions, for once (V)
has been formed, B r will not then be in any specially privileged
position for attackingit t o complete the addition. It is, in fact, found
that the presence o T X l , N O , etc., during bromination leads t o
the formation of, for*8xample, C1CH C H B r and O N C H C H B r
in addition t o (VI). T h a t these products are not formed merely by
subsequent attack of C 1 and N 0
on (VI) is confirmed by the fact
t h a t their formation proceeds much faster t h a n d o these substitution
reactions.
G
An alternative intermediate has also been suggested, namely the

bromonium ion (VII), which diners from (V) only in the distribution
of its electrons (it could indeed be derived by the attack of one of the
bromine atom's unshared electron pairs on the nearby carbonium
ion carbon a t o m ) :
(V)
(VII)
The participation of such an intermediate would be expected t o

have stereochemical implications.
138
Stereochemistry
of Addition
STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ADDITION
An intermediate such as (VII) would involve 'attack from the b a c k '
by B r as access from that side would be sterically so much readier
than from the front where the bulky bromine atom would get in the
way.
The overall addition should thus be trans, one bromine a t o m
becoming attached from the front of the molecule and the other from
the back. Thus if we consider the addition of bromine to maleic acid
(VIII) t o yield the dibrorho-analogue of tartaric acid (IX):
Q
Br
H
\
HO,C
Br
H
C=C>
/
\
BR,
c
/
CO,H
H0 C
(VIII)
(X).
\
Br
H
\
/
(IXa)
BrCC--Br
/
\
HO,C
.COjF
CO.H
Br -CCBr
CO.H
HO C
a
III
III
HO C
(IXa')
BrCCBr
CO.H
(IXa*)
/
HOjCf
BrC C- Br
Brj
JBr
CO,H
CO.H
III
HO,C
(IX/3)
(IX/30
H
ID
H CO.H
Br
HO.C
Br
(IX/Y)
The first-formed bromonium ion (X) could be attacked 'from the

b a c k ' on either carbon atom, witb.equal facility as these are identi
cally situated, t o yield equal quantities of the dibromides (IXa) and
(1X6). Before tifese can be written in the more usual plane-projection
formulae, they must be rotated about the carbon-carbon single bond
so that the two bromine atoms are on the same side of the molecule,
139
Double
Bonds
(IXa') and (lXb ); on projection these then yield the formulae (IXa)
and (1X6"). It will be seen that these are mirror images, and as equal
quantities are produced, the end result would be DL-maleic acid
dibromide (1,2-dibromosuccinic acid). This product is, in practice,
obtained and, exactly analogously, fumaric acid (XI) is found to yield
meso-1,2-dibromosuccinic acid ( X I I ) ; attack by B r o n either
carbon of the cyclic bromonium intermediate here yielding the same
product:
e
CO.H
Br
-COH
H-
//
HO C
-CO.H
Br
(XII)
(XI)
Halogens are, in fact, found uniformly to add on by an overall

trans mechanism. While this is good evidence in favour of the
bromonium ion intermediate, it does not constitute actual confirma
tion; for provided attack by B r were rapid enough, a carbonium
ion i n t e r m e d i a t e , ^ ! ^ OO, could also undergo preferential attack
frorrtabe back befdK any significant rotation about the c a r b o n carbon single bond had taken place, thus also leading to stereospecific trans addition. Acetylenes also add on one molecule of
halogen t o yield a trans product; thus acetylene dicarboxylic acid,
H 0 C - C = C - C 0 H , yields the trans compound, dibromofumaric
acid:
3
Br
CO.H
\
II
HO.C
C
\
Br
EFFECT OF SUBSTITUENTS ON RATE OF ADDITION

If attack by incipient Br to form a cation, whethef (V) or (VII), is
the rate-determining step of the reaction, it would be expected that
addition would be facilitated by the presence of electron-donating
140
Orientation of Addition
substituents on the double-bond carbon a t o m s ; the following relative
rates are observed:
Me
\
CH,=CHBr C H = C H C 0 H < C H = C H
0 03
1
Me
Me
Me
a
\
^
C=CH, <
Me
Me
'/
C=CH
<
CH=CH
2
Me
2
Me
'/
\
x
<
C=C
Me
10
Me
13
The rate of addition increases with successive introductions of methyl

despite access t o the double bond becoming progressively more
hindered sterically. By contrast, the presence of electron-withdrawing
substituents markedly slows down the rate of addition. The presence
of a benzene nucleus also speeds up reaction very markedly because
of the stability, and consequent ease of formation, of the carbonium
ion intermediate (XIII):
CH=CH,
\ _ r n = i
H,X
=CHCH,X
etc.
(XIII)
ORIENTATION OF ADDITION
With hydrogen halide, addition of H is the rate-determining step
via an initially formed n complex, the addition being completed by
subsequent attack of Hal. In support of this, it is found that ease of
addition increases on going H F --HCl ->HBr H I , i.e. in order of
increasing acid strength. The series not only implies relative ease of
proton donation, of course, but also increase of nucleophilicity in the
anion, Hal, that completes the aftack; but this second stage is not
involved in theyate-determining step of the overall addition. When
the olefine is unsymmetrical, e.g. propylene, hydrogen bromide can
add t o form two possible products, M e - C H B r - M e and M e - C H j *
C H B r . In practice, however, we should only expect to get the former,
2
141
Double Bonds
exemplifying the greater tendency to form a secondary rather than a

primary carbonium ion (cf. p . 109):
H
. ...
H
H
MeCHCH,
I
Br I
MeCH=CH,
MeCHCH,
9 I
/ \
I Br
'
MeCHCH,
MeCHCH,
Br
Br
This is found to be the case and is the theoretical justification for

the empirical generalisation of Markownikov: ' I n the addition of
unsymmetrical adducts t o unsymmetrical olefines halogen, or the
more negative group, becomes attached to the more highly substituted
of the unsaturated carbon atoms.'
The study of the addition of hydrogen halides to defines presents a
number of experimental difficulties. In solution in water or hydroxylic
solvents, acid-catalysed hydration, etc. (see below) constitutes a
competing reaction, while in less polar solvents radical formation is
encouraged and tflrtnechanism changes, resulting with HBr in antiMafUlwmikov addition to yield M e - C H , - C H B r via the preferen
tially formed intermediate, M e C H C H j B r . The radical mechanism
of addition and the reasons for its occurrence are discussed subse
quently (p. 244).
8
Addition of H B r to vinyl bromide, C H ^ C H B r , is also of

some interest. Under polar conditions, C H - C H B r rather than
CHgBr-CHgBr, is obtained reflecting the greater stability of the
carbonium ion intermediate (XlVa) rather than (XIV6):
3
CH,CH ^ B r - C H C H = B r
(XlVa)
CH,CHBr
(XIV6)
Nevertheless the rate of addition Is, as described above, about thirty

times slower t h a n with ethylene, indicating the inductive effect of the
bromine atom in reducing overall electron availability at the double
bond:
CH,=CH--Br
142
y
Hydration
This very closely resembles the electrophilic substitution of chloro
benzene which, as we have seen (p. 123), is o/p-directive (preferential
stabilisation of the transition states for o- and p-substitution by
interaction of the unshared electron pairs on chlorine with the v
orbital system of the nucleus), yet slower than in benzene itself
(large inductive effect of chlorine resulting in overall deactivation of
the nucleus to electrophilic attack).
The rearrangements of structure that can take place during the
addition of acids to olefines, due to alkyl migrations in the carbonium
ion intermediates, have already been referred to (p. 89).
With hypochlorous acid, etc., the adduct polarises in the sense
t+
H O C l , thus yielding with propylene
O H
- .+
HOa
MeCH=CH,
eoH
* MeCHCH,
|
MeCHCH,
|
or H.O
Cl
Cl
this being in accordance with the Markownikov rule as O H is a

more negative group than CI. T h a t such additions are also trans
(i.e. initial attack by X t o yield a cationic intermediate) is shown by
the conversion of cyclopentene t o the trans chlorohydrin:
_
Cl
OTHER ADDITION REACTIONS

(i) Hydration
Hydration of a carbon-carbon double bond is, of course, the re
versal of the acid-catalysed dehydration of alcohols to olefines (p. 192):
H
OH
H,o \ |
OH
= c < ^ - > > - c < - , > c - c < ^ >\ cI- c </
>
X V
H
(XV)
-He
143
Double Bonds
The formation of the carbonium ion (XV) is the rate-determining

step in the reaction but whether this takes place directly or via the
rapid, reversible formation of a IT complex (XVI), followed by the
slow, rate-determining conversion of the latter to the carbonium
ion (XV)
=
/ * '
^ '
<
' fast
/ * " \ ^ '
slow*
H
(XVI)
H
(XV)
is not wholly certain. Hydrogen halides are not nornfally used as

sources of proton because of their tendency to add on themselves, but
the H S 0 ions produced with sulphuric acid are only very weakly
nucleophilic and, even if they should add on, the alkyl hydrogen
sulphates (XVII) so produced are very readily hydrolysed by water:
s
(XVII)
The reaction is o f t w f o r t a n c e for converting petroleum fractions into
alcoiifllfcand is sometimes brought about by dissolving the alkenes in
concentrated sulphuric acid and then diluting the solution with
water. The orientation of addition, being proton-initiated, follows the
conventions already discussed and proceeds trans.
(ii) Carbonium ion addition
The carbonium ion intermediate that may result from initial p r o tonation of the double bond in several of the above reactions can
itself, of course, act as an electrophile towards a second molecule of
alkene. T h u s with isobutene (XVIII)
Me C=CH
2
(XVIII)
Me CCH=CMe
3
Me C ^CwXcMe,
(XIX)
3
(XXII)
_ ffi
H
> Me CCH CMe / c H ^ C M e

(XX)
3
Me CCHif-CMejCHssCMe
(XXI)
3
144
Hydroxylation
the first formed carbonium ion (XIX) can add to the double bond of
a second molecule to form a second carbonium ion (XX). This in its
turn can add on to the double bond of a third molecule to yield (XXI)
or, alternatively, lose a proton to yield the alkene (XXII). Such
successive additions can lead to unwanted by-products in, for
example, the simple addition of hydrogen halides, but they may be
specifically promoted to yield polymers by the presence of Lewis
acids, e.g. A1C1 , S n C l , B F , as catalysts. Many polymerisations of
olefines are radical-induced however (p. 247).
m
(iii) Hydroxylation
3
Investigation of the action of osmium tetroxide on alkenes has led to

the isolation of cyclic osmic esters (XXIII) which undergo ready
hydrolysis to yield the 1,2-diol:
^
/
Os0
vr" ~ Vr"
/
H 0
2
O. O
A X.
Os
^ - HO
X ^
_
HO
OH
OIL-
A
o
O
(XXIV)
(XXIII)
As the hydrolysis results in the splitting of the osmium-oxygen and

not the oxygen-carbon bonds in (XXIII), no inversion of configura
tion can take place at the carbon atoms and the glycol produced
must, like the cyclic osmic ester itself, be cis, i.e. this is a stereospecific
cis addition. The expense and toxicity of osmium tetroxide preclude
its large scale use but it can be employed in catalytic amounts in the
presence of hydrogen peroxide which reoxidises osmic acid (XXIV)
t o the tetroxide.
The cis glycol is also obtained with permanganate, the classical
reagent for the hydroxylation of double bonds, and though no cyclic
permanganic esters have been isolated it is not unreasonable t o
suppose t h a t the reaction follows a similar course. This is supported
by the fact that use of O labelled M n 0
results in both oxygen
l s
145
Double Bonds
atoms in the resultant glycol becoming labelled, i.e. both are derived
from the permanganate and neither from the solvent.
O
II
If alkenes are oxidised by peracids, R C O O H , the result is
an alkylene oxide or epoxide (XXV):
\ y
+X_X
IIo
c*H
/ \
cR
* 0
\ y
c\
;o
c/
/ \
c-
H - O
(XXV)
It is possible, however, that in polar solvents the reaction may be
initiated by addition of O H obtained by breakdown of the peracid.
The epoxides may be isolated (cf. p . 70) and then undergo acid or
base-catalysed hydrolysis (a nucleophilic reaction) t o yield the
1,2-diol. As attack must be 'from the back* on the cyclic epoxide,
inversion of configuration will take place at the carbon a t o m attacked
so that the ovfn^gmddition reaction to yield the 1,2-diol will be
tr
R
R'
HO
N
o
\
R'
R
\
H O>C
A
R'
/
\e
OH
Attack on only one carbon a t o m h a s ' b e e n shown above, but

equally easy attack on the other will lead t o the mirror image of
146
Ozonolysis
(XXVI), i.e. the DL-glycol will result from the original cis olefine,
confirming an overall trans hydroxylation (cf. addition of bromine to
maleic acid, p . 139).
Thus by suitable choice of reagent, the hydroxylation of olefines
can be stereospecifically controlled to proceed cis or trans at will.
(iv) Hydrogenation
The addition of hydrogen t o alkenes in the presence of metallic
catalysts, e.g^ Ni, P t , Pd, etc., is usually a cis addition. This comes
about because reduction takes place when the alkene is adsorbed at
the metallic surface; approach of active hydrogen occurs from one
side of the alkene only, i.e. from the interior of the metal where the
hydrogen is readily adsorbed, probably as reactive free atoms, in
reasonable concentration: metals that are effective hydrogenation
catalysts have the capacity of adsorbing quite large amounts of
hydrogen. The alkene is probably bound to the metal surface by an
interaction involving its IT electrons for, after reduction has taken
place, the reduced product becomes desorbed very readily and so
leaves the catalysts surface free for adsorption of more alkene. F o r
similar reasons, the partial hydrogenation of a ^ c e t y l e n e would be
expected t o lead to a cis alkene. Thus 1,2-cHmethylcyclohexene
(XXVII) yields the cis cyclbhexane derivative (XxVlII) and dimethylacetylene (XXIX), the cis 2-butene (XXX):
I
/
V
\
W - Vr*
Me
Me
Me
MeDCMe
Me
^C^c'
Me Me
(XXVII)
(XXVIII)
(XXIX)
(XXX)
Stereospecific cis hydrogenation has been of very great use in con

firming molecular structures by synthetic methods.
(v) Ozonolysis
T h e addition of ozone t o alkenes can also be looked upon essentially

as an electrophilic addition
147
Double Bonds
X>
and, in support of this view, it is found that the a d d i t i o n s catalysed

by Lewis acids such as B F . The primary addition product (molozonide) probably has the structure shown above, but it enjoys only
a transient existence and is found to dissociate readily into two
fragments:
8
(XXXI)
Th$se^ragments m ^ recombine to form the normal end-product
(XXXII) of the reaction, generally called the iso-ozonide
^>oo
oo
(XXXII)
but the peroxy zwitterion (XXXI) may also undergo alternative

reactions, e.g. self-addition to yield a dimer:
OO
K X
o - o
When ozonisation is carried out, either prepajatively or diagnostically, in order to cleave a carbon-carbon double bond
^>C=C<^ - > ^ > c = = o + o = C < ^
148
Addition to Conjugated
Dienes
the actual addition of ozone is usually followed by reductive cleavage

of the products with P d / H . This ensures that the carbonyl com
pounds, especially aldehydes, d o not undergo further oxidation as
tends to happen on simple hydrolytic cleavage due to the hydro
peroxides (cf. p . 252) that are then formed. This is important as one
of the advantages of ozonolysis as a preparative or a diagnostic
method is the ease of isolation and characterisation of the carbonyl
compounds that it yields as end-products.
a
ADDITION TO CONJUGATED DIENES

The presence of delocalised n orbitals in conjugated dienes, and their
effect in transmitting reactivity over the whole of the system, has
already been referred to (p. 8). Conjugated dienes are somewhat more
stable than otherwise similar dienes in which the double bonds are not
conjugated, as is revealed by a study of their respective heats of
hydrogenation (cf. p . 11), the delocalisation energy consequent on the
extended ir orbital system probably being of the order of 6 kcal/mole.
Conjugated dienes tend nevertheless to undergo addition reactions
somewhat more readily than non-conjugated dienes because the
transition state in such reactions, whether the addition is proceeding
by a polar or a radical mechanism, is allylic i n ^ i f u r e and thus more
readily formed (cf. p p . 83,234) than that from arffsolated douMBVond:
CH =CH
2
X
149
Double Bonds
Thus conjugated dienes are reduced t o dihydro-derivatives by sodium

and alcohol whereas non-conjugated dienes or simple alkenes are
unaffected.
It might be expected that in the addition of, for example, chlorine
to butadiene, reaction could proceed through a cyclic chloronium ion
CH==CH
/
\
CH2
CH2
CI
that would be largely unstrained. T h a t this is not formed, however, is
shown by the fact that the above addition results in the formation of
the trans compound
ClCH
\
CH=CH
\
CH CI
2
and n o t the corresponding cis compound that would have been

obtafflRTby the attaSk of CI on the cyclic chloronium ion. Add
ition thus probably proceeds through a delocalised carbonium ion,
cf. the addition of hydrogen halide below.
(i) Hydrogen halide
With butadiene itself a proton m a y initially form a n complex and
then a a complex with hydrogen on a terminal carbon atom (XXXIV).
Protonation takes place a t C , rather than C as the former yields a
secondary carbonium ion that is stabilised by delocalisation, whereas
the latter would yield a primary carbonium ion (XXXIII) that is not.
The resulting allylic cation (XXXIV) can take u p Br a t either C or C
leading t o 1:2 a n d 1:4 overall addition, i.e. (XXXVa) and (XXXV6),
respectively (see p . 151).
The presence of conjugation d i e s n o t make 1:4-addition obliga
tory: it merely makes it possible, and whether t h i s ^ r l:2-addition
actually takes place is governed by the relative rates of conversion of
the cation (XXXIV) t o the alternative products and also by the
relative stability of these products. By and large, 1:2-addition tends
2
150
Diels-Alder
CH =CHCH=CH
a
CH CHCH=CH,
Reaction
(XXXIII)
H
Br
CH CH-^CH=^CH
a
I
CH CHCH=CH
H
Br
(XXXVa)
\:2-addition
Br
CH,CH=CHCH
I
a
CH,CH=CHCH
(XXXV6)
(XXXIV)
l:4-addition
to occur preferentially at lower temperatures in non-polar solvents

and 1:4-addition at higher temperatures in polar solvents; the temper
ature effect is due to the fact that the activation energy for 1:4-addi
tion is usually higher than that for 1:2-addition (cf. p. 203).
F o r addition to an unsymmetrical diene the same considerations
apply as in the case of mono-alkenes, t h u s :
Me-CH=CH-CH=CH
MeC H = = C H * - C H - C H , -* products
H
Me
Me
[, -+ CH,
=CH, - products
H
(ii) Diels-Alder reaction
The classic example is with butadiene and maleic anhydride
'^6
o
O
151
Double Bonds
i.e. l:4-addition, proceeding cis, via a cyclic transition state (cf. the
pyrolysis of esters, p. 208), to yield a cyclic product. It has been used
as a diagnostic test for determining whether the double bonds in a
diene are conjugated or not (though this is normally more readily
determined spectroscopically) and also has considerable synthetic
importance. The reaction is promoted by the presence of electrondonating substituents in the diene and of electron-withdrawing sub
stituents in the, so-called, dienophile; their presence in the latter is,
indeed, all but imperative for the reaction proceeds very poorly if at all
with a simple double-bonded compound. Other commo*j*dienophiles
are p-benzoquinone, C H = C H C H O and E t 0 C G = C C 0 E t .
The reaction is also sensitive to steric effects; thus of the three
1,4-diphenylbutadienes only the trans/trans form undergoes reaction
with maleic anhydride:
2
Ph
SirSTrSBy the reactivity of the diene is promoted when the double

bonds are locked in a cis conformation with respect to each other as in
cyclopentadiene.
Where there is the possibility of more than one product, depending
on which way round the addition takes place, e.g. with maleic anhy
dride and cyclopentadiene, that product is formed in which there is
the maximum concentration of double bonds in the transition state
when the centres that are to react are placed over each other; inter
action between the n electron systems of the two reactants will then be
at a maximum. Thus (XXXVI), the more stable endo structure, is
obtained rather than the exo (XXXVII):
(XXXVI)
152
(XXXVII)
Addition of Anions
ADDITION OF ANIONS
As has already been seen (p. 130) the introduction of electron-with
drawing groups into an aromatic nucleus tends to inhibit electro
philic substitution and to make nucleophilic substitution possible.
The same is true of addition reactions: the introduction of F, N 0 ,
CN, ^ C = 0 , C 0 E t , etc., on the carbon atoms of a double bond
causes the w electrons to become less available and attack by an anion
then becomes possible, though it would not have taken place with the
unmodified double b o n d :
2
oI
O
R-MgBr
s" Y I
P h C H i C H s C,H Me-P
<Sr \
> Ph C H - C H ^ S - C . H . M e -
H
s
1
Ph CHCH - It
-SC H Me-/>
1
i
R
F
F
**^F
ElOHV
\
-C
C-H
+ EtO-C\
F
F
F
2
F
eoEt
c=c
F
EtO>C/
F
Some of the reactions have important synthetic applications,

(i) Cyanoethylation
Thecyano-group in acrylonitrile, C H ^ C H - CN, makes the /3-carbon
a t o m of the double bond respond readily to the attack of anions or
other powerful nucleophiles, the addition being completed by the
abstraction of a proton from the solvent:
ROCHjCHjCN
ROH .
PhOCH,CH CN
2
CH, , = = C H ^ C ^ N
HSCH CH CN
2
RNH C H C H CN
2
153
Addition
to Carbon-Carbon
Double
Bonds
The reaction is normally carried out in the presence of base in order

to obtain an anion from the would-be adduct. Carbon-carbon bonds
may also be formed:
KTO
R.CHC1IO
>- R..C C l i o
C1I.
> RjCCHO
0:11C^N
CH CH^ci-N
2
RCCHO
CH CH CN
2
The value of cyanoethylation is that three carbon atoms are added,

of which the terminal one may be further modified by reduction,
hydrolysis, etc., preparatory to further synthetic operations.
ADDITION TO ap-UNSATURATED CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

The most important electron-withdrawing group is probably
) > C = 0 , found irr*fl)f-unsaturated aldehydes, ketones, esters, etc.
TheSfc*Sytems will acWon hydrogen halide, etc., by a 1:4-mechanism
involving initial protonation of oxygen:
>C=CC=0 F=
>C=tciCOH ~
^CC=COH
(XXXVIII)
Br<=
Br
nr
\ .
>CCHC=0
I
at
NcC=C/
(XL)
0
Attack by B r on the ion (XXXVIII) at C (1:2-addition) would

lead to formation of a ge/M-bromohydrin which is hjghly unstable,
losing HBr, hence preferential attack at C (1:4-addition) yields
(XXXIX) which is, of course, the enol of the /?-bromdketone (XL).
Addition to ajS-unsaturated acids proceeds somewhat similarly.
l
154
Addition to &-Unsaturated Carbonyl
Compounds
With more pronouncedly nucleophilic reagents, e.g. Grignard

reagents, C N , etc., overall 1:4-addition will take place without need
for initial protonation of the carbonyl oxygen atom:
e
\c=^c^cô
>
\cC=CO
\cC=COH
-^T
u
(Y=R.C>etc.)
-CH-C=0
Y
This occurs readily with ^-unsaturated ketones, but with <xj3-unsaturated aldehydes direct attack on the carbonyl carbon atom (1 ^-addi
tion) also takes place because of the more positive character of this
atom in aldehydes as compared with ketones (p. 159);
With even more powerful nucleophiles, e.g. O H , addition at the
jS-carbon atom takes place, even with a/S-unsaturated aldehydes.
This can lead, under suitable conditions, to reversal of the aldol/
dehydration reaction (p. 175):
0
R C=^CH^-C=Q>
&
ÔH
RCCH^-OÔ^- R
OH
I
RC+
II
O
CH C?=0 "r
2
I
H
Ot
RC-i-CH C=0
lt>
O ^
9
IH
Amines, mercaptans, etc., will also add to the /3-carbon atom of

OT/J-unsaturated aldehydes, ketones and esters. The most important
addition reactions of a/J-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, however,
are with carbanions in which carbon-carbon bonds are formed.
(i) Michael reaction

The most frequently employed carbanions are probably those de
rived from diethyl malonate, ethyl acetoacetate, ethyl cyanoacetate
155
Double Bonds
and aliphatic nitro-compounds, e . g . . C H N O . Thus in the formation

of dimedone (XLI) from diethyl malonate and mesityl oxide (XLII)
the carbanion (XLIII) derived from diethyl malonate attacks the
/3-carbon atom of mesityl oxide to yield the ion (XLIV), which is
converted, via its enol, to the ketone (XLV). This constitutes the
Michael reaction proper, i.e. the carbanion addition t o an j8-unsaturated carbonyl compound. In this case, however, the reaction
proceeds further for (XLV) is converted by O E t t o the carbanion
(XLVI) which cyclises by expelling O E t from the ester group (cf. the
Dieckmann reaction, p . 178) to yield (XLVII). Hydrolyai* and decar
boxylation of the j3-keto-ester then yields dimedone (XLI):
3
x5
(XLII)
Me.C
CH,
Me,C
CH,(CO,Et),
CH=C
CH,
CH COjEt
EOEI
CHCO,Et
CO,Et
(XLIV)
> CO,Et
(XLIII)
ETOH
o
CH,C
/
CH,C
\
Me,C
OET
CH, <
C
^CH
Me,C
!IX>
CH,
CHCO,Et
CO,Et O (XLVI)
OEt
CO,Et (XLV)
o
CH,C
CH,C
Me,C
CHC
(i) Hydrolysis
CH,
CO,Et
O
(XLVII)
156
> Me,C
CH,
(ii) Decarboxylation
Clf,c
\
(XLI)
o
Addition to afi-Unsaturated
Carbonyl
Compounds
The compound does in fact exist virtually entirely in the enol form:
O
CH,,C
Me C
CH C
CH
OH
Dimedone is of value as a reagent for the differential characterisa

tion of carbonyl compounds for it readily yields derivatives (XLVIII)
with aldehydes but not with ketones, from a mixture of the t w o :
O
Me, I
M e < \ _ 7
0
CH/
V
.Me
OH HO
(XLVIII)
The Michael reaction is promoted by a varjfify of bases, pjjgggnt in
catalytic quantities only, and its synthetic usefulness resides in the
large n u m b e r of carbanionsand a-unsaturated carbonyl compounds
that may be employed. The Michael reaction is reversible (cf. the
Claisen ester condensation, p . 176) and the rate-determining step is
believed t o be the formation of the carbon-carbon bond, i.e. (XLIII)
- ( X L l V ) , though this has not been definitely proved.
157
ADDITION TO GARBON-OXYGEN
BONDS
DOUBLE
T H E structure of the carbonyl group in aldehydes and ketones is, t o

judge from its reactions, not entirely adequately reji^sented by
y>C=O n o r by the obvious alternative )>CO. T h e reality lies

somewhere between them
t
C 6 -> yc-O
i.e. > C ^ O
the electrons of the n b o n d joining carbon t o oxygen being drawn

towards oxygen on account of the greater electronegativity of the
latter. This would imply that the characteristic reaction of the car
bonyl group would be a nucleophilic attack on carbon by an anion,
Y (e.g. C N ) or a n electron-rich species, and such is, indeed, found
t o be t h e case (c/.^Wdition t o )>C=C<^ which is usually initiated
by X ^ * r an electronfleficient complex). Reaction could, of course,
equally well be initiated by attack of an electrophile,on the oxygen
a t o m of the ^ > C = 0 group, but this is usually of significance only
where the electrophile is H (or a Lewis acid),, amounting t o acidcatalysis of the subsequent addition of a nucleophile:
e
EFFECT OF pH
It might be expected that carbonyl addition reactions would be
powerfully acid-catalysed, for after attack on oxygen by a proton the
carbon atom will become considerably more positive and hence
readier t o react with a nucleophile:
v
H \ f f l
Y = O ^ " > C - O H
Though this is true, most of the anions that are usedas adducts are
derived from weak acids so that as the solution becomes m o r e acid
their dissociation is suppressed, leading t o a d r o p in [ Y ] , e.g. C N
- > H C N . Where the nucleophile is not a n anion,* e.g. R - N H , a
e
158
Structure and
Reactivity
similar situation obtains for any quantity of acid will convert it t o the
unreactive species, R - N H . We should thus expect to find that the

rate of addition shows a maximum at a moderately acid p H , falling
off sharply on each side. This is, indeed, observed in practice, the
curve below representing the p H dependence of the addition of many
different reagents t o carbonyl compounds:
a
Apart from actual protonation, the positive character of the car

bonyl carbon a t o m will also be enhanced, albeit to a smaller extent,
on formation of a hydrogen-bonded complex by an acid with the
carbonyl oxygen a t o m :
:O.
HA
STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY

As high reactivity will depend on the carbon atom of the carbonyl
group being positive, the introduction of groups having an electrondonating effect-towards this atom will reduce its reactivity; thus the
following sequence is observed:
V
HCH
> R-*--CH > R - - C - f - R ^>

O
O
o -
II r>.
II s ~ \
The electron-withdrawing inductive effect of oxygen and nitrogen,

in esters and amides, respectively, is more than outweighed by the
tendency of t h t i r unshared electron pairs to interact with the n orbital
of the carbonyl group (mesomeric effect). Reactivity is also reduced
by attaching, to the carbonyl carbon atom, an aromatic nucleus, for
its delocalised w orbitals also act as an electron source:
159
Addition to Carbon-Oxygen
Double Bonds
^)J-H
etc.
Thus benzaldehyde is less reactive than aliphatic aldehydes. This

effect is heightened by the presence, in the benzene nucleus, of
electron-donating substituents (e.g. O H ) and lessened by electronwithdrawing substituents (e.g. NOg). This is naturally also observed
with aliphatic aldehydes, e.g.:
O
II
II
0,N- CH,- CH > Cl-CH,-CH >
II
CH,--CH > CH,--CH,->-CH

Part of the loss of reactivity in aromatic aldehydes and ketones is also
due to the relatively large nucleus inhibiting attack on ) > C = 0
sterically. Similarly, the bulkier the alkyl groups in aliphatic carbonyl
compounds the less the reactivity, due t o the crowding that results
on adding nucleopOMfs to t h e carbonyl carbon atom, e.g.:
MeCMe > MeCCMe, > Me,CCCMe,

Comparison of the relative reactivity of aldehydes and ketones is
complicated by the fact that, in aqueous solution, they are hydrated to
varying degrees (see below), so that it is difficult to discover the pro
portion that is actually available in the reactive carbonyl form in any
particular case. A group of characteristic addition reactions will now
be studied in more detail.
ADDITION REACTIONS
(i) Hydration
Many carbonyl compounds form Hydrates in solution:
OH
RCH + H , 0 r RCH
OH
160
Hydration
Thus it has been shown that the percentage hydration at 20 of
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acetone is 99-99, 58. and 0 per
cent, respectively. The latter is confirmed by the fact that if acetone
is dissolved in H 0 , when the following equilibrium could, theoreti
cally, be set u p ,
OH
1 8
M e , C = = 0 + H , 0 ^ Me C
Me C=0+HjO
s
\
"OH
1 8
no 0 is incorporated into the acetone. In the presence of a trace of

acid or base, however, while n o equilibrium concentration of the
hydrate can be detected, the incorporation of O occurs too rapidly
t o measure, indicating that a hydrate must now, transiently, be
formed. The acid or base catalysis is presumably proceeding:
l s
OH
+
Me,C==0-
H.O
8-
Me.C
HA
OH
H
-H
HA
OH
O
OH
Me C=0
s
H.O
Me C
Me C
OH
OH
The acid catalysis exhibited in this case is general acid catalysis, t h a t l s

to say the hydration is catalysed by any acid species present in the
aqueous solution and not solely by H O as is so often the case.
The fact that such catalysis is necessary with acetone, but not with
the aldehydes, reflects the less positive nature of the carbonyl carbon
atom of the ketone, which necessitates initial attack by O H (or by
H on oxygen), whereas with the aldehydes H O : will attack the
more positive carbon a t o m directly?
The presenceof electron-withdrawing substituents in the alkyl
groups makes hydration easier and stabilises the hydrate once formed;
thus glyoxal (I), chloral (II) and triketohydrindene (III) all form
isolable, crystalline hydrates:
e
161
Double
Of
Bonds
O
OH
II
H,0
HCCH
HC-e-CH
AH
CI
OH
I I
ClCCH
A
OH
o
(III)
(IV)
(IV) is ninhydrin, the well-known colour reagent for the detection and
estimation of a-amino acids. The hydrates are probably further
stabilised by hydtagpn bonding between the hydroxyl groups and the
ele**negative oxygn or chlorine atoms attached to the adjacent
a-carbon:
u
</
II
-CH
HC-
OH
(ii)
R O H
Aldehydes with alcohols, in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride,

yield acetals:
H
O
II
ROH
R'CH * = = R
162
1 -
-H
R OH
R'CH ^ = R'OR
'AR
OR
H
OR
OR
O H
-CH ? = = R'CH
-
OH
H
OR
RCH
OR
Addition of Thiols
A n ^ with the hemi-acetal is often set up on dissolving the aldehyde
in the alcohol but conversion to the acetal proper does not take place
in the absence of added catalysts.
With ketones the carbonyl carbon a t o m is not sufficiently positive
to undergo initial attack by R- O H and ketals cannot readily be made
in this way. Both acetals and ketals may, however, be made by reaction
with the appropriate alkyl orthoformate, H C ( O R ) , in the presence of
NHjCl as catalyst. These derivatives may be used for protecting
carbonyl grojips for they are extremely resistant to alkali, but the
carbonyl compound may be recovered readily on treatment with
dilute acid.
3
(iii) R S H
Mercaptans will react with aldehydes and ketones to yield thioacetals,
R ' C H ( S R ) , and thioketals R ' C ( S R ) , respectively. The successful
attack o n the carbonyl carbon a t o m of ketones indicates the greater
tendency of R - S H than R - O H to form an effective nucleophile,
R S , i.e. the greater acidity of thiols than the corresponding alcohols.
These derivatives offer, with the acetals, differential protection of the
carbonyl group for they are stable t o acid but readily decomposed
by H g C l / C d C O . They may also be decomposeaoy Raney nickel
2
NI/H,
R',C=0
> R',C(SR),
> R',CH,
the overall reaction offering a preparative method of value for the

reduction o f - C H O - * - C H and)>CO->-)>CH .
3
(iv) CN, H S 0
e
3
, etc.
These are both normal addition of anions:
1
RCH
ecN/*
or
II
II
/
R C - -H
\
V
HSO,\
OH
1
> R --CH
H.O
1
CN
HCN
1
RCH
SO, OH
OH
1
> R--CH
SO,O
163
Double
Bonds
The addition of H C N is base-catalysed indicating that the rate-deter

mining step of the reaction is attack by C N . The process is com
pleted by reaction with H C N if the reaction is being carried out in
liquid H C N but by reaction with H 0 if in aqueous solution. This
reaction has provided a great deal of the kinetic data on the addition
of anions t o carbonyl compounds, while the addition of bisulphite
has afforded much evidence on the relative steric effect, on such addi
tion, of groups attached to the carbonyl carbon atom. There is evidence
that the effective attacking agent in the f o r m a t i o n ^ bisulphite
derivatives is actually the more powerfully nucleophilic S O
even
under conditions in which its concentration relative to H S O is very
small. As is expected, the relative ease of addition, and stability of the
derivative once formed, is considerably less with ketones than with
aldehydes.
e
s e
Halide ion will add to a ) > C = 0 group in the presence of acid, b u t

the equilibrium is so readily reversible that the resultant 1,1-halohydrin cannot be isolated. If the reaction is carried out in alcohol,
however, the a-halogeno-ether so produced may be isolated provided
the solution is first neutralised:
/"V
He
Cl
H,C=M5
H
OH
OH
/
HjCOH
He
H C
/
2
\
ci
H C
2
-H
ci
H
OMe
OMe
/
/ H C
2
Cl
^=a= H C
-H.O
MeOH
,
Cl
H Ce
2
Cl
i-Chloromethyl ether
(v) Amine derivatives
Reaction with N H , R - N H or, more specifically, H O - N H ,
N H C O N H N H and P h N * L ; N H is the classical method by
which liquid aldehydes and ketones are characterised.
There is spectroscopic and other evidence that in t h e formation of
oximes, semicarbazones and probably phenylhydrazones, attack of
the nucleophile, R - N H , on the carbonyl compound, to form the
adduct (V), is rapid and is followed by rate-determining, acid-catalysed
3
164
Hydride Ion
H
H O
RN: C
> RNC
Reactions
HO
FAST
> RNC
H
(V)
RN=C<^+H.O
-^
(VI)
dehydration of the latter to yield the final derivative (VI). If the acidity
of the solution is increased, however, the rate of dehydration is
naturally accelerated and the initial formation of (V) is slowed owing
t o increasing conversion of the reactive nucleophile R - N H . i n t o its
2
unreactive conjugate acid, R N H ; initial attack of the nucleophile

on the carbonyl compound may then become the rate-determining
step of the overall reaction. The fact that oxime formation may also be
catalysed by bases a t higher p H is due to the dehydration step being
subject to baseas well as acidcatalysis:
3
^>C=NOH
With ammonia some few aldehydes (e.g. chloral) yield the aldehyde
ammonia, R ' C H ( O H ) - N H , b u t these derivatives m o r e often
react further t o yield polymeric products. With primary amines, the
derivatives obtained from b o t h aldehydes and ketones eliminate
water spontaneously, as above, to yield the Schiff base, e.g. R' C H =
NR, (VI).
,
(vi) Hydride ion reactions

(a) LiAlHf reductions: Here the complex hydride ion, A l H , is
acting as a carrier of hydride ioq the latter acting as a nucleophile
towards the carbonyl carbon a t o m :
e
R , C = ^ + AIH 9 -> RCO ^

3
RjCOH
165
Double Bonds
With esters, the initial reaction is a nucleophilic displacement, fol

lowed by reduction as above:
O
II f \
AIH.S
||
OH
A1H.
H.O
RCJ-OR'
> R'O + RCH
> RCH
> RCH
H
H
H*
A similar reduction takes place with amides (R-CO-NH being
obtained by a preliminary removal of proton by,AlH , i.e. an
'active hydrogen' reaction) via an addition/eliniinatioh^fSge,
9
O
||
jrO
AIH,
RCNH
/ %
> RCi-NH > O

H
(VII)
s e
+ RCH=NH
AIH,
RCHNH J^2
RCHNH
o e
the Schiff base being obtained as it is easier to eliminate O than

H N from (VII). LiAlH may obviously not be employed in hydroxylic solvents ('aatije hydrogen' reaction) or in those that are readily
rechjjjgd and ether oj tetrahydrofuran (CH ) 0 is, therefore, com
monly used. NaBH may be used in water or alcohol but is, not sur
prisingly, a less reactive reagent and will not reduce amides.
(b) Meerwein-Ponndorf reduction: This is essentially the reduction
of ketones to secondary alcohols with aluminium isopropoxide in
isopropanol solution:
e e
CMe
CMe
/
(Me CHO) Al
2
CR
O
(MejCHO)^
O (VIII);
H
CR,
O (IX)
Me,CH-OH
CMe,
(Me CHO) Al
2
V
166
CMe +R CHOH
2
0 0
Cannizzaro
Reaction
Hydride ion, H , is transferred from aluminium isopropoxide to the

ketone (VIII) via a cyclic transition state and a n equilibrium thereby
set u p between this pair on the one hand and the mixed alkoxide (IX)
plus acetone on the other. T h a t there is indeed such a specific transfer
of hydrogen may be demonstrated by using ( M e C D O ) A l when
deuterium becomes incorporated in the a-position of the resultant
carbinol, R C D ( O H ) R'.
Acetone is the lowest boiling species in the system, so by distilling
the mixture the equilibrium is displaced to the right, the secondary
alcohol (X)^8liig freed from the alkoxide (IX) by the excess isopropanol present. Because the establishment of this equilibrium is the
crucial stage, the reaction is, naturally, very highly specific in its action
and ^ G ^ C ^ , - C = C - , N O , etc., undergo n o reduction. The
reaction may be reversed, R C H ( O H ) R ' > R C O - R ' , by use of
aluminium t-butoxide and a large excess of acetone to displace the
equilibrium to the left.
2
(c) Cannizzaro reaction: The disproportionation of aldehydes lack

ing any a-hydrogen atoms (i.e. P h C H O , C H 0 and R C C H O )
t o acid anion and primary alcohol in the presence of concentrated
alkali, is also a hydride transfer reaction. In its simplest form the
reaction rate [ P h C H O ] [ O H ] and the rea*ien is believed to
follow the course:
*
^
2
! )
PhC0
H
HQ
OH
P h C ^ O + CPh -> P h C = 0 + HCPh

( H J ^ H
(XI)
I
O
HO
P h 0 = 0 + HCPh
(XII)
Rapid, reversible addition of O H t o / o n e molecule of aldehyde

results in transfer of hydride ion t o a second; this is almost certainly
the rate-determifling step of the.reaction. The acid and alkoxide ion
(XI) so obtained then become involved in a proton exchange to yield
the more stable pair, alcohol and acid anion (XII), the latter, unlike
the alkoxide ion, being able to stabilise itself by delocalisation of its
167
Double
Bonds
charge. That the migrating hydride ion is transferred directly from

one molecule of aldehyde to another and does not actually become
free in the solution is shown by carrying out the reaction in D 0 ,
when n o deuterium becomes attached to carbon in the alcohol as it
would have done if the migrating hydride ion had become free and so
able to equilibrate with the solvent. In some cases, e.g: with formal
dehyde in very high concentrations of alkali, a fourth-order reaction
takes place: rate [ C H O ] [ O H ] . This is believed to involve
formation of a doubly charged anion and transfer of hydride ion by
this to a second molecule of aldehyde t o yield carWxylate and
alkoxide ions:
2
OH
OH
OS,
H - C - H ==^ H - C - H
J52
OH
| #*V
H - C Q ^ C = L o
O
H
II
I
HC + HCO
^*
Intramolecular Cannizzaro reactions are also known, e.g. glyoxalhydroxyacetate (glycollate) anion:
H
- H O C C = 0
H
As expected
e
rate * [ O H C C H O ] [ O H ]
and n o deuterium attached t o carbon is incorporated in the glycollate
produced on carrying out the reaction in D 0 .
2
(vii) Reactions with metals
(a) Magnesium or sodium and ketones: Magnesiwm, usually in the

form of an amalgam to increase its reactivity, will donate one electron
each to two molecules of a ketone to yield a bimolecular product
(XIII). This contains two unpaired electrons which can then unite to
168
Reactions with Metals

form a carbon-carbon bond yielding the magnesium salt (XIV) of
a pinacol; subsequent acidification yields the free pinacol (XV):
R C=0
R C-0
R C-0
:Mg
R C=0
2
)>Mg
Mg
RjCOH
(XV)
R CO
(XIV)
R CO
(XIII)
RC-OH
This reaction is unusual in involving initial attack on oxygen rather

than carbon. Pinacol itself is M e C ( O H ) - C ( O H ) M e , but the name
has c o m e H r t b used generally for such tertiary-1,2-diols. The reac
tion is most readily seen when sodium is dissolved, in the absence of
air, in ethereal solutions of aromatic ketones, the blue, paramagnetic
2
radical-ion of the sodium ketyl, Ar CO*>Ar CO, then being

in equilibrium with the dianion of the corresponding pinacol:
Ar CO
2
Ar CO
(b) Sodium and esters: Sodium will donate an electron to an ester

to yield the radical-ion (XVI), two molecules of which unite (XVII)
(cf. pinacol formation above) and expel EtO t o ^ i r i d the a-diketone
(XVIII). Further electron donation by sodium yields the diradicaîon
(XIX), which again forms a carbon-carbon bond (XX). Acidification
yields the a-hydroxyketone or acyloin (XXI):
I
2RCOEt
R-CÔEt
2Na- RCOEt
RC-ÔEt
&
RCOEt
II
O (XVIII)
(XVI)
II
RC
I
R-CH
I
OH
(XXI)
I
RC
(XVII)
II
RC
2Na-
OH
C
m
H
RC
RC
RC
I
OH
i .
(XX)
I
RC-
I
RC-
A.
(XIX)
169
Double Bonds
This acyloin condensation is much used for the ring-closure of long

chain dicarboxylic esters, E t 0 C - ( C H ) - C 0 E t in the synthesis, in
high yield, of large cyclic hydroxyketones.
A larger quantity of sodium in the presence of a little alcohol
results in the reaction following a different course. The larger quantity
of sodium donates two electrons to the ester to yield the divalent
anion (XXII), which liberates EtO from the alcohol; the resultant
ion (XXIII) then expels EtO to form the aldehyde (XXIV). Repeti
tion of the above sequence yields the alkoxide (XXV) and, o n acidifi
cation, the primary alcohol (XXVI):
w
2
O
II
O
2Na-
EtOH
II
RCOEt > RCOEt > RC-MJEt
RC
H
(XXIII)
(XXII)
H
(XXIV)
2Na-
OH
RCH
RCH
I
H
(XXV)
EtOH
o
RC
I
H
H
*(XXVD
This is the classical Bouveault-Blanc reduction of esters (now largely
displaced by L i A l H , above). It, like pinacol formation, used to be
looked upon as a reaction of nascent hydrogen, i.e. from sodium and
the alcohol, whose presence is essential; but it would seem that any
sodium so used u p is merely wasted and best results are obtained by
using the calculated quantity of both sodium and alcohol in an inert
solvent.
When, in addition, the Claisen ester condensation is considered
below (p. 176), something of the complexity of the products that
may result from the reaction of sodium on esters will be realised r
4
(viii) Addition of carbanions and negative carbon

The importance of these reaction* resides in the fact that c a r b o n carbon bonds are formed; many of them are thus ogreat synthetic
importance.
(a) Grignard reagents: The actual structure of Grignard reagents
themselves is still a matter of some dispute. Phenyl magnesium
;
170
Addition of
Carbanions
bromide has, however, been isolated in crystalline form as the c o m

p o u n d C H M g B r - 2 E t 0 , in which C H , Br and the two molecules
of ether are arranged tetrahedrally about the magnesium atom. The
known reactions of Grignard reagents indicate the possible participa
tion of all of the species:
8
2R +2MgHal
2R Mg Hal =F=^2R- + 2-MgHal
-
RjMg+MgHal,
Thus free radical reactions with them a r e known, but in most of

their useful synthetic applications they tend t o behave as though
a - +
polarised in the sense R - M g - H a l , i.e. as sources of negative carbon
if not necessarily of carbanions as such.
In reactions with carbonyl groups it appears that two molecules of
Grignard reagent are involved in the actual addition. One molecule
acts as a Lewis acid with the oxygen atom of the carbonyl group, thus
enhancing the positive nature of the carbonyl carbon atom, and so
promotes attack on it by the R group of a second molecule of
Grignard reagent via a cyclic transition state:
Br
Br
I
Mg
RC
Mg-Br
I
Mg
R,C
MgBr
Br
IMg
RC
MgBr
If such a course is followed it might be expected that Grignard

reagents of suitable structure, i.e. those having hydrogen atoms on a
/3-carbon, might undergo conversion t o olehnes as a side-reaction,
transfer of hydride ion to the positive carbon atom of the carbonyl
group taking place:
V/
C
VH
\/
><- - i& - ? V
RC
MgBr
R C
\
MgBr
RC
\
MgBr
171
Double Bonds
This is, indeed, observed in practice; the ketone is in part reduced to

the secondary alcohol in the process, via a cyclic transition state
closely resembling that already encountered in the MeerweinPonndorf reaction (p. 166).
If Grignard additions d o proceed via initial attack of one molecule
of the reagent o n the carbonyl oxygen, it might b e expected t h a t the
reaction would be promoted if a more effective Lewis acid were intro
duced into the solution, for this would co-ordinate preferentially t o
yield an even more positive carbonyl carbon atom. Thus introduction
of M g B r has been observed to double the yield of tgiary alcohol
in the reactions of some ketones with Grignard reagents.
Grignard reagents are however being increasingly superseded by
other organo-metallic compounds for preparative addition of this
kind, particularly by the more reactive lithium derivatives.
(b) Acetylide ion: A very useful reaction is the addition of acetylide
ion t o carbonyl compounds, the reaction often being carried out in
liquid ammonia in the presence of sodamide t o convert acetylene
into its carbanion (p. 211). Hydrogenation of the resultant acetylenic
carbinol (XXVII) in the presence of Lindlar catalyst (partially
poisoned palladium) yields the olefine (XXVIII); the latter undergoes
an acid-catalysed^Jlylic rearrangement (p. 29) to the primary alcohol
(XXIX), which, as^he corresponding halide, can be made to undergo
further synthetic reactions. The series constitutes a useful preparative
sequence:
OH
OH
f\
NH,
/
H,
/
R,C=M5
> R C
> R,C
4
tefeCH
C==CH
c a , a l y s t
CH=CH,
(XXVII)
(XXVIII)
(0+H"
(ii) - H . O
(i) + H . O
R,C=CHCH,OH <
(ii)-H
e
RC
RC
2
CHCH
rCuHliC H
(XXIX)
(c) Aldol condensations: The action of bases on an aldehyde having
a-hydrogen atoms results in the formation of a stabilised carbanion
172
Aldol
Reactions
(XXX) which can attack the carbonyl carbon atom of a second mole
cule of aldehyde to yield, ultimately, the aldol (XXXI):
CH C=0
8
H
OH
(0
<*-o
(ii)
M e - * - C * T CC H O O "
MeCCH C = 0
H
H
t
CH =CO
MeCH(OH)CH CHO
I
H
(XXX)
(XXXI)
The forward reaction (ii) and the reversal of (i) are essentially in com
petition with each other but, as carrying out the reaction in D 0 fails
t o result in the incorporation of any deuterium in the methyl group,
(ii) must be so much more rapid than the reversal of (i) as to make
the latter virtually irreversible. The corresponding^reaction of acetone
to diacetone alcohol (XXXII) proceeds much more slowly a n d . ^ h e n
carried out in D 0 , deuterium is incorporated into the methyl g r o u p ;
this is the result of a less rapid attack of the carbanion o n a carbonyl
carbon atom which is markedly less positive than that in an aldehyde:
CHsC=0
2
I
Me
OH
(i)
Me
/pcHjC=0
Me
(ii>
Me C C H C = 0
2
Me
Me
Me
H.O
t
CH,=CO
Me C(OH)CH COMe
2
I
Me
(XXXII)
173
Double
Bonds
Aldehydes having n o a-hydrogen atoms cannot form carbanions

and they therefore, undergo the Cannizzaro reaction (p. 167) with
concentrated alkali; but as this reaction is slow, such aldehydes are
often able to function as carbanion acceptors. Thus formaldehyde,
in excess, reacts with acetaldehyde:
CH =0
CH,O
^CH,CHO
OH
"
( ,
(i)CH.O
~ CHCHO
(ii)CH.O
CHjOH
CHjOH
e
<i; OH
CH,OH
CH CHO
HOCHjCCHO
H.O
CH CHO
CH OH
I
> H
" '
'
7 CHCHO
(ii)H.O
CHjOH
/c'H.O
CH OH
+ HO CH CCH O H
I
C H O H (XXXIII)
2
HC0
e
2
In tile last stage ( f l t ) C H ) C C H O , which can n o longer form a

carbanion, undergoes a crossed Cannizzaro reaction with formal
dehyde to yield pentaerythritol (XXXIH) a n d formate anion. The
reaction proceeds this way rather than t o yield ( H O ' C H ^ a C - C O g
and CH3OH as the carbonyl carbon a t o m of formaldehyde is the
m o r e positive of the two aldehydes so t h a t it is attacked preferentially
by O H , with resultant transfer of H to ( H O - C H a J a C - C H O rather
t h a n the other way round.
A further useful synthetic reaction is the base-catalysed addition
of aliphatic nitro-compounds to carbonyl groups (see p . 175). Here
the aldehyde itself can also form a carbanion and aldol formation
could be a competing reaction, but the carbanion from the nitro
compound tends t o be the more stable (due t o the more effective
delocalisation of its charge) and isrfhus formed more readily, resulting
in the preponderance of the above reaction.
The elimination of water from a hydroxy compound usually
requires acid-catalysis (p. 192) but the possibility of carbanion forma
tion in the first formed aldol, coupled with the presence of a group
2
174
Aldol
Reactions
OH
O
R C H , - C * rCHv-N
H
R CH,CCH.,NO
H,0
O
CH,=NO
R CH CH(OH) CH N O ,
4
in the adjacent /?-position that can be readily expelled as an anion,

results in an easy 'attack from the b a c k ' by an electron pair:
OH
*-OH
OH
Me CHCH, CHO
OH
Me CH-^CH CHO
>
Me C H = C H C H O
T h u s the dehydration of aldols is subject to bagg-catalysis and car

banion additions are often followed by elimination of water resulting
in an overall condensation reaction. The successive additions of car
banion, followed by elimination of water induced by strong base,
result in the formation of low molecular weight polymers from simple
aliphatic aldehydes; if the process is t o be halted at the simple aldol,
a weak base such as K C 0 is used. A preparative use of carbanion
addition followed by elimination is seen in the Claisen-Schmidt
condensation of aromatic aldehydes with aliphatic aldehydes or
ketones in the presence of 10 per cent mineral alkali:
2
+ CH, CO Me
> Ph C H = C H CO Me
PhCH
+ CH, C H O * ^ Ph C H = C H CHO
With aliphatic aldehydes, self-condensation can, of course, consti
tute an important side reaction. The presence of electron-donating
groups in the aromatic nucleus will reduce the positive nature of the
175
Double Bonds
carbonyl carbon atom, and p - M e O - C H - C H O is found t o react

at only about one-seventh the rate of benzaldehyde.
(d) Perkin reaction: Closely related t o the above is the Perkin
reaction for the synthesis of a^-unsaturated acids from aromatic
aldehydes and aliphatic acid anhydrides in the presence of an alkali
metal salt of the corresponding acid, e.g. for cinnamic acid,
PhCH=CHCO,H:
6
OH
PhC
H
(i) Addition
CHjCO
> PhCCH^
(ii) Protonation
Me CO
(XXXIV)
Me CO
(XXXV)
-h,o
PhCH=CH C 0 H
2
h.o
+
MeCOjH
P h C H = C H CO
\
O
Me CO
(XXXVI)
I n acetic anhydride solution, acetate ion is a sufficiently strong base

t o remove a proton from the activated a-position of the anhydride to
yield the carbanion (XXXIV), which adds t o the carbonyl group of
the aldehyde, the product, after protonation, being the aldol-like
species (XXXV). U n d e r the conditions of the reaction (ca. 140),
(XXXV) undergoes dehydration in the presence of acetic anhydride
and the resultant mixed anhydride (XXXVI), on being poured into
water at the end of the reaction, is hydrolysed to cinnamic and acetic
acids. The reaction is a general one, depending only on the presence
of a C H group in the a-position of the anhydride. T h a t the reaction
follows the above course is confirmed by the fact that aromatic alde
hydes will, in the presence of Suitable basic catalysts, react with
anhydrides but not with the corresponding acid aniqns, and aldol-like
intermediates such as (XXXV) have in some cases been isolated.
(e) Claisen ester condensation: This too is effectively an aldol type
reaction, e.g. with ethyl acetate:
S
176
Claisen Ester
Condensation
CHgCOjEt
&
MeC
C
O
CH,C0 Et
2
(XXXVII)
+ EtOH
O
II
MeCCH COjEt
II
MeCCHCOjEt
(XXXIX)
+
HOEt
+
OEt
(XXXVIII)
Normally a gram equivalent of sodium is employed as a source of

the sodium ethoxide catalyst required, but only a little ethanol need
be added initially as more is liberated as soon as the reaction starts,
with the formation of the carbanion (XXXVII). This adds to the
carbonyl group of a second molecule of ester, folio wgd^by the expulsion
of E t O to yield the j8-keto ester (XXXVIII), whiclyf finally c o n v ^ e d
into the carbanion (XXXIX), i.e. the 'sodio-derivative' (hence the
need for the employment of a whole gram equivalent of sodium). The
formation of (XXXIX) is an essential feature of the reaction for it
helps to drive the equilibrium (i) over to the right; this is made necessary
by the fact that the carbanion (XXXVII) is not as highly stabilised as,
0
for
P l e , ^ ^ ^ j ^
and is consequently more reluctant to
form. This is reflected in the fact that R C H - C 0 E t does not

undergo the reaction in the presence of E t O despite the fact that it
has an a-hydrogen atom and so could form a carbanion, because the
product R j C H - C O - C R v C O g E t cannot be converted to a carbanion
such as ( X X X I X ) a n d so fails t o drive the equilibrium over t o t h e
right.
Such esters can however be made to condense satisfactorily in the
presence of very strong bases such as P h C N a , for here the initial
carbanion formation is essentially irreversible:
a
R,CHCO,Et+Ph C
3
-* R , C C O , E t + P h , C H
177
Double
Bonds
Crossed condensation of two different esters is not always practi

cable because of the formation of mixed products, but it can be of
synthetic value, particularly where one of the esters used is incapable
of forming a carbanion, e.g. ( C 0 E t ) , H C 0 E t and P h C 0 E t .
The complexity of the alternative reactions that can take place from
the action of sodium on esters has already been referred t o (p. 170).
Where the two ester groups are part of the same molecule and
cyclisation can therefore result, the condensation is known as a
Dieckmann reaction:
2
O
II
CH.COEt
CH.
3
(CH)CHi-CO,Et
(n=2or3)
CH,
(CH ) CHC0 Et
2 n
CH
L(CH) C COEt
s
fOEt
<
n
COEt
OEt
CH
>
(CH^nCHCOjEt
(CH ) C CO,Et J
a n
Here as in the simple Claisen ester condensation it is necessary, if

ethoxide is used as the catalyst, to be able to form the anion of the final
/3-keto ester in order to drive the overall reaction in the desired
direction.
Like all aldol-type reactions, the Claisen ester condensation is
reversible
OA
II
r*/>
MeCCH,CO Et+ OEt ^ Me-^CJ-CH, C0 Et

OEt
]i
O
II
-
MeC+QCHjCOjEt
OEt
178
Benzoin
Reaction
i.e. the so-called 'acid decomposition' of /?-keto esters. A n exactly

analogous fission of /3-diketones also takes place:
II
Wr%
II
G
RCCH CR+ OEt
II
RC-MJH CR
OEt
_.
o
RC+
o
0
CH CR
2
I
OEt
(f) Benzoin condensation: Another carbanion addition is that ob
served with aromatic aldehydes in alcoholic solution in the presence
of CN:
e
<*<>
*HI
PhCH
3
OH
^ PhCH ^
CN
PhC
CE^N
CN
(XL)
o
cPH
H
"P iHO
HO
PhC
E
CN
(XLIV)
CcN
CPh *= P h C C P h
H
CN
(XLIII)
(XLII)
Cyanide ion is a highly specific catalyst for this reaction, its effective
ness depending presumably on the ease with which it adds to benzaldehyde in the first place and with which it is finally expelled from
(XLIII) t o yield benzoin (XLIV). BuJ perhaps most of all, it depends
on its electron-withdrawing power which promotes the ready release,
as proton, of the hydrogen a t o m attached to carbon in (XL) to yield
the carbanion (XLI). T h e observed kinetics of the reaction
z
Rate oc [Ph C H O ] [ C N ]
179
Double
Bonds
support the above formulation and the rate-determining step is be

lieved to be the reaction of the carbanion (XLI) with a second mole
cule of aldehyde t o yield (XLII).
(g) Benzilic acid change: An interesting intramolecular reaction,
which can be looked u p o n as essentially a carbanion addition, is
the base-catalysed conversion of benzil to benzilic acid anion,
P h C O C O P h -* P h C ( O H ) C O :
e
Ph
fPhV
<Q=cc=o ^ o^-cc=Lo ~
e
I
HO Ph
s
HO
I I
Ph
i
Ph
Ph
I
I
0 = C C O H <- 0 = C C O
e
I I
Ph
HO
I I
Ph
It is found that
^ R a t e a f P h C O C O P h ] [OH]
e
and a rapid, reversible addition of O H to benzil is followed by the

migration of P h with its electron pair to the slightly positive carbon
a t o m of the adjacent carbonyl group. The reaction is exactly analo
gous t o t h e intramolecular Cannizzaro reaction of glyoxal (p. 168)
except that there it was hydrogen that migrated with its electron pair
while here it is phenyl.
(h) Mannich reaction: This carbanion addition, albeit an indirect
one so far as the carbonyl group is concerned, is an extremely useful
synthetic reaction in which a n active hydrogen containing com
pound (i.e. one that will readily form a carbanion) reacts with
formaldehyde and a secondary amine (or, less frequently, ammonia
or a primary amine):
*
^ C H + C H , 0 + H N R , -> ^>CCH,NR.+H.O
Rate oc f3>CH] [CH,0] [R NH]
a
180
Stereochemistry
of Addition to Carbonyl
Compounds
The reactions to form the so-called Mannich bases (XLVII) are be

lieved to proceed as follows, e.g. with P h - C O ' M e :
COi\\
I
> H CNR
H C :NR
2
HO
H*
2
I
> H CNR
2
H
-H.O
Ph CO C H C H NR
2
P
2
^ '
|H CNR
2
(XLVII)
** H C==^R ]
2
(XLVI)
Initial attack by the unshared electron pair of nitrogen on the car

bonyl carbon a t o m is followed by protonation and elimination of
water to yield the ion (XLVI). Attack by the carbanion derived from
acetophenone o n the positive carbon atom of (XLVI) then yields the
Mannich base (XLVII). If ammonia or primary amines are used, the
first formed Mannich base, still carrying hydrogen on the nitrogen
atom, can itself participate further in the reaction leading t o more
complex products, hence the preference for secojjdary amines.
The Mannich base formed will readily eliminate R N H , hence the
synthetic usefulness of the reaction:
m
PhCOCH=CH
heat/'*
/Ni/H,
Ph-CO-CH.-CHj-NR,
>
PhCOCH,Me
Ac,o\^
PhCOCHjCH.OAc
STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ADDITION TO CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

Whether the mechanism of addition to a carbon-oxygen double
bond is cis or tfans clearly has n o meaning for, unlike a c a r b o n carbon double bond, (p. 139) different products will not be obtained
by the two mechanisms because, of free rotation about the CO
single bond that results:
181
R
X R
\
R'
\
trans C
Double Bonds
cis
R'
R'
trans C
/ I V
H
cb
o
R'
cis
<>
R'
i
/ A \
R H R
X
\
^ II *
R' R
A new asymmetric centre has been introduced but, as always, a racemate will be produced. If, however, an asymmetric centre is already
present, e.g. R C H M e C O M e , and if the addition is carried out on
one of the pure optical isomers, the addition is t a k h f ^ p f f l e in an
asymmetric environment and different quantities of the two possible
products are often formed. This is due to the preferential formation
of that isomer whose production involves a transition state in which
steric interaction is at a minimum. Thus where R is a large group and
the reaction is, for example, addition of a Grignard reagent, the initial
attack of the reagent, as a Lewis acid on oxygen, will yield a complex
(XLVTII) in which the now complexed oxygen a t o m will be as far
away from the bulky R group as possible. As the nucleophile now
attacks the carbon atom of the carbonyl complex it will tend to move
in preferentially from the side on which its approach is hindered only
by hydrogen rathSWhan by the bulkier methyl g r o u p :
R
Me
R'MgBr
Me
\
>
CMe
II
(i)R'MgBr
Me
V . /
>
(ii)H/H.O
C
'
OMgR
Me
C
\
Me
V
R'
OM
Br
(XLVIII)
R
(XLIX)
Me
C
R'
H'-V
Me*
(L)
OH
The overall result being the formation of (XLIX) rather than (L)
as the major product. The above argument is essentially the working
182
Nucleophilic Attack on Carboxylic Acid
Derivatives
rule enunciated by Cram which has been found t o forecast accur

ately the major product from a large number of such addition reac
tions.
N U C L E O P H I L I C ATTACK ON C A R B O X Y L I C ACID DERIVATIVES
The observed sequence of reactivity, in general terms, of derivatives

of acids:
is in accord with the view that their characteristic reactions, e.g.

alkaline hydrolysis, can be looked upon as nucleophilic addition
followed by elimination:
fo
CoHI
A
II
RCY -> RC-i-Y - RC
+ Y
ÔH
OH
OH
It should be said that the difference between an addition/elimination
and a direct displacement reaction may be apparent rather than real
if the elimination follows sufficiently rapidly on the initial addition.
The observed reactivity sequence is due to the fact that although
chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen exert an electron-withdrawing induc
tive effect on the carbonyl carbon atom/^they all have unshared
electron pairs which can interact to form a n orbital with the carbonyl
carbon a t o m (mesomeric effect) thus decreasing the positive char
acter of this a t o m and, hence, the ease with which nucleophiles will
attack it. This effect increases as we go Cl--OEt->-NH ->-NR , the
difference between N H and N R being due to the inductive effect
of the two alkyl groups increasing electron-availability on the nitro
gen atom. There njay also be a slight fall in the reactivity of any one
derivative as the R group of the acid is changed from methyl to an
alkyl-substituted methyl group as its slightly greater inductive effect
also reduces the positive nature of the carbonyl carbon atom.
183
2
Double
Bonds
The reactivity sequence is well illustrated by the fact that acid

chlorides react readily with alcohols and amines to yield esters and
amides, respectively, while esters react with amines to give amides,
but the simple reversal of any of these reactions on an amide though
possible is usually very difficult.
(i) Base induced reactions
The example that has been the subject of most investigation is almost
certainly the alkaline hydrolysis of esters. This has been shown to be a
second-order reaction and, by the use of 0 labelligp*ha6 seen to
involve acyl-oxygen cleavage (cf. p. 35) in most cases
1
O
II ! 18
R C-I-OR'
O
II
18
> R C O + HOR'
OH
the labelled oxygen appearing in the alcohol but not in the acid anion
from the hydrolysis. The reaction is believed to proceed:
Co
fo
R_COEt
=LRC-LOEt
*OH
RC+
OH
OEt - *
RC+HOEt
OH
The rate-determining step is almost certainly the initial attack of OH

on the ester and the overall reaction is irreversible due to the insuscept
ibility of R CO to attack by E t O H or EtO. The alkaline hydrolysis
of amides, R - C O - N H R ' , follows a very similar course in which it is
z
R N H that undergoes expulsion. The action of OR in place of OH

on an ester results in transesterification to yield R - C O - O R ' and the
action of amines on esters to form amides also follows an essentially
similar course:
e
r0
nt
>H
RCOEt =E=i RCJ-OEt ^ =
I
RCOEt
^NH.R
CH?
NH R
2
NHR
RC+
OEt
NHR
@
It has been ishown that the conjugate base of the amine, R N H

184
Acid Catalysed
Reactions
does not play any significant part in the amide formation. Both
transesterification and amide formation from the ester are reversible'
unlike alkaline ester hydrolysis, as the carboxylate anion is not
involved.
The reactions of acid chlorides show a number of resemblances to
the nucleophilic displacement reactions of alkyl halides, proceeding
by uni- and bi-molecular mechanisms, the actual path followed being
markedly affected by the polarity and ion-solvating ability of the
medium (cf. p. 60) as well as by the structure of the substrate. The
reactioafcafiacid anhydrides are in many ways intermediate between
those of acyl halides, in which the group that is ultimately expelled
shows a considerable readiness to be lost as an anion, and esters in
which the leaving group normally requires assistance for its ultimate
displacement.
(ii) Acid catalysed reactions
Esters also undergo acidic hydrolysis, initial protonation being
followed by nucleophilic attack by H 0 ; acyl-oxygen cleavage is
again observed:
2
O
OH
II
II
I
RCOEt ^== RCOEt ^=:
i
v.
H,6^
OH
RCOEt
L
HÔ*
11
O
II
OjH
-H&
\*
RC
= F = i RC
I
I
OH
HO
OH
EtOH
^ = i = RCVpEt
l^H
HO
Unlike alkaline hydrolysis, the overall reaction is experimentally

reversible and esters are commonly made by protonation of the
carboxylic acid followed by nucleophilic attack of R O H , an excess of
the latter normally being employeTj so as to displace the ?= in the
desired direction, Esters, R - C O - O R , also undergo ester exchange
with R ' O H under these conditions. Esters of tertiary alcohols,
however, have been shown by O labelling experiments to undergo
alkyl-oxygen cleavage on hydrolysis
l s
185
O
Double Bonds
^HO
HO
R3CO-C-R'=ît RjCÔi-C-R'^
R,C + 0 = C R '
1i*
H
R,COH
3
R,COH
H
reflecting the tendency of the tertiary alkyl group to form a relatively

stable carbonium ion. Similar alkyl-oxygen cleavage also tends to
occur with esters of secondary alcohols that yield tljemosjt stable
carbonium ions, e.g. P h C H O H . Attempts at ester-exchange with
esters of such alcohols lead not surprisingly to a c i d + e t h e r rather
than to the expected new ester:
2
>l
HO
II
RjCO-CR 4=i R C
3
R .3C O R
, H
^=5:
+ 0=CR
^ROH
R 33 C O R '
H
Acid catalysed V e r i f i c a t i o n or hydrolysis is found to be highly

susceptible to sterjc^hindrance, thus 2,4,6-tri me thy 1-benzoic acid is
insusceptible to estenfication under the normal conditions (cf. p . 24).
This is due to the fact that such relatively bulky ortho substituents force
the initially protonated carboxyl group (LI) out of the plane of the
benzene nucleus:
HO
OH
(tl)
Attack by the nucleophile, R O H , apparently need* to occur from a
direction more or less at right angles to the plane in which the proton
ated carboxyl group lies and such line of approach is now blocked,
from either side, by a bulky methyl g r o u p : no esterification thus takes
186
Acid Catalysed
Reactions
place. It is found however, that if the acid is dissolved in concentrated

H S 0 and the resultant solution poured into cold methanol, ready
esterification takes place. Similarly the methyl ester, which is highly
resistant to acid hydrolysis under normal conditions, may be
reconverted to the acid merely by dissolving it in concentrated
H S 0 and then pouring this solution into cold water.
The clue to what is taking place is provided by the fact that dissolving
2,4,6-trimethylbenzoic acid in H S 0 results in a four-fold depression
of the latter's freezing point due to the ionisation:
2
R C 0 H + 2H S0
2
^ R 0 = 0 + H O + 2HS0
(LII)
3
e
4
The resultant acylium ion (LII) would be expected to undergo

extremely ready nucleophilic attack, e.g., by M e O H , and as - C = 0
has a linear structure
O
H
(LII)
attack by M e O H can take place at right angles t o the plane of the
benzene ring and is thus not impeded by the two flanking methyl
groups. The same acylium ion is obtained on dissolving the methyl
ester in H j S ^ and this undergoes equally ready attack by H 0 to
yield the acid. Benzoic acid itself and its esters d o not form acylium
ions under these conditions, however. This is probably due to the fact
that whereas protonated benzoic acid can stabilise itself by delocalisa
tion (LIII),
HO,
OH
HQ
OH
2
(LIII)
187
Double
Bonds
protonated 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoic acid cannot as the o-methyl groups

prevent the atoms of the carboxyl group from lying in the same
plane as the benzene ring and IT orbital interaction is thus much
reduced or prevented. With the acylium ion (LII) however, there is n o
such restriction and the substituent methyl groups can indeed further
delocalise the positive charge by hyperconjugation:
O
"
CH,
(ill) Addition reactions of nitriles

Nitrites also undergo nucleophilic addition reactions due t o :
OpN: ~
(/
C=N:
Tires they will ifWergo acid-catalysed addition of ethanol to yield

salts of imino-ethers (LIV)
HOEt
H
EtOH
R O s N ===== R C = N H
OEt
> R C = N H ===== R C = N H ,
(LIV)
and also acid or base catalysed addition of water:

RC=NH
H/*
\(i)H,OOH
(u)-H\
RC=N
RC=NH
\
OH\
OH
J
O
||
RCNH,
/
/ H , O
RC=N
It is often difficult t o isolate trie amide, however, for this undergoes
readier hydrolysis than the original nitrite yielding the acid or its
anion.
Nitriles will, of course, also undergo addition of Grignard reagents
t o yield ketones and of hydrogen to yield primary amines.
188
ELIMINATION
REACTIONS
E L I M I N A T I O N reactions are those in which two groups are removed

from a moWBle without being replaced by other groups. In the great
majority of such reactions the groups are lost from adjacent carbon
atoms, one of the groups eliminated commonly being a proton and
the other a nucleophile, Y : or Y , resulting in the formation of a
multiple b o n d :
H
@
"|
-HY \
HCCY
II
> >C=C<
X
-HY
C=C
> -C=C-
Y
Among the most familiar examples are the base-induced elimination
of hydrogen halide from alkyl halides
^
OH
R C H , C H , H a l R C H = C H , + H , 0 + Hal
the acid-catalysed dehydration of alcohols

R-CHi-CHi-OH
and the Hofmann
hydroxides:
RCH=CH,+H O
degradation of quaternary
OH
R-CHj-CHj-NR, >
alkylammonium
RCH=CH,+H.O+NR,
^-ELIMINATION
The carbon a t o m from which Y is removed is generally referred to as
the cc-carbon and that losing a proton as the jS-carbon, the overall
process being designated as a ^-elimination, though as this type of
elimination reaction is by far the most common the j3- is often omitted.
Some estimate of the driving force behind such elimination reactions
may be gained from calculations of the energy released in forming the
multiple bond. Thus ^ C C ^ -* ^>C=C<^ releases approximately
189
Elimination
Reactions
41 kcal/mole and ) > C = C < ^ - > - C = C - 23 kcal/mole, though it

should be emphasised that these figures may be modified considerably,
depending on the structure of the original compound or the actual
atoms or groups that are eliminated during the change.
Some a-elimination reactions are known, however, in which both
groups are lost from the same carbon atom (p. 206) and also many
reactions in which the two carbon atoms losing groups are further
apart resulting in a cyclisation, as in the Dieckmann reaction (p. 178),
for example:
CH CH2
CH,CH
GHj
OEt
CH CO Et
2
> CH
C OEt
CH C 0 E t + EtOH
II
II
Elimination reactions are also known in which groups are lost from
atoms other than carbon: in the conversion of the acetates of aldoximes t o nitriles, for example,
- M e CO.H
ArCH=NOCOMe
> ArC=N
or i% the r e v e r s a l * ^ the addition reactions of carbonyl groups

(p. 163)
H
H
-HCN
RCOH
> RC=0
I
CN
though these reactions have been studied in less detail.
Elimination reactions have been shown t o take place by either a
uni- or a bimolecular mechanism, designated as E l and E2 respec
tively, by analogy with the S \ and S^2 mechanisms of nucleophilic
substitution which they often accompany in, for example, the attack
of base on an alkyl halide:
N
R CH=CH +H 0 + Br
oH^y
Elimination
2
R*CH *CH Br
2
OHN^
RCH
190
C H O H + Br
Substitution
2
The E\
Mechanism
THE El MECHANISM
This mechanism, like the S l, envisages the rate of the reaction as
being dependent on the substrate concentration only, the rate-deter
mining stage involving this species alone. Thus with the halide,
Me CBr
N
Rate oc [Me CBr]

3
the reaction rate being measured is that of the formation of the

carbonium ion (I):
Me CBr -> MesC^ + Br^
3
(I)
Rapid, non rate-determining attack by other species in the system,
for example OH or H 0 , can then take place. If these act as
nucleophiles (i.e. electron pair donors towards carbon) the result is
an overall substitution
2
Me,COH
OH
e
Me,C '
\
H.O
Me COH -> Me COH + H

H
3
while if they act as bases (electron pair donors towards hydrogen),

the result is removal of a proton from a /J-carbon a t o m to yield an
olefine:
CH.==CMe + H 0
Me JX
2
CH C
3
/ O H
H
I \ '
Me
^
C H ^ C M e j + H-,0
Obviously conditions that promote Sjyl reactions (p. 60) will lead
to E l reactions also, for carbonium ion formation is the significant
stage in both. Thus the ratio of unimolecular elimination to substi
tution has, in a number of cases, been shown to be fairly constant for
a given alkyl group, no matter what the halogen a t o m or other group
lost as an anion from it. This shows that E l and S \ are not proceedN
191
Elimination
Reactions
ing as quite separate competing reactions and lends support t o a car

bonium ion as the common intermediate; for otherwise the nature of
the leaving group would be expected to play a significant role leading
to a change in the proportion of elimination to substitution products
as it was varied. Variation of the structure of the alkyl group, however,
has a considerable effect on the relative amounts of elimination and
substitution that take place. It is found that branching at the /J-carbon
a t o m tends t o favour E l elimination; thus M e C H C M e C l yields
only 34 per cent of olefine whereas M e C H - C M e C l yields 62 per
cent. The reason for this may, in part at least, be s t w i s : the more
branched the halide, the more crowding is released when it is con
verted t o the carbonium ion intermediate, but crowding is again
introduced when the latter reacts with a n entering group (- substi
tution); by contrast, loss of a proton ( -* elimination) results, if any
thing, in further relief of strain and so is preferred. Study of a range
of halides shows that this is not the whole of the story however.
Hyperconjugation may also play a part, as will be seen below (p. 197)
in considering the preferential formation of one isomeric olefine
rather than another from a carbonium ion in which there is more than
one j3-carbon a t o m which can lose a proton. The E l mechanism is
also encountered inrfhe acid-induced dehydration of alcohols:
2
H^
<B
-H,O
M e C O H > M e C O H > MeC >

H
3
Me C=CHj
THE E2 MECHANISM
In the alternative E2 mechanism, the rate of elimination of, for ex
ample, hydrogen halide from an alkyl halide induced by O H is
given b y :
Rate [R-Hal] [OH]
e
This rate law has been interpreted as involving the abstraction of a

proton from the /3-carbon a t o m by base, accompanied by a simul
taneous loss of halide ion from the a-carbon a t o m :
H O ^ H-4^C-^Hal * H , 0 +
I I
N v
C=C
/ /
+ HaI
N#
It might be objected that there is n o necessity for proton abstrac

tion and halide elimination to be simultaneous, that initial removal
192
The E2
Mechanism
of proton by base followed by the faster, non rate-determining elim

ination of halide ion from the resultant carbanion, as a separate step,
would still conform to the above rate law:
I I
HO
slow
CCHal
H.O+
^C-L^Hal
C=C
+Hal
(II)
The formation of a carbanion such as (II) with so little possibility of

stabilisation (cf. p . 211) seems inherently unlikely and evidence
against the a ^ i a l participation of carbanions is provided by a study
of the reaction of/3-phenylethyl bromide (III) with O E t in E t O D .
Carbanion formation would, a priori, be expected t o be particularly
easy with this halide because of the stabilisation that can occur by
delocalisation of the negative charge via the n orbitals of the benzene
nucleus ( l l l a ) :
e
CH CH Br
CH CH Br
a
CH=CH
CH CH,Br
-Br
"OEt
(i)
(IV)
(llla)
Carrying out the reaction in E t O D should leadTo the formation of

P h - C H D - C H B r by reversal of (i) and this in its turn should yield
some P h - C D = C H as well as P h - C H = C H in the final product.
If, however, the reaction in E t O D is stopped short of completion, i.e.
while some bromide is still left, it is found that neither this nor the
styrene (IV) formed contain any deuterium. Thus a carbanion is not
formed as an intermediate even in this especially favourable case,
and it seems likely that in such E2 eliminations, abstraction of
proton, formation of the double bond and elimination of the halide
ion or other nucleophile normally occur simultaneously as a concerted
process.
Though this is generally true there is, in the highly special case of
the elimination reactions of trichloro- and some dihalo-ethylenes,
some evidence that carbanions are involved:
2
HO*
Cl
H,0
Cl
cicCCl
C=C
\
Cl
(I
Cl
61
193
Elimination
Reactions
we have thus now seen elimination reactions in which the H C bond

is broken before (trichlorethylene above), simultaneously with (E2),
and after ( E l ) , the CY bond.
A n E2 elimination will naturally be promoted, relative to an S^2
substitution, by any features that serve t o stabilise the resultant
olefine or, more particularly, the transition state leading t o it; a good
example is substitution by phenyl on the jS-carbon a t o m :
(i) Stereospecificity in E2 eliminations

It has been found that E2 elimination reactions exhibit a high degree
of stereospecificity, proceeding considerably more readily if the
groups to be eliminated are trans to each other.
Thus it is fourfO that of the stereoisomerides of benzene hexachldride, CH CI ^>ne isomer loses HC1 10,000 times more slowly
than any of the others and this is found t o be the one (V) that has no
adjacent chlorine and hydrogen atoms trans with respect to each
other:
6
CI
H/}
" H
H
Cl
Cl
ci
(V)
This stereospecificity brings to mind the characteristic 'attack from

the back* of the S 2 reaction (p. 65) and probably results from the
electrons released by removal o f t h e proton from the /3-carbon a t o m
attacking the a-carbon atom, 'from the b a c k ' , with displacement of
the leaving group (VI -* VII, see p . 195).
It has been suggested that it is necessary that the attacking atom of
the base, the hydrogen a t o m t o be eliminated, C, C and the other
N
194
Stereospecificity
/\
B: H
in E2
Eliminations
B:H
R^Ck-R'
R
->
jBr
C=C
R'
(VI)
R'
Br
(VII)
leaving group should all be coplanar in the transition state in an E2

elimination, but other factors may well play a part in securing
stereospecific ?/ms elimination.
In the case of benzene hexachloride (V) considered above, restricted
rotation about a single bond prevents the leaving groups from getting
into this preferred orientation and elimination is thus inhibited: a
similar phenomenon is also encountered in the conversion of suitably
substituted defines t o acetylenes for the same reason. Thus bast
induced elimination of H Q to yield acetylene dicarboxylic acid (VIII)
proceeds much more rapidly from chlorofumaric acid (IX) than from
chloromaleic acid (X),
,
CI
CO.H
C
CO.H
-HO
II
c
/
HOjC
H
(IX)
(VIII)
as does the elimination of acetic acid from anti- as compared with
syn-benzaldoxime acetate (XI and XII, respectively) to yield benzonitrile(XIII):
Ph
H
\
/
C
II
- M e CO,!I
easy
Ph
I
C
-Me
III
CO.H
difficult
/
MeCOO
Ph
\
H
/
C
I!
N
\
*
OOCMe
(XI)
(XIII)
(XII)
A fact that m a y be made use of in assigning configurations t o a pair
of stereoisomeric aldoximes.
195
Elimination
Reactions
In cases such as (V) where a sterospecific trans elimination cannot

take place cis elimination can be made t o occur, though normally only
with considerable difficulty. T h e reaction then probably proceeds via
carbanion formation (cf. p . 193), a route that normally involves a
considerably higher free energy of activation than that via a normal
E2 ' t r a n s ' transition state with consequent increase in the severity of
t h e conditions necessary t o effect it.
In compounds in which n o restriction of rotation about a bond
is imposed, the leaving groups will arrange themselves so as to
be as far apart as possible when they are elimination Thus meso
dibromostilbene (XIV) yields a cis unsaturated compound (XV),
whereas the corresponding DL-compound (XVI) yields the trans
form (XVII):
sQ
HO'H ^
Ph
< \
A
Ph*-C*-CH
Br'
H 0
2
Ph
Ph
\
>
-*
C=C
flr
Br'
|XIV)
sQ
Br
(XV)
H 0
2
HO ' H
i^CJi-CPh
Br'
^JBr
(XVI)
Ph
Br^
Vh
Br
(XVII)
A 'ball-and-stick' model will be found useful for confirming the true

stereochemical course of these eliminations.
(ii) Orientation in E2 eliminations Saytzeff v. Hofmann

The situation frequently arises in base-induced elimination reactions
of alkyl halides, R - H a l , and alkyl onium salts, such as R N R ' and
R S R ' u , that more than one define can, in theory, be produced:

3
196
Orientation in E2
R C H , CH,CHCH,
Y
Eliminations
RCH,CH,CH=CH,
(XIX)
;
RCH,CH=CHCH,
(XX)
(XVIII)
(Y=Hal, N R ' , o r S R ' J
Three factors, essentially, influence the relative proportions of

olefine t h a t ^ j e actually obtained: (a) the relative ease with which a
proton can be lost from the available, alternative /^-positions, (b) the
relative stability of the olefines, once formed (more accurately, the
relative stability of the transition states leading to them), and (c)
steric effects (arising from substitution at the /J-positions, the size of
the leaving group Y, and the size of the base used to induce the
elimination). The relative significance of, and conflict between, these
factors has led in the past to the empirical recognition of two opposing
modes of elimination: Saytzeff elimination, leading preferentially t o
the olefine carrying the larger number of alkyl groups, i.e. (XX) rather
than (XIX), and Hofmann elimination, leading preferentially to the
olefine carrying the smaller number of alkyl groups, i.e. (XIX) rather
than (XX).
*
The Saytzeff mode, which is principally encountered in the llimination reactions of halides, is easy t o justify in terms of (b) for the
olefine carrying the larger number of alkyl groups can be shown by
combustion experiments t o be more stable than its less alkylated
isomers, a fact that m a y b e explained by hyperconjugation. Thus
(XX) has five CH linkages adjacent t o the double bond compared
with only two for (XIX) and a greater number of forms such as (XXI)
can therefore contribute t o its stabilisation by delocalisation (cf.
p. 21):
R CH, CHCH=CH, H
(XXI)
It should be remembered, howwer, that it is the hyperconjugative
effect of alkyl groups in the E2 transition state rather than in the end
product, that is of prime importance: alkyl hyperconjugation with
the forming double bond lowers the energy of that transition state
in which it occurs and hence favours its preferential formation.
197
Elimination
Reactions
At first sight, therefore, it might be concluded that the Saytzeff

mode of elimination was the normal one and the Hofmann mode
merely an occasional, abnormal departure therefrom. In fact, it is the
latter that predominates with onium salts. Thus o n heating (XXII),
it is largely ethylene, rather than propylene, that is obtained despite
the greater stability (due t o hyperconjugation) of the latter:
*Me CHj C H NMe + C H = C H
2
Me
Hofmann
I
Me^CH-CH -NCHJ-CHJ'
2
Me
(XXII)
'
*Me C H = C H + Me N C H C H
2
This can be explained by assuming that, in this case, (a) is of prime

importance: the inductive effect of the methyl group in the n-propyl
substituent causes a lowering of the acidity of the hydrogens
attached to the /J-carbon a t o m in this group and thus leads to
preferential removal of a proton from the /3-carbon atom of the ethyl
substituent which is not so affected.
Thus it could be claimed that in Satyzeff elimination the hyperconjugative effects a f alkyl groups are in control while in Hofmann
elimination it is fhsir inductive effects that predominate. But this
leaves unanswered the question as to what causes the shift from the
former mode t o the latter. As has already been observed, Hofmann
elimination is more common in the elimination reactions of onium
e
e
salts and undoubtedly groups such as R N - and R S - will be much
more potent in promoting acidity in /J-hydrogens by their inductive
effects than will halogen atoms so that the relative acidity of the
jS-hydrogen atoms could well come to be the controlling influence in
the reaction. But this is not the whole of the story: another obvious
difference is that the groups eliminated from onium compounds are
usually considerably larger than those lost in the elimination reac
tions of halides; so much so that the preferential formation of that
2 transition state in which there is least crowding becomes imper
ative, even though this may not be the one favoured by hyperconjugative stabilisation.
The importance of the steric factor has been confirmed in a number
of ways. Thus increase in the size of the leaving group in a compound
of given structure leads to a corresponding increase in the proportion
3
198
Orientation in E2
Eliminations
of Hofmann product produced, and the same result is observed

when branching is introduced into the structure of a compound
(with halides as well as onium salts) that might be expected to lead
to increasing crowding in the E2 transition state. Perhaps most cogent
of all, an increase in the proportion of Hofmann product is seen when
the size of the initiating base is increased. Thus in the dehydrobromination of M e - C H C M e B r the change from M e - C H - O
- ^ M e C - O - > E t M e C - O - > E t C - O leads to formation of the
Hofmann product, M e C H C ( M e ) = C H
in yields of 29, 72, 78
a n d 89 per qgat respectively. T h e importance that steric factors can
play in deciding which type of elimination will result can, perhaps,
best be seen by comparing the transition states (XXIII) and (XXIV)
for the two modes of E2 elimination from R C H , C M e X :
e
2 )
HO^H
Me
^cic-Me
C=C
Saytzeff
Me
t>
(XXIII)
H 0
2
HO*H
CH R
-C-M
h-cXqMe
->
CH R
2
C==C
H
Hofmann
Me
Y
(XXIV)
It can be seen that if Y is large, and especially if R is large as well,
transition state (XXIV) will be favoured over (XXIII) as, in the
former, R is much better able t o get out of Y's way; as indeed will be
the case if O H is replaced byabulkier base, Ybeing the same distance
away in both cases but R being much less of a hindrance in (XXIV)
than in (XXIII).
*
The classical Ijofmann elimination reaction has been of the utmost
value in structure elucidation, particularly in the alkaloid field. Any
basic nitrogen atom present is converted to the quaternary salt by
exhaustive methylation and the corresponding quaternary hydroxide
Q
199
Elimination
Reactions
then heated. Removal of the nitrogen from the compound by one

such treatment indicates that it was present in a side-chain while
elimination after two or three treatments, indicates its presence in a
saturated ring or at a ring junction, respectively. The resultant olefine
is then investigated so as t o shed further light on the structure of the
original natural product.
T h e presence of a phenyl group on the a- or /3-carbon atom very
markedly promotes E2 eliminations because of its stabilisation of the
resultant olefine by delocalisation. T h e effect is more marked in the
/?- than in the a-position, however, because of the additional effect
of phenyl in increasing the acidity of the j8-hydrogens from this posi
tion and so facilitating their removal. The effect is sufficiently p r o
nounced so as to control the orientation of elimination, resulting in
the Saytzeff mode even with onium salts:
Me
le
PhCHjCH,NCH CH
a
OH
3
* Ph C H = C H , + M e , N CH, CH,
I
Me
A vinyl group willjiave much the same effect.
A^steric limitation on elimination reactions is codified in Bredt's
rule that reactions which would introduce a double bond on to a
bridgehead carbon atom in bicyclic systems d o not take place. Thus
(XXV) does not yield the bicycloheptene (XXVI) which has, indeed,
never been prepared:
(XXV)
(XXVI)
This is presumably due to !he bond angles required by the

rigid ring system preventing any degree of attainment of the planar
configuration required for significant w bonding to the adjacent
carbon atom. I t should be emphasised in this connection that the
Bredt rule does not thus apply to compounds such as (XXVII)
200
Elimination
v.
Substitution
Br
(XXVII)
nor to compounds in which the bridge comprises five or more atoms,

for a sufficiently planar conformation can then be attained without
too great an overall straining of the system.
Finally, it should be emphasised that in E l eliminations where
more than one possible olefine can be obtained, the product which is
stabilised by hyperconjugation will almost always predominate.
The leaving group, having already departed, can exert no influence,
and the process is completed by loss of proton from that ^-position
which will yield the stabler olefine, i.e. (XXVIII) rather than (XXIX):
RCH=CMe,
RCH CMe Br
2
Me
(XXVIII)
R-CH -C
a
Me
RCH C(Me)=CH
2
(XXIX)
ELIMINATION v. SUBSTITUTION
Broadly speaking changes in reaction conditions that would be
expected to promote an SJV2 reaction at the expense of an S l
(p. 60) will promote the often competing E2 reaction at the ex
pense of an E l and, of course, vice-versa. The features that will
favour overall elimination at the expense of substitution are a little
more subtle, though some passing attention has already been paid
to them; thus in the E l reaction reference has already been made to
steric features. The more crowded a halide, for example, the greater
is the release of strain when the carbonium ion intermediate is formed.
This strain is reintroduced on attack by a nucleophile but is not in
creased, and may even be further reduced, on removal of a proton
to yield the olefine. The sheer steric effect here becomes merged with
other features, liowever, for increasing alkyl substitution may also
lead to the possible formation of olefines that are increasingly stabi
lised by hyperconjugation, thus favouring their formation at the
expense of substitution. This, of course, is the reason for the greater
N
201
Elimination
Reactions
tendency of tertiary and secondary, as compared with primary,

halides to undergo unimolecular elimination rather than substitution
reactions whatever the reagent employed:
RCHjCHjHal
R C H . C H M e Hal
RCH.CMe.Hal
j.
<
\
<
4.
RCH=CH,
R C H = C H Me
RCH=CMe,
In bimolecular reactions also it is found that increasing alkyl substi
tution favours elimination at the expense of s u b s t i t u t i o n for while it
retards S^2 because of overcrowding in the transition state that would
lead to substitution, it promotes E2 because of the hyperconjugative
stabilisation of the incipient olefine in the alternative transition state
that would lead to elimination.
O n e of the most potent factors influencing the elimination/substi
tution ratio with a given substrate, however, is change of mechanism
from uni- to bimolecular. The El/Sjyl product ratio will b e fixed, as
will the E2/Sjy2 ratio, and, provided the reaction is proceeding by a
purely uni- or bimolecular mechanism, the ratio will thus be inde
pendent of the concentration of, e.g. OH. As the concentration of
O H is increased, jjowever, there will come a changeover from an
initially unimolecula^to a bimolecular mechanism, a changeover that
takes place quite suddenly with strong bases such as O H and which
leads t o a different, usually higher, proportion of the elimination
product. This reflects the well-known use of high concentrations of
strong bases for the actual preparation of olefines.
e
It might be expected that the reagent employed would be of great

significance in influencing the relative amounts of E 2 / S 2 in a parti
cular system, for basicity (i.e. electron pair donation to hydrogen)
and nucleophilicity (i.e. electron pair donation t o carbon) do not run
wholly in parallel in a series of reagents, Y or Y : . Thus the use of
tertiary amines, e.g. triethylamine, rather than O H or O E t for
converting halides t o olefines depends on the amines being moderate
ly strong bases but weak nucleophiles while the latter reagents are
powerful nucleophiles as well as being strong bases. The particular
preparative value of pyridine foi*this purpose, despite its being a
considerably weaker base than simple tertiary amines^R N: (cf. p . 55),
arises in part at least from the stability of the pyridinium cation once
formed; reversal of the abstraction of H by pyridine is thus unlikely.
Reagents such as S R which show the widest divergences between
w
202
Effect of Activating
Groups
their basicity and nucleophilicity, are in general too weak bases to be

of much value in inducing elimination reactions.
Careful investigation has shown that where substitution and
elimination reactions compete in a given system, elimination normally
has the higher activation energy and is thus the more favoured of the
two by rise in temperature: a fact that has long been recognised in
preparative chemistry.
EFFECT OF ACTIVATING GROUPS
Thus far we have only considered the effect of alkyl, and occasionally
aryl, substituents in influencing elimination reactions, but a far
more potent influence is exerted by strongly electron-withdrawing
groups such as - N 0 , )>SO , - C N , ^ > C = 0 , - C O E t , etc., in
facilitating eliminations. Their influence is primarily on increasing
the acidity of the j3-hydrogen a t o m s :
8
BPH
B:H
-C-^C-^C-^Br
r ^ c i c - L J I r -> CC=C< HBr
II
o
O
B-^H
\f--C^C-^Br
/ I . I
-*
\jC=c/+Br
e
B:H
C-(fC^C-ÔH
B:H
B-^H
II
-> C C = c / + O H
II
o
(XXX)
The reactions can proceed by a ^ n e - or a two-stage mechanism

depending on w h | t h e r the removal of proton and the other leaving
group is concerted o r whether an intermediate anion is actually
formed. An added effect of substituents like the above is, of course,
to stabilise such an anion by delocalisation
203
Elimination
Reactions
C-^CCY - C=CCY
II
II
NJ-CC-Y
3
N=CC-Y
e
but it is not certain that such intermediates are f o r m a i a s a matter of

course in all these reactions, however. A n interesting example above
is the way in which t h e ) > C = 0 group makes possible a base-induced
elimination of water from t h e aldol (XXX), whereas the elimination
of water from a compound not so activated is nearly always acidinduced (cf. p . 174).
It has been suggested that a good deal of the driving force for the
elimination reactions of suitably substituted carbonyl compounds
is due t o the product being conjugated and so able to stabilise itself
by delocalisation ( X X X I ) :
Me C H C H = C H 6
MeCH-j-CH6H==0
(XXXI)
MeCH=^CBicH=^0
Me C H - C H C H - O
IBB
That this is not the most important feature, however, is revealed by
the difference in behaviour exhibited by 1- and 2-halogenoketones
(XXXII and X X X I I I , respectively). Both could eliminate hydrogen
halide t o yield the same olefine (see p . 205) as the product of reaction,
so if its stability were the prime driving force little difference would
be expected ip their rates of elimination. In fact (XXXIII) eliminates
very much more rapidly than ^ X X X I I ) suggesting that the main
effect of the carbonyl substituent is in increasing^the acidity of the
hydrogens on the adjacent carbon a t o m : this is the one that loses
p r o t o n in (XXXIII) b u t not in (XXXII). I t is indeed found t o b e
generally true that the elimination-pronioting effect of a particular
204
Debromination
O
MeCCHCH,
Br
(XXXII)
O
MeCCH=CH,
?
MeCCH,CH,
Br
(XXXIII)
electron-withdrawing substituent is much greater in the )3- than in the
a-position. T h e influence of such activating groups is often sufficiently
great to lead to the elimination of m o r e unusual leaving groups such
as O R and N H .
A rather interesting intramolecular reaction of this type is the loss
of C 0 and bromide ion from the anion of a /3-bromo-acid, for
example cinnamic acid dibromide ( X X X I V ) :
2
ol
o
Cf
o=c=o
H
Br5c^CPh
Br
-*
^CC*
Br
Ph
Br
(XXXIV)
DEBROMINATION
Attention has been confined
so far almost wholly to reactions in
which one of the leaving groups has been hydrogen, and although
these are the most common a n d important eliminations, the dehalogenation of 1,2-dihalides, particularly bromides, also has some
mechanistic and preparative interest. T h e most common classical
reagents for the purpose are metals such as zinc:
ZnBr
Zn:
Br
R
A
:R'
R
\
A
C=C
->
/
R''
Br
205
Elimination
Reactions
Apart from any preparative or diagnostic value the reaction may

have, it is of course the above state of affairs that makes impossible
the preparation of Grignard and similar organo-metallic compounds
from 1,2-dihalides. Similar eliminations can be m a d e t o proceed with
1,2-halo-esters and 1,2-halo-ethers. The reactions normally proceed
stereospecifically trans.
A similar stereospecificity has been observed in the preparatively
m o r e useful d e n o m i n a t i o n of 1,2-dibromides by iodide ion. T h e
kinetic law followed is of the form:
Rate oc [I] [1,2-dibromide]
but there is reason to believe that the mechanism, in some cases at
least, is a little more complicated than that with zinc, involving
an SJV2 displacement to form the bromo-iodide as the rate-deter
mining step
I + BrCH, CH Br -> Br + I C H , C H , B r
a
followed by attack by iodide ion on the iodine a t o m that has been

introduced:
I
Practical use is made of this reaction in the purification of olefines.

The usually crystalline dibromides are purified by recrystallisation
and the pure olefine then regenerated, as above, under extremely
mild conditions.
a-ELIMINATION
A small number of cases are known of the elimination of hydrogen
halide where both atoms are lost from the same carbon: these are
known as a-elimination reactions. The best known example occurs in
the hydrolysis of chloroform with strong base:
CI
HO ^ H-^C^-Cl
slow
> C1 + :CC1
H 0*h CCI
2
CI
HC0
2
206
slow
OH
fast H.O
CO
Cis-Elimination
Hydrogen halide is lost in a two-stage process t o yield carbon dichloride, a carbene (cf. p . 93), as an intermediate in the hydrolysis. The
latter then reacts with water to yield C O as the primary product and
this then undergoes further slow attack by O H to yield formate
anion. The initial attack on H rather than C (with expulsion of C l )
by O H is due t o the electron-withdrawing effect of the chlorine
atoms increasing the acidity of the hydrogen atom, a property which
is reflected in its ready base-catalysed exchange with deuterium in
D O . Confirmation of the existence of CC1 , i.e. of an a-elimination,
is provided bjtf he introduction of substrates into the system that would
be expected to react readily with such a species; thus olefines have been
converted into cyclo-propane derivatives :
0
Me
0
Me
Me
OH
Me
9/
l \
CHCU *
ecu

^1
Another example of an a-elimination is seen i n ' t h e action of

potassium amide on 2,2-diphenylvinyl bromide (XXXV):
0
NH
Ph
C=CV
Ph
NH
(PIP
-> - > H b = = C
Br
Ph
(XXXV)
P h C C P h -+ P h C = C P h
(^Br
(XXXVI)
Br
Whether the whole process proceeds as a concerted operation o r

whether the carbanion (XXXVI) is actually formed, as such, is not
known however.
CIS-ELIMINATION
A number of esters, particularly acetates, are known to undergo
elimination reactions on heatingt^n the absence of solvent, t o yield
olefines:
#
II
O
V
II
p C H C O C R -* ^ > C = C < ^ + H O C R
207
Elimination
Reactions
The kinetic law followed is of the form

Rate <x [ester]
and the reaction is believed to proceed through a cyclic transition
state (XXXVII):
(XXXVII)
The strongest evidence in favour of such a route is that these

eliminations are found to proceed stereospecifically cis in contrast
t o the almost universal trans eliminations t h a t we have encountered
t o date. It is thus probable, in most cases, that the breakage of the
C H and CO bonds occur simultaneously, but the fact that small,
though detectable, amounts of trans elimination have been observed
to take place suggests that in some cases the latter breaks before the
former, leading t o *he transient formation of a n ion pair, which can
thenundergo mutual reorientation. It seems unlikely in such cases
that radicals, rather than ion pairs, are ever formed as the reactions
appear to be unaffected by either radical initiators or inhibitors (cf.
p. 231).
A very closely analogous elimination is the Chugaev reaction which
involves the indirect conversion of an alcohol to the corresponding
olefine via pyrolysis of the methyl xanthate (XXXVIII) obtained by
the action of C S ^ O H / M e l on the original alcohol:
\ / \ /
X / V
C=C
C-r-C
O J
^
C=t=S
MeS^
(XXXVIII)
\
CS
MeS^*
/
-* MeSH + COS
.
This reaction has the greater preparative value as the pyrolysis

may be successfully carried out at lowef temperatures (ca. 150 as
208
Cis-Elimination
compared with ca. 400 for acetates); the advantage of both, com
pared with other methods of olefine formation in complicated
structures, is their relative freedom from simultaneous molecular
rearrangement.
A more recent elimination reaction of preparative value analogous
to the above is that of tertiary amine oxides (XXXIX); this elimina
tion proceeds smoothly at even lower temperatures with the elimin
ation of a dialkylhydroxylamine (XL):
H
(XXXIX)
~>
RN
2
V
(XL)
209
CARBANIONS AND THEIR
REACTIONS
S O M E organic compounds are known which function as acids, in the

classical sense, in that a proton is liberated from a Gar-H bond, the
resultant conjugate base (I) being known as a carbanion:
C-J-H ^ C
/
y
+ H
This tendency is, not surprisingly, but little marked with aliphatic
hydrocarbons for the C H bond is a fairly strong one and there is
normally n o structural feature that either promotes acidity in the
hydrogen a t o m or that leads to significant stabilisation of the
carbanion with respect to the original undissociated molecule (cf.
p. 40); thus methane has been estimated to have a p K of 58,
compared with 4-76 for acetic acid. Triphenylmethane (II), however,
whose related carbanion (III) can be stabilised by delocalisation
n
Ph CH ^
3
H +
P h
C ^
PhC=</^P
etc.
(II)
(HO
is a much stronger acid (pK a 25) by relative, if not by absolute,
standards. The presence of one or more strongly electron-withdraw
ing groups has an even more marked effect; thus tricyanomethane
(IV)
0
(NC) C-H
(IV)
H+[(NC) cic^N
(NC) C=C=-N
2
etc.]
J
approaches the mineral acids i s t r e n g t h . The cumulative effect of

introducing successive cyano groups is of interest here for acetonitrile
(V), containing only one such group, still has a pl as high as 2 5 :
C H C = N == H + [ C H ^ L C ^
3
(V)
210
CH =C=N]
4
Stability of
Carbanions
FORMATION OF CARBANIONS
Although the tendency of many C H bonds to such spontaneous
dissociation is but low, structural factors, particularly the presence
of electron-withdrawing groups, can lead to sufficient acidity in such
hydrogen atoms as to permit their ready removal by bases:
R C H . X + B : -* R C H X + B : H
Thus the following compounds
EtO,CCH,CO,Et
(VI)
CH
pK.15
NO,
pK=10-2
MeCOCH,CO,Et
(VII)
Me CO CH, CO Me
pK=10 1
(VIII)
pK = 8-8
readily yield carbanions in this way which are, with similar ones, of the
utmost importance as intermediates in a wide variety of reactions.
Other compounds which lose a proton less readily may sometimes
be converted into carbanions by treatment with very strong bases in
anhydrous media, as is the case with acetylene ( p K ? = 26):
NH,
e
HC=CH
v H C = C + NH
liq.
NH,
Where the actual isolation or ready detection of a carbanion as

such is not feasible, the transient formation of such a species may be
inferred from dissolving the compound, in the presence of base, in
D O or E t O D and observing if deuterium becomes incorporated.
Thus chloroform is found to undergo such an incorporation:
a
-H
HCC1,
D,O
CCI,
H.O
DCCI3
-D
STABILITY OF CARBANIONS
As might be expectgd, the effect of electron-withdrawing (i.e. activat
ing) groups is most pronounced when they can exert a mesomeric as
well as an inductive effect; for then they not only promote acidity in
the relevant hydrogen a t o m but stabilise the resultant carbanion as
211
Carbanions and Their
Reactions
well. Thus a carbonyl or a nitro-group will be more effective than,

for example, N R , C F , etc.:
3
H
t
RCH^-N
RCH*-N
R C H ^ C R ->
H
CHJ-CR ~
fc
RCH=N
o~s
RCH=CRJ
t
/
B:
0
RG-C->-F - * R C H G F
\
F
The smaller fK and hence greater stability of the carbanion, of

acetylacetone (VIII) compared with ethyl acetoacetate (VII), and of
the latter compared with diethyl malonate (VI) arises from the car
bonyl group in a c e t o n e being m o r e effective at electron-withdrawal
and delocalisation, than the carbonyl group in an ester. This springs
from the occurrence in the latter of
Ml
p.
RC-I-OEt
which lowers the effectiveness of t h e ^ > C = 0 group at withdrawing

electrons from the rest of the molecule. The decreasing activating
effect of - C O Y o n going - C O H - * - C O R - > - - C O O R - * - C O - N H - - - C O - O being due to Y becoming more electrondonating as the series is traversed.
An interesting carbanion.'the cyclopentadienyl anion (IX)
2
e
(IX)
212
Stereochemistry
of
Carbanions
owes its considerable stability to the fact that, in the system, a total of
six w electrons is available and these can distribute themselves so as
t o form delocalised ir orbitals covering all five carbon atoms, leading
t o the quasi-aromatic structure (IXa):
The stability of the ion is reflected in the acidity of cyclopentadiene

itself, demonstrating the readiness with which the latter is prepared
t o lose a proton in order t o attain a more stable state as a carbanion.
The quasi-aromaticity cannot be demonstrated by electrophilic sub
stitution, for attack by X would merely lead t o direct combination
with the ion, but true aromatic character (Friedel-Crafts reactions,
etc.) is shown by the remarkable series of extremely stable compounds
such as ferrocene (X), (obtained by attack of (IX) fin metallic halides
such as F e C l )
*
a
in which the metal atom is held by ir bonds in a kind of molecular

'sandwich* between t w o cyclopentadienyl structures.
STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CARBANIONS
e
Thequestionof whether a simple carbanion of t h e f o r m R C is planar

or pyramidal (like a tertiary amine with which it is isoelectronic)
3
213
Reactions
cannot be answered with any degree of confidence. A pyramidal

structure would seem more likely but direct experimental confirmation
thereof is somewhat inadequate. As soon as one or more of the groups
attached to the carbanion carbon atom are capable of stabilising the
ion by delocalisation, then limitations are imposed on its configuration
because of the near coplanarity necessary if significant delocalisation
via the overlapping of parallel p orbitals is to take place. This will
apply to the three bonds to the carbanion carbon in the triphenylmethyl anion (XI)
(XI)
and also in cases where the carbanion carbon is adjacent t o ) > C = 0

N O 2, etc. A good example of this is seen in the compound (XII):
(XIII)
Here the hydrogen, despite being flanked by two carbonyl groups,
shows- little sign of acidity (cf. M e - C O - C H a * C O - M e ) because the
carbanion (XIII) that would be obtained by its removal is unable t o
stabilise itself by delocalisation owing t o the rigid ring structure
preventing the p orbitals .on the two carbon atoms involved from
becoming parallel; significant overlapping thus could not take place
and the carbanion does not form.
In simpler examples, it is well known that asymmetric centres
carrying a hydrogen atom adjacent to carbonyl ^groups (e.g. XIV)
are very readily racemised in the presence of base. This can, never
theless, not be taken as entirely unambiguous confirmation of the
planar nature of any carbanion intermediate involved (e.g. XV),
214
Carbanions and
Tautomerism
despite its likelihood on other grounds, for the enol form (XVI)
which must be planar will also be in equilibrium with it:
H
<X
R-CC
R'
(XIV)
C*C
R'
(XV)
B:Hffl1l.
fB:H
s
0 ,
cc =?
OH
c=c
R'
(XV)
R'
(XVI)
CARBANIONS AND TAUTOMERISM

The enolisation mentioned above, is, of course, an example of the
larger phenomenon of tautomerism: the existence of two or more
readily interconvertible structures that differ only in electron distri
bution and in the position of a mobile atom. The mobile atom con
cerned is hydrogen in the overwhelming majority of examples, in
which case the phenomenon is known as prototropy; familiar exam
ples are ethyl acetoacetate and aliphatic nitro-compounds:
O
OH
II
MeCCH,CO Et
Keto
a
Me C = C H CO Et
Enol
a
O
R-CH N
O
Pseudo-acid form
OH
RCH=N
/
O
Aci-form
(i) Concerted v. stepwise mechanism

These interconversions could, in tfllory, take place by either a step
wise o r a concerted, mechanism depending on whether the abstraction
of hydrogen from one a t o m takes place prior to, or simultaneously
with, the addition of hydrogen to the other; both types are en
countered in practice. If the conversion is base-induced, the former
215
Reactions
mechanism would, in suitable cases, involve the participation of a

carbanion, while the second would not. Many common examples,
including /3-keto-esters, 0-diketones, aliphatic nitro-compounds, i.e.
the common keto/enol systems and their relatives, are believed t o
involve the stepwise mechanism
"RC=CR ~
B
f>H
RCCR'
C CR
I H
OH
RC^-CR'
(XVII)
(XIX)
(XVIII)
and, as might be expected, the more stable the carbanion intermediate
(XVIII), i.e. the more acidic the substrate from which it may be
derived, the more is the stepwise mechanism favoured with respect t o
the concerted one.The above example enables emphasis t o be laid on
the distinction between tautomerism and mesomerism which so often
apparently leads to confusion. Thus (XVII) and (XIX) are tautomers,
the so-called keto and enol forms respectively, and are quite distinct
chemical entities. Although often readily interconvertible both can,
in suitable cases (e.g. ethyl acetoacetate), actually be isolated a n d
characterised. By contrast, the intermediate involved in their interconversion, the carbanion (XVIII), is a single species, a mesomeric
hybrid of the two hypothetical structures written, neither of which
has any real existence. I t is, of course, a commonplace t o find a pair
of tautomers underlain, a s it were, by a carbanion stabilised by
delocalisation in this way.
By contrast, the tautomerisation of a number of compounds of the
form R C H N = C R ' , the azomethines, has been shown t o proceed
via t h e concerted mechanism. Thus tautomerisation of ( X X ) - +
(XXI) has been carried out in E t O D with EtO as catalyst, and been
found t o result in deuterium exchange as well as tautomerisation. A
concerted mechanism must lead t o deuteration and tautomerisation
proceeding at exactly the same rate for the latter cannot take place
without the former
2
216
Carbanions and
Tautomerism
EtO
VH
EtO^H
P-Ph
Ph
C H ^ C ^ - N = -r-C^
F<
6
p-Ph-C.H^
&
Ph
C=NC^H
(XX)
(XXI)
OEt
ÔEt
whereas with a stepwise mechanism

EtO* H
\.
/
P-PhC,H -CN=C
Ph
Ph
\H
(XX)
EtOD
(0
P-PhC,H
Ph
OEt
Ph
p-Ph C,H
Ph
Ph
OEt
CO
P-Ph
C H
6
EtOD
Ph
\
C=N-
Ph
D
(XXI)
deuteration can take place without tautomerisation by the reversal of

(i) and so should proceed the faster. In practice, both are found to
take place at the same rate so, knowing the reaction is reversible, it
can be said with confidence that it proceeds via the concerted mech
anism.
Which mechanism is at work in a particular case is also influenced
by the medium involved, polar solvents, not surprisingly, favouring
217
Reactions
the stepwise mode. Although not relevant to carbanions, it should

perhaps be emphasised that keto-enol interconversions can be
catalysed by acids, e.g. HA, as well as by bases. This is another
example of general acid catalysis (cf. p. 161):
AH+ > C = C O H + A
The role played above by the acid anion, A, can equally well be
played by a solvent molecule in many cases.
(ii) Rate of tautomerisation
It should perhaps be emphasised that in the tautomerisations about
which we have been speaking a CH bond must undergo dissocia
tion; so that although a number of the conversions are fairly rapid
they are not like ionic reactions where n o such bond-breaking is in
volved. The actual rates of a number of these conversions can, as
implied in the last section, be followed by measuring the rate at
which the compounds involved will incorporate deuterium from
D 0 ? E t O D , etc. When base is added to a pure tautomer it is, in the
more familiar examples, usually the rate of formation of the anionic
intermediate that is being observed and, on subsequent acidification,
the rate of re-formation of one or both tautomers from the ion:
2
II
Me CCH,-CO.Et
'
II
ÔH
Me G ^ C H CO.Et
H
Me CCH. CO.Et
I
. M c C = C H CO.Et
OH
Me C = C H CO Et
a
The correlation of relative rates*of tautomerisation with structure

is not quite so simple as might have been expected and while it is
broadly true that structural features leading to greater acidity, i.e.
readier loss of proton, lead to more rapid reactions, this is by n o
means universally the case.
218
Carbanions and
Tautomerism
(iii) Structure and position of equilibrium

Most information is available on this subject for keto/enol tautomers
and their near relatives and we shall confine ourselves t o them.
Normally speaking, the occurrence of a significant amount of the
enol form in the keto/enol equilibrium mixture requires the presence
of a group or groups capable of stabilising the enol by delocalisation
of the w electrons of its carbon-carbon double b o n d :
cQ=CjO=CÔH - 6C=CC=OH
I I I
I I I
Thus the proportion of enol in acetone is almost negligible while with

a /3-diketone it is present as the major species:
Percentage enol
MeCOCH,
V00025
7-5
MeCOCHjCOjEt
(XXII)
MeCOCHPhCOjEt
(XXIII)
30
MeCOCH,COMe
(XXIV)
80
The relative effectiveness to this end of a second keto group as

opposed t o the ^ > C = 0 of an ester group is seen in comparing acetylacetone (XXIV) with ethyl acetoacetate (XXII), and the further
delocalisation effected, by the introduction of a phenyl group on the
methylene carbon a t o m by comparing ethyl acetoacetate (XXII) with
its a-phenyl derivative (XXIII).
Another factor is also contributing to the stabilisation of the enol
compared wjtb the keto form in such species, however, namely
internal hydrogen bonding:
219
Reactions
/
O
II
Me
CH
(XXTV)
EtO
Me
\
O
I
c
CH
/
\
(XXII)
Me
Apart from the further stabilisation thereby effected, this hydrogen

bonding leads to a decrease in the polar character oftlfae enol and a
compact, 'folded u p ' conformation for the molecule (by contrast t o
the extended conformation of the keto form) with the rather surprising
result that, where the keto and enol forms can actually be separated,
the latter usually has the lower boiling point of the two despite its
hydroxyl group. The part played by such hydrogen bonding in
effecting stabilisation is seen by comparing the proportion of the enol
form of acetylacetone (XXIV) in water and in a non-hydroxylic
solvent such as hexane. In the latter there is 92 per cent enol whereas in
the former where the keto form can also form hydrogen bondswith
the solvent water moleculesthe proportion of the enol is down to
15 per cent.
#
In Jhe above examples, the composition of the equilibrium mixture

is governed by the relative thermodynamic stabilities of the two forms
under the particular circumstances being considered and this will,
of course, ultimately always b e the case. A n interesting situation
arises with aliphatic nitro-compounds such as phenylnitromethane
(XXV), however:
O
Ph C H = N
H
Ph CHjN
O
Pseudo-acid form
(XXV)
OH
/
PhCH=N
b
PhCH^-N
oJ
O
Aci-form
OCXVI)
(XXVII)
Here the normal nitro- or pseudo-acid form (XXV) is thermodynamically the more stable of the two and at true equilibrium this
220
Displacement
Reactions of Carbanions
form is present to the almost total exclusion of the aci-form

(XXVI).
Nevertheless, on acidification of the sodium salt of the system, i.e.
(XXVII), it is very largely (XXVI) that is obtained. This results from
the more stable pseudo-acid (XXV) being formed more slowly from
the mesomeric ion than is the aci-form (XXVI), for the transition
state between (XXVII) and (XXV) is at a considerably higher energy
level than that between (XXVII) and (XXVI), reflecting the greater
difficulty of breaking a CH bond rather than an O H bond. The
reaction is IIWs said to be kinetically rather than
thermodynamically
controlled, leading to (XXVI) rather than (XXV).
Although the immediate result is the preferential formation of the
aci-form (XXVI), slow, spontaneous re-ionisation of (XXVI) leads
inexorably t o the formation of (XXV), so that the position of
ultimate equilibrium is thermodynamically controlled.
REACTIONS OF CARBANIONS
(i) Addition reactions
Carbanions take part in a wide variety of addition reactions, many of
which involve additions to carbonyl systems? Thus Grignafd and
acetylide ion additions have already been considered (p. 170), as
have aldol (p. 172), Perkin (p. 176), Claisen ester (p. 176), and benzoin
(p. 179) reactions and carbanion addition to a/3-unsaturated carbonyl
systems in the Michael reaction (p. 155).
(ii) Displacement reactions
Carbanions are also involved in a number of displacement reactions.
(a) Alkylation: Suitable carbanions, such as those derived from
malonic ester, j3-keto-esters, /3-dicarbonyl compounds, etc., will effect
ready displacement reactions with alkylating agents such as alkyl
halides and other reactive halogen-containing compounds, this being
a useful preparative method for the formation of carbon-carbon
bonds. In most cases the carrjanion is generated in non-aqueous
solution by bases such as E t O and the reaction then follows a
normal S 2 course (see p . 222).
The SJV2 character has been confirmed kinetically in some examples
and inversion of configuration has been shown to take place at the
9
221
Reactions
H
H
s
(EtO,C),HC + HCBr
(EtOjQjHC-
\ >
-C
Br
I
H
OE
H
(EtO C)jHCH
(Et0 C) HCCH + B r
\
carbon atom attacked. A similar reaction of preparative value occurs
with acetylide ion:
HC=CH
NH,
H C = C + RBr -> H C = C R + B r
It should be remembered, however,, that the above carbanions, and

particularly the acetylide ion, are derived from very weak acids and
are, therefore, themselves strong bases with the result that they can
induce elimination (p. 201) as well as displacement reactions; reaction
with tertiary halides thus commonly results in olefine formation to the
exclusion of alkylatiqp.
(b) Grignard and other organo-metallic reagents:Grignard reagents
can be looked upon, formally, as providing a source of negative car
bon though it is unlikely that they act as direct sources of carbanions
as such, and more than one molecule of the reagent may actually be
involved in their reactions as has been seen in discussing their addi
tion to carbonyl groups (p. 170). They can also take part in displace
ment reactions as in the preparatively useful formation of aldehydes,
via their acetals, from ethyl orthoformate (XXVIII):
*H
R MgBr + CH(OEt)
RCH(OEt),
R-CHO
H.O
(XXVIII)
Their reaction with esters to form ketones (which then react further
to form tertiary alcohols as thefinaTproduct) could also, in theory,
be looked upon as a displacement reaction
"
0
- +
II
R M g B r + RCOEt
222
R'CR + OEt
Displacement
but it is doubtful in most cases, whether a sufficiently negative carbon

is generated in R~ t o expel O E t and addition, a s with a n ordinary
carbonyl group (p. 171), followed by elimination, is probably more
likely.
Of other organo-metallic compounds, there is some evidence that
sodium and potassium derivatives, e.g. of di- a n d triphenylmethane,
etc., d o provide actual carbanions as the active species in the reactions
in which they take part, though even here the carbanions m a y be
present not as the simplest possible species but as dimers, trimers and
higher aggregates. Lithium derivatives, which are synthetically more
useful, correspond more closely t o Grignard reagents in possessing
a greater degree of covalent character not normally leading t o the
formation of free carbanions. They a r e n o t entirely analogous t o
Grignard reagents, however, as a number of cases are known where
the two lead t o different products from the same substrate.
e
(c) Wurtz reaction: A number of claims have been advanced that

the Wurtz reaction proceeds via a radical mechanism:
R C H CH Br+Na
a
R C H j C H j - + B r + Na
2 R C H , C H , . -* R ( C H , ) R
4
One of the pieces of supporting evidence quoted to corroborate Jhis is

that d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e is observed t o take place as well as the
expected dimerisation, an alternative reaction well known in radical
chemistry (p. 235):
#
2R-CH -CH, -> R C H , C H , + R C H = C H ,

t
While such a mechanism is probably valid in the vapour phase it is

somewhat less likely in solution and reaction of alkyl chlorides with
sodium in hydrocarbon solvents has been shown t o lead t o the forma
tion of sodium alkyls, which can then be made to react with a second
alkyl halide t o give quite high yields of the mixed hydrocarbon:
2Na
R'CI
e
R-CHJ'CHJCI>-Na + Cl + R C H , C H , N a
RCH, C H . R
Further, the disproportionation, which has often been taken as

confirmation o f e radical mechanism, can equally b e explained, on a
carbanion basis, by elimination. T h e carbanion acts as a base, a b
stracting a proton from the j3-carbon atom of the halide, while chlor
ine is lost from the a-carbon atom under the influence of Na:
0
223
Reactions
R CHrCH^H
R CHj * CH3
RCHî CH,
CI
RCH=CH
Na
CI
Na
Whether the process is actually initiated by Na, R C H - C H or

both is not certain, however.
Further support for such an ionic mechanism for the Wurtz reac
tion is provided by the behaviour of some optically active chlorides,
the first formed carbanion attacking a second m o l e d s b of chloride
by the S 2 mechanism and leading to inversion of configuration at
the carbon atom attacked.
(d) Reimer-Tiemann reaction: An example of a species which can lay
claim to be a carbanion only because of the n delocalisation that
results in the transfer of negative change from oxygen to carbon is
the phenoxide ion (XXIX):
2
etc.
(XXIX)
This reacts with chloroform in the presence of strong bases to yield
the o-aldehyde, salicaldehyde (XXX), in the Reimer-Tiemann reaction,
the quasi-carbanion (XXIX) attacking the electron-deficient carbene
C C I obtained by partial hydrolysis of chloroform in the alkaline
solution (cf. p. 206):
2
H
CCJ
(XXIX)
CHCI
P
ecu
(XXXI)
(XXXII)
CHO
(XXXffl)
CHO
(XXX)
224
Displacement
Thus attack on C C 1 yields (XXXI) which undergoes a proton shift

to form (XXXII). This undergoes hydrolysis in the system to yield
(XXXIII), the free aldehyde not being obtained until the reaction
mixture is acidified after the reaction proper is over. Some p-hydroxybenzaldehyde is also obtained for the negative charge on the nucleus
of (XXIX) is not of course confined to the o-position.
Some support for the above mechanism involving attack by
dichloro-carbene is provided by the fact that when the reaction is
carried out on the anion of p-cresol (XXXIV), in addition to the
expected o-alaeTyde (XXXV), it is also possible to isolate the unhydrolysed dichloro-compound (XXXVI) arising from attack by
CC1 at the p-position:
2
O
X
Me
(XXXIV)
OH
Me
Me
(XXXV)
t
O
^ 0
^ 0
Me
Me CC1
Me CHC1
(XXXIV)
(XXXVID
(XXXVI)
The initial product of the attack (XXXVII) has n o hydrogen atom
that can be eliminated as H from the relevant carbon atom to allow
reformation of a n aromatic structure, so the introduced C C l group
acquires H from the solvent. The dichloro-compound (XXXVT) is
somewhat resistant to further hydrolysis, probably due to its in
solubility in aqueous alkali.
Somewhat analogous attack of C 0 on sodium phenate (the
Kolbe-Schmidt reaction) is used to prepare sodium salicylate:
2
\
o
(XXIX)
o
Reactions
(iii) Halogenation of ketones

One of the earliest observations having a bearing on the subject of the
occurrence of carbanions as reaction intermediates was that the
bromination of acetone in the presence of base followed the kinetic
equation
Rate a [ M e - C O - M e ]
and was independent of [Br ]. The rate was, however, found to be
proportional to [base] and this was subsequently iqfgrpreted as in
volving the formation of a carbanion as the rate-determining step,
followed by rapid bromination:
2
HI
3
MeCCH,
OH
slow
MeC-LCH
i
e
O
2
Br,
II
~> MeCCH Br+Br
o
I
l_MeC=CH
In support of thjs view it has subsequently been shown that under

these conditions ketones undergo chlorination, iodination, deuterium
exchange in D 0 and racemisation (if of suitable structure)
2
O
V *
II
OH
R C C R =====
/
H,O
slow
(+)
R
crS
Xo-V I K
\
I
C=CR
C-^CR
/
R'
(XXXVIII)
R
H.O
O
\ .
||
===RVCC-R
OH
H
(-)
at exactly the same rate that they undergo bromination, indicating

the participation of a common intermediate in all. The reconversion
t o the ketone of the planar intermediate (XXXVIII), or the enol
derived from it (cf. p . 215 ), leads as readily t o the D - as to the L- form
and thus results in racemisation.
Further base-induced halogenation of a mono-halogenated ketone
(XXXIX) will take place preferentially at the carbon atom that has
already been substituted, provided that it still carries a hydrogen
a t o m ; for not only will the inductive effect of the halogen a t o m make
the hydrogen atoms attached to the halogen-substituted carbon atom
0
226
Halogenation
of Ketones
more acidic, and therefore more readily abstracted by base, but it will
also help to stabilise the resultant carbanion, leading to the formation
of (XL) rather than (XLI):
O H
II t
CH,CCH^-Br
(XXXIX)
OH
CH, -CCH->-Br
(XL)
Br,
o
CH,CCHBr, + B r
O
CH,CCH Br
(XLI)
2
This is, of course, the reason for the exclusive production of

M e C O C X j in the base-induced halogenation of acetone. As a
final stage in the haloform reaction, this species then undergoes attack
by base, e.g. OH, on the carbonyl carbon because of the highly
positive character that that atom has now acquired:
O
Br
O
0
MeC)Pb^Br -> Me c "

ÔH
Br
+ CBr
- Me C
OH
+HCBr,
O
In the base-induced halogenation of the ketone, R C H C O C H ,

it is the methyl rather than the methylene group that is attacked,
for the inductive effect of the R group will serve to decrease the acidity
of the hydrogen atoms attached to the methylene group, while those
of the methyl group are unaffected, thus leading to preferential
formation of the carbanion (XXLII) rather than (XLIII):
2
O
RCH,CCH,
(XLII)
^l->--CHCCH,
(XLIII)
The halogenation of ketones is also catalysed by acids, the reaction

probably proceeding through the enol form of the ketone (cf. p . 218)
whose formation is the rate-determining step of the reaction:
.
'
227
Reactions
OiH
O-pH
A H-t-CHj3-CMe ===== AH+CH,==CMe >

slow
<
fast
Br
CH,CMe
|
Br
Br^
Br
Here the effect of substitution by R and halogen on the rate and
position of attack is exactly opposite t o that observed in base-induced
halogenation. Thus with the ketone R - C H - C G t e C H , the enol
(XLIV), rather than (XLV), will be stabilised by hyperconjugation
arising from the a-hydrogens of the methyl group in addition to any in
the R group, whereas only the methylene group will be operative in
(XLV):
OH
O
2
I
RCH=CCH,
Br,
||
> R CHCCH,
I
Br
(XLIV)
(XLVI)
OH
O
Br,
||
RCH,C=CH,
> R CH,CCH, Br
' (XLV)
(XLVII)
This leads to the formation of (XLVI) rather than (XLVII), which
would have been obtained in the presence of base. In the bromina
tion of acetone the effect of the bromine a t o m in the first-formed
M e C O C H B r is to withdraw electrons, thus making the initial
uptake of proton by the / C = 0 , in forming the enol, less ready in
bromoacetone than in acetone itself, resulting in preferential attack
on the acetone rather t h a n the bromoacetone in the system. The net
effect is that under acid conditions M e C O - C H B r can actually be
isolated whereas under alkaline conditions of bromination it cannot
for, as we have seen above, it brominates more readily than does
acetone itself when base is present. Further bromination of
M e - C O - C H B r under acid conditions results in preferential attack
on the methyl rather than the methylene group.
u
(iv) Decarboxylation
Another reaction involving carbanions is the decarboxylation of a
228
number of carboxylic acids via their anions
Decarboxylation
O
GJA.
> 0 = C = 0 +R
"
> RH
the resultant carbanion R subsequently acquiring a proton from

solvent or other source. It would thus be expected that this mode of
decarboxylation would be assisted by the presence of electronwithdrawing groups in R because of the stabilisation they would then
confer on the carbanion intermediate. This is borne out by the
extremely readÎecomposition of nitroacetate
^ C H ^ N ^ O
Ô^C-LCH,N=0
CH N0
o=c=o+
and by the relative ease with which the decarboxylation of trihajoacetates and 2,4,6-trinitrobenzoates may be accomplished.
The decarboxylation of /?-keto acids may also proceed via their
anions and then through stabilised carbanions such as (XLVIII):
CH i-CMe
2
C H , C M e -> 0 = C = 0 +
CH CMe
3
I
CH =CMe.
A
(XLVIII)
The overall rate law for the decarboxylation is, however, found t o
contain a term referring t o [keto acid] itself as well as t o the concentra
tion of its anion; this is believed t o be due t o incipient transfer of
proton t o the keto group by hydrogen bonding:
229
Reactions
H
-*
MeC
C=0
< /
I
MeC
O
II
->
II
C==0
MeCCH,+ C O ,
(XL1X)
Confirmation of this mode of decarboxylation of the free acid has been
obtained by ' t r a p p i n g ' the acetone-enol intermediaHWfXLIX).
230
RADICALS AND THEIR
REACTIONS
M O S T of theâjctions that have been considered to date have in

volved the participation, however transiently, of charged inter
mediates, i.e. carbonium ions and carbanions, produced by the heterolytk fission of covalent b o n d s :
But reactive intermediates possessing an unpaired electron, i.e.

radicals, can also be generated if a covalent bond undergoes homolytic fission:
Reactions involving such radicals occur widely in the gas phase,

but they also occur in solution, particularly if the reaction is carried
out in non-polar solvents and if it is catalysed by light or the simul
taneous decomposition of substances known to produce radicals,
e.g. peroxides. Once a radical reaction has been started, it often
proceeds with very great rapidity owing t o the establishment of fast
chain reactions (see below). These arise from the ability of the first
formed radical to generate another on reaction with a neutral mole
cule, the new radical being able to repeat the process, and so the
reaction is carried on. Thus in the bromination of a hydrocarbon,
RH, the reaction may need starting by introduction of the radical,
Ra% but once started it is self-perpetuating:
R a * + B r B r - R a B r + - B r
I
R H + Br -> R - + H B r
t
Br,
0
Br + RBr
Radicals and Their Reactions
The chief characteristics of radical reactions are their rapidity, their

initiation by radicals themselves or substances known t o produce
them (initiators), and their inhibition or termination by substances
which are themselves known t o react readily with radicals (inhibitors),
e.g. hydroquinone, diphenylamine, iodine etc. Apart from the short
lived radicals that occur largely as reaction intermediates, some others
are known which are more stable and which consequently have a
longer life; these will be considered first.
LONG-LIVED RADICALS
The colourless solid hexaphenylethane, P h C C P h , is found to
yield a yellow solution in non-polar solvents such as benzene. This
solution reacts very readily with the oxygen of the air t o form triphenylmethyl peroxide, P h C O O C P h , or with iodine to yield
triphenylmethyl iodide, P h C I . In addition, the solution is found
to be paramagnetic, i.e. to be attracted by a magnetic field, indicating
the presence of unpaired electrons (compounds having only paired
electrons are diamagnetic, i.e. are repelled by a magnetic field). These
observations have been interpreted as indicating that hexaphenyl
ethane undergoes reversible dissociation into triphenylmethyl
radicals:
Ph C:CPh
Ph C-+ CPh
8
In support of this hypothesis, it is significant that the CC bond

energy in hexaphenylethane is only 11 kcals/mole compared with
83 kcals/mole for this bond in ethane itself.
The degree of dissociation of a 3 per cent solution in benzene has
been estimated as about 0-02 at 20 and about 0 -1 at 80. The reason
for this behaviour, in contrast to hexamethylethane which does not
exhibit it, has been ascribed t o the stabilisation of the triphenylmethyl
radical, with respect t o undissociated hexaphenylethane, that can
arise from the delocalisation of the unpaired electron via then-orbitals
of the benzene nuclei:
232
Long-Lived
Radicals
A number of contributing structures of this kind can be written,

but the stabilisation thereby promoted is not so great as might, at
first sight, be expected, as interaction between the hydrogen atoms in
the o-positions prevents the nuclei attaining coplanarity. The radical
is thus not flat, but probably more like a three-bladed propeller with
angled blades, so that delocalisation of the unpaired electron, with
consequent stabilisation, is considerably inhibited.
The ready formation and stability of the radicals are, indeed, due
in n o small measure t o the steric crowding in hexaphenylethane that
can be r e l i e v e d j ^ dissociation. In support of this explanation, it is
found that the CC distance in this compound is significantly longer
(by ca. 0-04 A) than in ethane. Also, while the introduction of a
variety of substituents into the nuclei promotes dissociation, this is
particularly marked when substituents are in the o-positions where
they would be expected t o contribute most to steric crowding.
Further, it is found that the compound (I)
in which two of the benzene nuclei on each carbon a t o m are bonded

to each other and so held back from 'crowding* near the CC bond,
is not dissociated at room temperature though the possibilities of
stabilising the radical, that could be obtained from (I), by delocalisa
tion are at least as great as those for triphenylmethyl.
Somewhat less stable radicals may be obtained by warming tetraarylhydrazines in non-polar solvents, green solutions being obtained:
KMnOi
2PhjNH
>- Ph,N:NPJjj ^ Ph,N- + -NPh,
Here, promotion of dissociation by steric crowding is clearly less

important than with hexaphenylethane; stabilisation of the radical
due to delocalisation may be more significant, but dissociation is
certainly favoured by the lower energy of the NN bond.
233
Similarly, solutions of diphenyl disulphide become yellow on

heating
PhS:SPh ^ PhS- + -SPh
and the radicals formed may be detected by the classical device of
adding a second radical and isolating a mixed product:
PhS- + -CPh -+ P h S : C P h
8
T h e sulphide obtained is, however, rapidly decomposed in the pre

sence of air. The best radical to use for such detection is 1,1-diphenyl2-picrylhydrazyl (II)
NO,
picryl
Ph,NNH,
/'
Ph,NNH (
NO,
PbO,
/'
]>NO, > Ph,NN(_
}NO,
chloride
NO,
NO,
(ID
for this is very stable (due t o delocalisation of the unpaired electron)
a n d forms stable, isolable products with many radicals. In addition,
its solutions are Bright violet in colour and its reaction with other
radicals t o yield colourless products can thus be readily followed
colorimetrically.
SHORT-LIVED RADICALS
-
The short-lived radicals, e.g. M e , though more difficult to handle,

are of much greater importance as participants in chemical reactions;
as their short life suggests, they are extremely reactive.
The relative stability of simple alkyl radicals is found to be in the
same order as that of the corresponding carbonium ions (p. 62)
R,C* > R , C H ' > R C H , ' > CH,the sequence reflecting decreasing stabilisation by hyperconjugation
as the series is traversed. As mlgnPbe expected, however, the differ
ences in stability between the radicals is less majked t h a n between
corresponding carbonium ions. Radicals involving allylic or benzylic
positions show greatly enhanced stability arising from the delocalisa
tion via ir orbitals that is then possible:
234
Methods of
Formation
CH,===CH^-CH, -M- CH,CH==CH,
(i) Methods of formation

There are numerous methods by which short-lived radicals may be
formed, of wHEn the most important are the thermal and photo
chemical fission of bonds, oxidation/reduction reactions by inorganic
ions resulting in single electron transfers, and electrolysis.
(a) Photochemical fission: A well-known example is the decom
position of acetone in the vapour phase by light having a wavelength
of 3000 A :
MeCMe -> Me* + *CMe - C O + - M e

Another classic example is the conversion of molecular chlorine to
chlorine atoms by sunlight
cici -+ a- + -a
that occurs as the first step in a number of photo-catalysed chlorinations (p. 248). Normally speaking, such photochemical decomposi
tion may only be effected by visible or ultraviolet light of definite
wavelengths correspondinghardly surprisinglyto absorption
maxima in the spectrum of the compound. Reactions of this type also
occur in solution, but the life of the radical is then usually shorter
owing t o the opportunities afforded for reaction with solvent mole
cules (see below).
(b) Thermal fission: Much of the early work on short-lived radicals,
including studies of their half-lives, was carried out on the products
obtained from the thermal decomposition of metal alkyls:
Pb(CH CH ) -* P b + 4 - C H , C H ,
8
Further reference is made to this work when the methods for detect
ing short-lived radicals are discussed below. In the vapour phase, the
life of such radicals can be ended not only by dimerisation
CH,CH,- + -CH,CH,
CH,CH,CH,CH,
235
Radicals and Their
Reactions
but also by disproportionation:

CH,CHj + CHj CH, - C H , C H , + C H r = C H ,
The use of lead tetraethyl as an anti-knock agent depends in part on
the ability of the ethyl radicals that it produces to combine with radicals
resulting from the over-rapid combustion of petrol, thus terminating
chain reactions which are building u p towards explosion.
I n solution, of course, the relative abundance of solvent molecules
means that the initial radicals most commonly meet their end by
reaction with solvent
C H , C H . + H R - CH,CH.+ R
but a new radical is then obtained in exchange a n d this may possibly
be capable of establishing a new reaction chain.
T h e thermal fission of carbon-carbon bonds is seen in the radicalinduced cracking of long-chain hydrocarbons where the initial
radicals introduced into the system act by abstracting a hydrogen
a t o m from a - C H - group of the chain. The radical so formed then
undergoes fission at the /J-position yielding an olefine of lower mole
cular weight and also a new radical to maintain the reaction chain:
Ra- H
RaH
2
RS-CH,CHCH,CH,R' -* RCH CHCH CH R'

2
I
R C H , C H = C H , + CH R'
a
Termination of the reaction by mutual interaction of radicals will

tend not to take place to any marked extent until the concentration of
long-chain hydrocarbons has dropped to a low level.
Bonds involving some elements other t h a n carbon may undergo
easier thermal fission. Thus diazomethane yields methylene diradicals
on heating, the reaction chain readily building u p to explosion:
low temperatures and, because or the ease with which they will form
radicals, are much used as initiators:
PhC
236
:Ph -* PbCo+-
-Ph
Methods of
Formation
The decomposition of benzoyl peroxide is discussed in more detail

below (p. 240).
(c) Oxidation/reduction by inorganic ions: Perhaps the best-known
example is the use of ferrous ion to catalyse oxidations with hydrogen
peroxide, the mixture being known as Fenton's reagent:
e
H.O.+Fe -* H O - + O H + Fe
The ferrous ion goes to the ferric state and a hydroxyl radical is liber
ated. The lat^gr^cts as the effective oxidising agent in the system,
usually by abstracting a hydrogen a t o m from the substrate that is to
be oxidised:
HO- + HX ->- H . O + ' X
A rather similar reaction, but involving reduction of the inorganic
ion, may take place as the first step in the autoxidation of benzaldehyde (p. 253), which is catalysed by a number of heavy metal ions
capable of one-electron transfers:
PhCH+Fe - P h C + H+Fe
(d) Electrolysis: The most common example is in the Kolbe

electrolytic synthesis of hydrocarbons:
V
II
20
2RcO
II
2CO,
dimerisation
> 2RCO- > 2R

an)
> RR
(iv)
(V)
The carboxyl anion gives u p an electron on discharge at the anode

to yield the carboxyl radical (III) which rapidly decarboxylates to
form the alkyl radical (IV). These alkyl radicals then dimerise, in
part at any rate, to yield the expected hydrocarbon (V).
Electrolysis of ketones in aqueous acid solution results in their
reduction to pinacols (VII) via tiM^Fdical ion (VI)
2R,C==0
> 2RjCO
R j C O H RjCOH
>
|
|
R,CO
R,COH
(VII)
dimerisation
+le&
(VI)
237
Radicals and Their
Reactions
which has already been encountered in the reaction of aromatic

ketones with sodium in the absence of air (p. 169); it also resembles
the radical ion obtained in the first stage of the acyloin reaction (p.
169). The above are b u t two cases of electrolytic reaction, several
examples of which have considerable synthetic importance.
(ii) Methods of detection

The classical work on the detection of short-lived radicals was done
by Paneth using thin metal, e.g. lead, mirrors deposited on the inside
wall of glass tubes. These mirrors disappeared wbm attacked by
radicals, so by varying (a) the distance of the mirrors from the point
where the radicals were generated (by thermal decomposition of
metal alkyls), and (b) the velocity of the inert carrier gas by which the
radicals were transported, it was possible to estimate their half-lives.
That of methyl, under these conditions proved to be ca. 8 x 10"
seconds.
Some, more stable, radicals, e.g. Ph C*, may be detected by
molecular weight determinations, b u t it is only rarely that this can be
accomplished satisfactorily. Several radicals are coloured, though the
compounds from which they are derived are not, so that colorimetric
estimation may be possible; and even though the radicals themselves
may, not be coloured, the rate at which they discharge the colour of
the stable Radical, diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (II), may serve to deter
mine their concentration. This is an example of the ' use of a radical
to catch a radical' already mentioned (p. 234), the evidence being
strengthened by the isolation of the mixed product formed by mutual
interaction of the two radicals, if that is possible. Another chemical
method of detection involves the ability of radicals to initiate poly
merisation of, for example, olefines; reference is made to this below
(p. 247).
8
The use of magnetic fields to detect the paramagnetism arising

from the presence of unpaired electrons in radicals has already been
referred to (p. 232). Though simple in essence, it can be fraught with
much difficulty in practice, and other physical methods of detection
are commonly preferred. T h e most useful of these to date is electron
spin resonance spectroscopy, w m W a g a i n depends for its utility on
the presence of unpaired electrons in radicals.
Where it is desired merely to try and discover wfiether a particular
reaction proceeds via radical intermediates or not, one of the simplest
procedures is to observe the effect on the rate of the reaction of
238
Stereochemistry
adding (a) compounds that readily form radicals, e.g. organic perox
ides, and (b) compounds known to react readily with radicals, i.e.
inhibitors such as hydroquinone.
(iii) Stereochemistry
A good deal of attention has been devoted to the question of whether
radicals in which the unpaired electron is on carbon have a planar
(VIII) or a pyramidal (IX) structure
C
I
(VIII)
C
/ A \
(IX)
i.e. whether the presence of the unpaired electron preserves the quasitetrahedral state or not. There is little doubt that in radicals that may
be considerably stabilised by delocalisation of the unpaired electron,
the three bonds attached to the carbon a t o m will be coplanar. Thus
in triphenylmethyl, although, as has been said already (p. 233), inter
ference between the o-hydrogen atoms of the benzene nuclei prevents
the latter from lying in a common plane, the bonds joining the radical
carbon a t o m t o the three phenyl groups are almost certainly co
planar, for movement of one of these bonds out of rne common plane
would lower delocalisation possibilities without any compensating
relief of steric strain. The benzene nuclei are angled to this common
plane like the blades of a propeller so as to relieve as much steric
strain as possible, while losing the minimum amount of delocalisation
stabilisation due to their non-coplanarity.
By contrast, radicals in which the radical carbon a t o m constitutes
the bridgehead of a rigid cyclic system will have the pyramidal con
figuration forced upon them, e.g. the apocamphyl radical (X):
Me
Me
There is, however, evidence that such radicals are considerably less
stable than simple tertiary aliphatic radicals upon which no such
stereochemical restraint is imposed.
239
Radicals and Their
Reactions
For radicals which d o n o t have their configuration thrust upon

them in this way, o r which are not notably stabilised by delocalisation,
the evidence available to date while not conclusive is certainly sugges
tive. Thus spectroscopic evidence indicates that the methyl radical a n d
its deutero-derivative are planar or nearly so and with other simple
alkyl radicals any stabilisation by hyperconjugation that may be pos
sible will tend t o favour the planar configuration; though this tendency
is presumably less marked than with the corresponding carbonium
ions as the stabilisation of the radicals is less pronounced than that
of the ions.
(iv) Reactions
As with the carbonium ions and carbanions that have already been
considered, radicals, once formed, can take part in three principal
types of reaction: addition, displacement, and rearrangement, the
latter normally being followed by one or other of the former. Before
these reaction types are considered in detail, however, reference will be
made to the formation and behaviour of a typical radical to illustrate
the complexity of the secondary reactions that may result and, conse
quently, the wide variety of products that may be formed.
{a) The thermal fission of benzoyl peroxide: Benzoyl peroxide (a
crystalling solid obtained by the reaction of benzoyl chloride with
hydrogen peroxide in alkaline solution under Schotten-Baumann
conditions) undergoes extremely ready thermal decomposition to
yield benzoate radicals:
PhCOOCPh -v PhC0-+-0CPh
It can be looked upon as consisting of two dipoles joined negative

end to negative end as indicated above, and part, at least, of its
inherent instability m a y stem from this cause. I t would t h u s b e
expected that substitution o f ^ K * benzene nucleus with electrondonating groups would enhance this instability leading to even m o r e
ready decomposition and this is, in fact, found t o be the case. Electronwithdrawing groups are, correspondingly, found to exert a stabilising
influence as compared with the unsubstituted compound.
240
Thermal Fission of Benzoyl
Peroxide
Even at r o o m temperature, and particularly as the temperature is

raised, solutions of the peroxide are observed t o liberate C 0 due t o :
2
II
PhCO*
Ph* + C O ,
Thus, phenyl radicals will be present as well as benzoate radicals and

often in quite considerable concentration; this is, indeed, one of the
most useful sources of phenyl radicals. Production of the radicals in
solution, as is tMrtlormal practice, can lead to further complications.
Thus with benzene as solvent, the following initial reactions can, in
theory, take place:
O
PhCO
PhCb
II
2PhCO' + PhHI
PhCO,H+Ph*
...0)
PhCO,Ph+H-
...(ii)
PhPh+H*
...(hi)
PhH-lPh-
...(iv)
-co,
1
P h ' + PhHI
\
Reaction (iv) will, of course, not be directly detectable, but would

serve t o prolong the apparent life of phenyl radicals in the solution.
In fact, (i) is found t o be the main reaction taking place. It should be
emphasised, however, that the above is only the first stage, for either
O
PhCO* or Ph* can then attack the products derived from (i),
(ii), and (iii). Thus, further attack on diphenyl from (iii) by Ph* leads
to the formation of ter- and quater-phenyl, etc. It should, however,
b e pointed out that reactions (ii) and (iii) are almost certainly n o t
direct displacements as shown, but proceed by addition followed by
removal of a hydrogen atom from tiie addition product by another
radical (cf p . 256):
^
Ph*+H-
:>+RaH
241
0
A further possibility is the attack of benzoate or phenyl radicals on

as yet undecomposed benzoyl peroxide leading to the formation in the
O
II
system of new radicals, X C H C O * and X C H % which can
give rise t o a further range of possible products. As this is only a
simple case, the possible complexity of the mixture of products that
may result from radical reactions in general will readily be realised.
The most important group of radical reactions are probably those
involving addition.
(b) Addition reactions: (i) Halogens. As has already been men
tioned (p. 137) the addition of halogens t o unsaturated systems can
follow either an ionic or a radical mechanism. In the vapour phase in
sunlight, it is almost entirely radicals that are involved, provided the
containing vessel has walls of a non-polar material. T h e same is true
in solution in non-polar solvents, again in the presence of sunlight.
In more polar solvents, in the absence of sunlight, and particularly if
catalysts, e.g. Lewis acids, are present, the reaction proceeds almost
entirely by an ionic mechanism. It thus follows that in solution in
non-polar solvents in the absence of sunlight or catalysts, little or no
reaction takes place between olefines and halogens as neither ionic
sgecies nor radicals will normally be formed under these conditions
without t o m e specific initiating process.
The photochemically catalysed addition of chlorine to tetrachloroethylene (XI), for example, may be formulated a s :
6
aa
ca ==cci,+ -ci -* 'ecucci
a
(XI)
(xii)
la,
a + cci cci
s
(xiii)
It will be seen that the initiating step, the photochemical fission of a

molecule of chlorine, will f l M k t o the formation of two reactive
entities, i.e. free chlorine atoms, which are, of course, radicals. In
support of this it is found that
*
Rate oc ^ I n t e n s i t y of absorbed light
242
Addition of
Halogens
i.e. each quantum of energy absorbed did, in fact, lead to the initia
tion of two reaction chains. T h e addition of a free chlorine atom t o
the unsaturated compound results in the formation of a second
radical (XII) which is capable of undergoing a radical displacement
reaction with a molecule of chlorine to yield the final addition pro
duct (XIII) and a free chlorine atom. This is capable of initiating a
similar reaction cycle with a second molecule of unsaturated com
pound and so the process goes on, i.e. an extremely rapid, continuing
chain reaction is set u p by each initiating chlorine atom produced
photochemicalljfcwOuch a continuing chain reaction, self-perpetuating
once initiated, is perhaps the most characteristic feature of reactions
proceeding via a radical mechanism. In support of the above reaction
scheme, it is found that each quantum of energy absorbed leads to
the conversion of several thousand molecules of (XI) ->(XIII). Until
the later stages of the reaction, i.e. when nearly all the unsaturated
compound, (XI), is used up, the concentration of CI * will always be
very low compared to that of C I C = C C 1 , so that termination of
reaction chains owing t o
'
2
c i ' + ' C i -> a,
or mutual interaction of other active intermediates, e.g. of (XII), wtll

be a very uncommon happening, and hence chain termination
relatively infrequent. The reaction is inhibited by oxygen as the
latter's molecule contains two unpaired electrons, *0CV, causing
it to behave as a diradical, albeit a not very reactive one. It can thus
act as an effective inhibitor by converting highly active radicals to the
much less reactive peroxy radicals, R a O O * . That the oxygen is
reacting largely with pentachloro-ethyl radicals (XII) is shown by the
O
II
formation of trichloro-acetyl chloride, C1 CCCl, when the addi
tion of chlorine to tetrachloro-ethylene is inhibited by oxygen. Photo
chemical addition of bromine is usually slower as the reaction chains
are shorter.
The addition of chlorine to manyHnsaturated compounds is found
to be irreversible at room temperature and for some way above (cf
p. 250), whereas the addition of bromine is often readily reversible.
This results in the use of bromine radicals for the cis -> trans isomerisation of geometrical isomerides:
3
243

Br
Br
Br
Br-
C=C
Br
\
=== H^CC-
Br
(XV)
H
-Br-
Br
\
=====
H
(XIV)
C=C
Br
(XVI)
T h e radical (XIV) formed initially can then eliminate Br- very rapidly
and so be reconverted to the cis starting material, (XV), or rotation
about the CC bond can take place first followed by subsequent
elimination of Br* to yield the trans isomeride, (XVI). As the latter is
the more stable, it will come t o preponderate, leachng to a n overall
conversion of (XV)->-(XVI). The addition of iodine is even more
readily reversible at room temperature.
The addition of chlorine to benzeneone of the few addition
reactions of an unactivated benzene nucleushas also been shown t o
proceed via a radical mechanism, i.e. it is catalysed by light and the
presence of peroxides, and is slowed or prevented by the usual inhi
bitors. This presumably proceeds:
C 1
,C1
Further addition
A mixture of several of the "eight possible geometrical isomers of

hexachlorocyclohexane is obtained. In the absence of sunlight and
radicals, n o addition of chlorine can take place, while if catalysts are
present (p. 106) electrophilic substitution occurs. With toluene, under
radical conditions, attack on the methyl group offers an easier reac
tion path leading t o predominant side-chain cblorination (substitu
tion), rather than addition to the nucleus as with benzene, because of
the stability and consequent ease of formation of the initial product,
the benzyl radical, P h C H \
(ii) Hydrogen
halide. The addition of hydrogen bromide t o
propylene via ionic intermediates t o yield isopropyl bromide, has
already been referred to (p. 141). In the presence of peroxides or other
radical sources, however, t h ^ addition proceeds via a rapid chain
reaction t o yield n-propyl broBlJrle (XVII) (i.e. the so-called ' a n t i Markownikov* addition or the peroxide effeqty. The difference in
product under differing conditions is due t o the fact that in the former
case the addition is initiated by H, while in the latter it is initiated by
Br-:
a
244
Addition of Hydrogen
Halide
Ra * (ex peroxides)+HBr -> RaH + Br
I
M e C H = C H , + ' B r -* MeCHCH,Br
|
JHB,
>
Br + MeCH CH,Br
(XVII)
a
In t h e addition of Br* t o propylene, t h e radical (XVIII) is formed

rather than t h ^ J o s s i b l e alternative, M e C H B r C H * , since a
secondary radical is more stable than a primary one (p. 234).
T h e addition reaction may n o t need t h e presence of added radicals
to initiate it, however, for olefines absorb oxygen from the air
forming peroxides which can then themselves sometimes act as
initiators. Such auto-initiation can be avoided by rigorous purifica
tion of the olefine prior t o reaction, but this is n o t easy t o achieve in
practice, and formation of isopropyl bromide, i.e. predominance of
the ionic reaction leading t o so-called normal o r Markownikov
addition, is more easily secured b y the addition of radical acceptors
such as hydroquinone, etc., t o absorb any radicals that may be pre
sent in the system and so prevent the occurrence of the rapid chain
reaction.
It should n o t b e thought that the presence of radicals in any way

inhibits the ionic mechanism; it is merely that the radical reaction
which they initiate, being a chain reaction, is so very much more
rapid that it results in the vast majority of the propylene being con
verted t o n-propyl bromide, (XVII), despite the fact that the ionic
reaction is proceeding simultaneously. The virtually complete control
of orientation of addition of H B r that can b e effected by introducing
radicals or radical acceptors into the reaction is very useful preparatively; it is n o t confined t o propylene and applies t o a number
of other unsymmetrical unsaturated compounds, e.g. allyl bromide,
CH2=CHCH Br, which can be converted into 1,2- or 1,3dibromopropane a t will. In some cases, however, the ionic mechan
ism of addition is sufficiently f a s M o ^ o m p e t e effectively with that
induced by radicals and clear-cut control cannot then, of course, be
effected.
2
It should, moreover, be emphasised that the reversal of the normal

orientation of addition in the presence of peroxides is confined t o
HBr. This is due t o the fact that with H B r the formation of (XVIII)
245
Radicals and Their
Reactions
and its subsequent conversion t o (XVII), i.e. the steps propagating

the chain-reaction, are both exothermic, while with H F t o o much
energy is required to produce F ' , and though with H I , I* is formed
readily enough, it is then not sufficiently reactive to proceed further,
i.e. the energy gained in forming a carbon-iodine bond is so much
smaller than that lost in breaking a carbon-carbon double bond as to
make the reaction energetically n o t worth while. With HC1 the ener
getics more closely resemble those with H B r and radical additions
have been observed in a few cases, but the radical reaction is not very
rapid, as the reaction chains are short a t ordinary*fMiperatures, and
it competes somewhat ineffectively with the ionic mechanism.
Nothing has so far been said about the stereochemistry of the
addition of radicals to unsaturated compounds. It has been found,
however, that the radical addition of HBr to substituted cyclohexenes
proceeds stereospecifically trans. Thus with 1-methylcyclohexene
(XIX)
(XIX) *
" (XXI)
(XXII)
(XX)
cis-l-bromo-2-methylcyclohexane (XX) is obtained, i.e. the bromine

and hydrogen have entered trans to each other. It might be expected
that the first formed radical would be (XXI), but it has been suggested
that the observed trans addition arises from the contribution of
(XXII), corresponding t o a bromonium ion (p. 138) plus a n extra
electron. A s with a bromonium ion, attack (by H B r ) would then take
place 'from the back* leading t o inversion of configuration on the
carbon atom attacked with formation of (XX)an overall trans
addition. Though the occurrence of trans addition has been explained
in this way, (XXII) contains a bromine a t o m with nine electrons,
a not very likely happening, and alternative explanations of stereospecific trans addition have accofftlngly been p u t forward.
With simple acyclic olefines no such sterec^specific addition of
H B r is observed at room temperature owing to ready rotation about
the CC single bond in the first-formed radical intermediate (cf.
p. 243). When such a radical addition is carried out at 78, however,
246
Vinyl
Polymerisation
it has been found to proceed very largely trans owing to the much less
free rotation about the CC bond at this lower temperature. Thus
under these conditions cw-2-bromobut-2-ene was found to yield
92 per cent of the meyo-dibromide.
The addition of thiols, R S H , t o olefines closely resembles that of
H B r in many ways. Heterolytic addition (of R S ) can take place but
radical additions may be initiated by the presence of peroxides and,
as with HBr, the two mechanisms generally lead t o opposite orienta
tions of addition.
(Hi) Vinyl pdfmeriaation.
This reaction has probably received
more attention than any other involving radicals, not least because
of its commercial implications in the manufacture of polymers. It can
be said to involve three phases:
e
(a) Initiation: Formation of Ra* from peroxides, etc.

(b) Propagation:
CH,= CH,
Ra- + C H = C H
2
(c)
-+ RaCH,CH,-
Ra(CHjV
etc.
Termination:
(i) R a ( C H J - i C H , - + - R a -> Ra(CH )Ra
(ii) R a ( C H J - i C H , - + - C H , ( C H J - i R a -* Ra(CHa) Ra
2
The propagation stage is usually extremely rapid.

As the olefine monomers readily absorb oxygen from the air, fortning peroxides which can themselves form radicals and so act as
initiators of polymerisation, it is usual t o add some inhibitor, e.g.
quinone, to the monomer if it is t o be stored. When, subse
quently, the monomer comes t o be polymerised sufficient radicals
must be produced t o 'saturate' this added inhibitor before any
become available to initiate polymerisation; thus an induction period
is often observed before polymerisation begins to take place.
The radicals acting as initiators cannot properly be looked upon as
catalyststhough often referred t o as suchfor each one that ini
tiates a polymerisation chain becomes irreversibly attached to the
chain and, if of suitable chemical structure, may be detected in the
final polymer. The efficiency of some radicals as initiators may be so
great that, after any induction p e r i o d ^ v e r y radical formed leads to a
polymer chain; the concentratiorTofinitiator radicals may thus be
kept very low.
Termination of a growing chain can result from reaction with
either an initiator radical or a second growing chain, but of these the
latter is normally the more important as the initiator radicals will have
#
>
247
Radicals and Their
Reactions
been largely used u p in setting the chains going in the first place. It
should be emphasised that such mutual interaction of radicals can
result not only in reaction as above but also lead to disproportionation
(p. 236). The chain length, i.e. the molecular weight, of the polymer
may be controlled by addition of terminators or of chain transfer
agents. These are usually compounds, X H , which react with a growing
chain by loss of a hydrogen atom, so terminating the chain:
Ra(CH,)CM,-+HX - Ra(CH )CH + X
1
A new radical, X>, is formed and in the case of terminators X is chosen

so that this radical is of low reactivity and hence not capable of
initiating addition polymerisation in more monomer. In the case of
chain transfer agents, however, X is chosen so that X- is reactive
enough to initiate a new reaction chain so that the length (molecular
weight) of individual chains is then controlled without at the same
time slowing d o w n the overall rate at which monomer undergoes
polymerisation. Thiols, R S H are often used as chain transfer agents
yielding R S - radicals as the initiators of the new chains.
Vinyl polymerisation, proceeding via ionic mechanisms, may also
be initiated by acids and bases and by Lewis acids, e.g. B F , etc. These
reagents h a v e recently become of increasing importance in t h e
manufacture of oriented polymers, e.g. polypropylene in which the
methyl substituents are arranged in a regular pattern on the same side
of the ' b a c k b o n e ' chain of carbon atoms (isotactic polymers). Such
oriented polymers have notable advantages in crystalline structure,
melting point, mechanical strength etc. over comparable species in
which the alkyl substituents are arranged at random (atactic polymers).
(c) Displacement reactions: (i) Halogenation.
The displacement
reactions on carbon that proceed via a radical mechanism are not in
fact direct displacements or substitutions but involve two separate
stages. This may be seen in the photochemically catalysed chlorination of a hydrocarbon:
'
8
aa
R H + ' C l -* R - + HC1 %
a + Rci
248
Halogenation
The reaction may also be initiated in the dark by heating but
considerably elevated temperatures are required t o effect CICl-Cl*+ *C1; thus the rate of chlorination of ethane in the dark at 120
is virtually indetectable. The reaction becomes extremely rapid,
however, on the introduction of small quantities of P b ( E t ) which
undergoes decomposition at this temperature to yield ethyl radicals
(cf. p . 235) capable of acting as initiators:
4
Et-+ClCI -* EtC1+-C1
As is well known, the hydrogen atom on a tertiary carbon is more
readily displaced than those on a secondary carbon and these, in their
turn, more readily than those on a primary carbon; this reflects the
relative stability of the radical, R*, that will be formed in the first
instance (p. 234). The difference is often not sufficiently great, how
ever, t o avoid the formation of mixtures of products from hydro
carbons containing more than one position that may undergo attack;
further, what preferential attack there is may be in large part negatived
by a statistical effect. Thus, in isobutane, ( C H ) C H , although the
hydrogen atom on the tertiary carbon is more readily attacked than
those o n the primary, there are n o less t h a n nine of the latter t o
attack compared with only one of the former, thus further limiting
the preparative, i.e. selective, use of photochemical chlorinStion.
a
The reaction is, however, also influenced by polar factors, for the
electronegative Hal* as well as being a radical is at the same time an
electrophilic reagent and will tend therefore t o attack preferentially
at a site where the electron density is high. Radical halogenation thus
tends t o be retarded by the presence of electron-withdrawing
atoms or groups, e.g. a second halogenation on a carbon atom t h a t
has already been substituted is more difficult than the first.
If the carbon indirectly attacked is asymmetric, e.g. R R ' R ' C H . t h e n
a racemic chloride is obtained. This racemisation does not constitute
proof of the planar nature of the radical formed, however, (cf. p . 239),
for the same result would be obtained with a radical having a pyra
midal configuration provided it could rapidly and reversibly turn
itself 'inside o u t ' as can the pyraHlrtal molecules of ammonia and
amines:
C
R
/
.
4
R' R '
R' R '
C
249
Radicals and Their
Reactions
At elevated temperatures (ca. 450) propylene, M e C H = C H , is

found to undergo chlorination t o allyl chloride rather than addition
of chlorine, for as the temperature rises the addition reaction be
comes reversible (cf. p . 243) whereas the displacement reaction via a
stabilised allyl radical does n o t :
2
C I + C H a C H = C H , -> C l C H C H = C H + H C I
2
At similarly elevated temperatures it is f o u n d ^ h a t halogenobenzenes undergo considerable chlorination and bromination in the
m-position despite the presence in the nucleus of an o/p-directive
halogen; thus bromobenzene yields 57 per cent of m-dibromobenzene at 500. This is due to increasing homolytic attack by bromine
atoms generated by thermal fission of molecules of bromine. Attack
by Br* at such elevated temperatures will tend to be less selective and
will be little influenced by relative electron availability at o-, m- and p positions and the usual directive effect of a substituent already present
will no longer apply: a characteristic feature of the homolytic sub
stitution of aromatic systems at high temperatures.
Fluorination takes place with great readiness and though it appears
to proceed via a ftdical mechanism, the reaction will often take place
in the absence of fight or initiators. Fluorine atoms are then believed
to be produced, in the first instance, by the reaction:
\
\
CH + FF - C- + H F + ' F
The driving force of the reaction is provided by tne 100 kcals by

which the bond energy of H F exceeds that of F F . Bromination
is generally slower and less easy than chlorination as the stage in
which a hydrogen atom is abstracted
\
^
\
CH+ B T ^ _ c + HBr
is often endothermic, whereas in chlorination this stage is exothermic

due to the greater bond energy of HCl as compared with HBr.
250
Halogenation
The lower reactivity of bromine compared with chlorine is associated,
as often happens, with greater selectivity in the position of attack, so
that the difference in reactivity of tertiary, secondary and primary
hydrogen is considerably more marked in bromination than chlorination. Direct iodination is not normally practicable, for though I ' is
readily formed it is not reactive enough t o abstract a hydrogen
atom, the bond energy of the H I that would be formed being low.
Radical halogenation by reagents other than the halogens them
selves, e.g. N-bromosuccinimide (XXIII), is of considerable synthetic
importance. T W ^ e a g e n t will brominate a number of positions but is
especially useful for attack on hydrogen attached to a carbon atom
a- t o a double bond (an allylic carbon). Thus with cyclohexene
(XXIV), 3-bromocyclohexene (XXV) is formed:
CH,CO
|
^>NBr
CH,CO
(XXIII)
hv or
1 initiators
CH,CO
I >
I + CH,CO
(XXIV)
CH,co
>NBr
I _>
CH,CO
(XXIII)
CH CO
2
CH CO
2
(XXV)
More recently, however, it has oeen suggested that the function of

the N-bromosuccinjmide, in some cases at any rate, is to act as a
source of a low concentration of molecular bromine which itself
effects the actual bromination. The particularly ready attack on an
allylic, or on the similar, benzylic position, is due to stabilisation of
251
Radicals and Their
Reactions
the first-formed radical by the delocalisation that can then take place
( c / . p . 234):
CH J^CH^=CH, <- C H = C H C H a
(ii) Autoxidation.
Another displacement reaction involving
radicals is autoxidation, the reaction of organic compounds with
oxygen under mild conditions. Substances often contain impurities,
e.g. trace metals, that can act as initiators so that the reaction then
proceeds spontaneously; but, as always, added peroxides act as very
powerful initiators. The decomposition of most organic compounds
exposed to air and sunlight is due to photosensitised oxidation. Thus
a number of hydrocarbons may be converted t o hydroperoxides
(XXVI), molecules of oxygen reacting extremely readily with radicals
on account of their own diradical nature (cf. p . 243):
Ra+HC
i -o.i
R a H + C - > COO-
t
C-
U-H
+
COOH
(XXVI)
In some cases the hydroperoxide formed can itself act as an

initiator so that the reaction is autocatalysed.
As peroxy radicals, R 0 , a r ^ f r e l a t i v e l y low reactivity they do not
readily abstract hydrogen from
H and many autoxidation
reactions are highly selective. Thus tertiary hydragens are usually the
only ones attacked in simple saturated hydrocarbons but allylic,
benzylic and other positions that can yield stabilised radicals are
attacked relatively easily. Thus decalin (decahydronaphthalene) yields
2
Autoxidation
(XXVII), cyclohexene (XXVIII) and diphenylmethane, (XXIX), re
spectively :
OOH
(XXVII)
(XXVIII)
(XXIX)
Reference**âlready been made to the large-scale conversion of

cumene (isopropylbenzene) into p h e n o l + a c e t o n e via the hydro
peroxide (p. 100); the air oxidation of tetralin (tetrahydronaphthalene)
to the ketone a-tetralone may also be accomplished preparatively via
the action of alkali on the first-formed hydroperoxide:
H.O
HO^H
'OH
0-Q>H
In addition, the corresponding alcohol a-tetralol may be obtained by

reductive fissions of the hydroperoxide.
Aldehydes also readily autoxidise: thus benzaldehyde, in air, is
extremely easily converted into benzoic acid (seep. 254). This reaction
is catalysed by light and also by a number of metal ions, provided
these are capable of a one electron oxidation/reduction transition
(e.g. F e - > - F e ) . The perbenzoate radical (XXXI), obtained by
addition of 'Oa* to the first-formedJ?enzoyl radical (XXX), removes
a hydrogen atom from a secomtmolecule of benzaldehyde t o form
perbenzoic acid JXOCXII) plus a benzoyl radical (XXX) to continue
the reaction chain.
ee
ee
The perbenzoic acid reacts with a further molecule of benzaldehyde,

however, t o yield two molecules of benzoic acid. This reaction is
253
Radicals and Their
Reactions
O
FE
<B
+ PhC'
(XXX)
II
Phcoo(XXXI)
o
o
II
PhO
(XXX)
PhCOOH + PhCH
(XXXII)
II
1 PhcH
PhCOOH
(XXXII)
2PhCOH
catalysed by hydrogen ions and so is accelerated as the amount of

benzoic acid formed increases. The presence of electron-donating
groups in the benzene nucleus, as might be expected, facilitates
removal of a hydrogen a t o m from the aldehyde to yield the initial
radical, corresponding t o (XXX).
The autoxidation of aldehydes may be lessened by very careful
purification but more readily by the addition of anti-oxidants, such
as phenols fend aromatic amines, that react preferentially with any
radicals that may b e present.
An interesting autoxidation is the photo-oxidation of hydro
carbons such as anthracene (XXXV):
(XXXV)
H.
(XXXIII)
(XXXIV)
The light absorbed converts t h e r m t h r a c e n e to an excited state,

such as the di-radical (XXXIII) or something Ijke it, which then
adds on a molecule of oxygen to form the photo-oxid (XXXIV).
This photo-oxidation proceeds so readily with higher lin aromatic
hydrocarbons such as hexacene (XXXVI)
Arylation
(XXXVI)
that it is impossible t o work with them in sunlight. It should, how
ever, be emphasised that this autoxidation is an addition rather than
a displacement reaction.
(Hi) Arylation. Phenyl or other aryl radicals can take part in a
number of rMBffons, one of the most common being the Sandmeyer
reaction of a diazonium salt with cuprous chloride or bromide as a
complex ion, e.g. C u C l . Here the aryl radical is believed t o be
generated by a n electron transfer, coupled with loss of nitrogen
e
A r l V + C u C l , -+ A r ' + N . + C u Q .
which is then followed by a displacement reaction on a chlorine atom
of the cupric chloride:
Ar-+CICuCI -t- ArCl + CuCI
Again n o reaction chain is set u p as the reaction I n which the radical
is consumed does n o t lead t o the production of a second one in its
place. It is found that
e
Rate a [ArN ] [CuClj ]

a
indicating that the first reaction is the slower, i.e. rate-determining,

one. The actual intervention of radicals can be confirmed, under
suitable conditions, by their initiation of the chain polymerisation of
acrylonitrile. Reactions of diazonium solutions can also proceed
through an ionic mechanism as has already been mentioned (p. 112).
Phenyl or other aryl radicals, generated in a number of ways, can
also react with aromatic species, e.g. the Gomberg-Bachmann reac
tion in which aryl radicals a r ^ p i e r a t e d by the decomposition of
diazo hydroxides (XXXVII), in contact with the aromatic compound
that is to be ayl>flS:
;J
ArN=NOH -+ Ar + N , + O H
(XXXVII)
Radicals and Their
Reactions
It might be expected that the attack on the aromatic species, CH X,

would then proceed via a direct displacement:
8
Ar+C,H X -- ArCjH*X+H*
5
This would, however, involve the breaking of a carbon-hydrogen

bond and the formation of a carbon-carbon bond and, as the former
is usually considerably stronger than the latter, would thus lead to a
high activation energy and so to a slow reaction: this is not what is
actually observed. Also the addition of substances tbMwould readily
be reduced by free hydrogen atoms has never been found to result in
such reduction, indicating that it is unlikely that hydrogen atoms ever
d o in fact become free. It seems more likely, therefore, that the reaction
proceeds as a two-stage process:
The hydrogen atom is removed by another radical or by attack on

the original source of aryl radicals:
A?
ArN=N-<)H+ \ ^T^-X
{
-> A r + N , + H , Q + A r ^ ^ - X
Evidence for such a mechanism is provided by the fact that such arylations show n o isotope effect, i.e. deuterium and tritium are dis
placed as readily as hydrogen, indicating that arylation cannot be
initiated by fission of a carbon-hydrogen (or deuterium or tritium)
bond as the rate-determining step of the reaction.
The aryl group has here been shown entering the p-position to the
group already present, b u t it could as well have been the o- or
m-positions as the characteristic directing effect exerted by this group
on a n attacking electrophilic or nucleophilic reagent will apply with
much less stringency to an uncharged aryl radical. Nevertheless, an
entirely random choice of p o s i t i o n o l ^ t t a c k by the entering group is
not observed. All substituents, irrespective of Steir nature, appear
slightly to favour attack at the o- and p-positions. Tnis^may be due to
the extra stabilisation of the intermediate by delocalisation that could
result when attack is at the o- and p - , but not at the m-position
256
Rearrangements
O
but it is by ncyjjgns certain that this is the only factor involved.

Yields in this reaction tend to be low, partly owing to the twophase, aqueous/organic, system involved. They may be improved
by using substances such as N-mtroso-acetanilide, PhN(NO)
C O M e , or dibenzoyl peroxide (heated) as sources of phenyl radi
cals, for the reaction may then be carried out in homogeneous solu
tion using the substance to be phenylated as solvent, but mixed
products and tarry by-products still result.
(d) Rearrangements: The few known rearrangement reactions of
radicals nearly always involve aryl residues as migrants, and even
then only from an atom on which the attached groups are strained by
crowding. Thus the radical (XXXVIII) derived from the aldehyde,
P h C ( M e ) C H C H O , may be made to undergo* loss of C O , but
the products ultimately formed are derived from radical (XXXIX),
not (XL):
-co
Ph C(Me)CH C=0
> Ph C(Me) C H
> PhC(Me)CH Ph
(XXXVIII)
(XL)
(XXXIX)
2
It has been suggested that the migration of phenyl rather than an

alkyl group is encouraged by the possibility, with the former, of pro
ceeding via an intermediate (XLI) that is stabilised by delocalisation:
F o r in the above caseiîs migration of methyl rather than phenyl that

would be exp&tedTo yield ^he more stable radical, P h C C H M e ,
2
and the non-phenylated radical, E t M e C C H , corresponding to

(XL) is found not to rearrange at all.
2
257
Radicals and Their
Reactions
But migration is not confined to shifts on to carbon; thus triphenyl

methyl peroxide (p. 232) undergoes the following changes on heating:
Ph COPh
|
Ph,COPh
2
Ph COOCPh
3
2Ph CO- - 2PhCOPh

3
The much less common occurrence of rearrangements among radi

cals as compared with carbonium ions (p. 86) probably reflects the
smaller difference in stability observed between primary and tertiary
radicals as compared with the corresponding carbojiium ions.
(v) Diradicals
The oxygen molecule has already been referred to as a diradical,
albeit an unreactive one, and another very simple species is the
methylene radical obtained, for example, by the photo-chemical de
composition of ketene (XLII) or diazomethane (XLIII):
CHj
CHJNJ
CH =C=0
(XLIII)
(XLII)
This by contrast is extremely reactive, adding with great readiness,

and stereospecifjcally, t o double bonds to form cyclopropane
derivatives:
H
\
Hy
R .
K-^
c=c
The photochemical excitation of anthracene and other lin aromatic

hydrocarbons has already been referred t o ; if the excitation is carried
out in the absence of air or oxygen, cyclisation takes place to a photodimer(XLIV):
?
(XLIV)
258
Diradicah
The isomerisation of cyclopropanes to the corresponding propylene
derivatives probably proceeds through diradicals:
CH
/
C
R'
R
R
/
C
ft
I CH
\ \I / CH
\
->
R'
C*
R
*C
H
H
/R
CH
->
R'
*C
R'
R'
CH
/
c
/
R
/
c
,
1
^
R'
R'
The driving force for the 1,2-hydrogen shift is provided by the

possibility of electron pairing and consequent formation of a new bond
that is thereby conferred.
Diradicals have also been encountered as intermediates in the re
duction of ketones t o pinacols (p. 168) and in the acyloin reaction on
esters (p. 169). All these diradicals, with the exception of the oxygen
molecule, are highly unstable but, surprisingly, a number ofWiradicals
are known which are quite stable. Thus the hydrocarbon (XLV) exists
in the diradical form:
Pb C-f' ^ f
2
CPh
(XLV)
This is due t o the fact that the diradical is very greatly stabilised
by delocalisation and that a^quinonoid structure embracing both
nucfiei, that would result in electron pairing, cannot be formed. The
diradical (XLVI)
CI
CI
-CPhj
CPhj y* P h C =
2
(XLVI)
CI
Ci
(XLVII)
Radicals and Their
Reactions
can, in theory, be converted to a quinonoid form (XLVII) in which

its electrons are paired, but formation of the latter is inhibited as the
bulky chlorine atoms prevent the two benzene nuclei from becoming
coplanar, a necessary condition if there is to be the effective over
lapping between their n orbitals that formation of (XLVII) requires.
Both these diradicals undergo reversible association in solution,
however.
(vi) Chemical action of X-rays
X-rays and other ionising radiations can react w M a r a t e r , in living
tissues as well as in vitro systems, in the following way:
H,0
+ fci>
-> [ H , 0 ]
e'
|H.O
H+-OH
H
HO + ' H
Two radicals are formed by secondary processes, one involving a

second molecule of water. As the ejected electron may not react
immediately with a second molecule of water, the two radicals, and
any reaction chains that they set in motion, may thus occur some
distance apart.
Vinyl polymerisation in aqueous solution may be initiated in this
way but the solution must be free from oxygen which acts as a
powerful inhibitor. In living tissue, dissolved oxygen can lead to the
formation of hydrogen peroxide
H-+-0,- -
HO,- -* H , 0 ,
while dissolved nitrogen can similarly be converted t o N H , e t c

Many other reactions of great ultimate complexity can be set in train
by radiation in this way.
8
260
O
SELECT
Valence and Chemical
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bonding
CARTMELL, E. and FOWLES, G. w . A. Valency and Molecular Structure

(Butterworths, 3rd Edition, 1966).
COTTRELL, T. L. The Strength of Chemical Bonds (Butterworths, 2nd
Edition, 1958).
COULSON, c. A. Valence (O.U.P., 2nd Edition, 1961). Probably the
best g e n e r a t a a t t w n t for the purpose.
MORTIMER, c. T. Reaction Heats and Bond Strengths (Pergamon, 1962).
PIMENTEL, G. c , and MCCLELLAN, A. L. The Hydrogen Bond (Freeman,
1960).
STREITWIESER, A. Molecular Orbital Theory for Organic Chemists
(Wiley, 1961).
Structure and Reaction
Mechanism
AMIS, E. s. Solvent Effects on Reaction Rates and

Mechanisms
(Academic Press, 1966)
BANTHORPE, D . V. Elimination Reactions (Elsevier, 1963).
BARTLETT, p. D . Non-classical Ions (Benjamin, 1965).
CRAM, D . J. Fundamentals of Carbonion ChemistryiAcadermc
Press,
1965).
BANTHORPE, D. v. Elimination Reactions (Elsevier, 1963).

DE MAYO, P . (Ed.). Molecular Rearrangements (Interscience, Vol. I,
1963; Vol. II, 1964).
DEWAR, M. j . s. Hyperconjugation (Ronald Press, 1962).
ELIEL, E. L. Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill,
1962).
GOULD, E. s. Mechanism and Structure in Organic Chemistry (HoltDryden, 1959). The most readable and, overall, the most satis
factory text available.
HINE, j-Divalent Carbon (Ronald Press, 1964).
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Especially Valuable for the kinetic aspects of the subject.
INGOLD, SfgfJ. K. Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry
<~9ell, 1953). The greatf-Aurceiofinformation to which all other
aathors must needs be
KEKULE SYY?osiVMy}eoretical Organic Chemistry (Butterworths,
1959)^1
LEFFLERA / \ The Reactiv^ Intermediates of Organic
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( I n t e r s t i c e , 1956).
261
y
Select
Bibliography
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in
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REES, c.
w.,
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^,^0
STEWART, R. Oxidation Mechanisms (Benjamin, 1964).
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.
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INDEX
Acetals, 162, 222
Acetonitrile, acidity, 210
AcetylacetoneJttttQ, 211
Acetylene, acidity, 211
Acid catalysis, general, 161, 218
Acidity
constant, 39
effect of solvent, 39
hydrogen bonding in, 46
origin of in organic compounds, 40
Acid strength
alcohols, 41
aliphatic acids, 18,42
benzoic acid, 43
dicarboxylic acids, 47
imides, SI
phenol, 17,41
substituted aliphatic acids, 43
benzoic acids, 45
phenols, 44
Acylium ions. 111, 187
Acyloin reaction, 169
Addition
electrophilic, 28, 137-152, 158
nucleophilic, 29, 153-157, 158,183
radical, 28, 242-248
Aldol condensation, 172
mixed, 174
with elimination of H 0 , 1 7 5
Aldols, base catalysed dehydration,
175, 204.
Aldoxime acetates, elimination of
M e C 0 H , 3 7 , 190,195
Alkenes, acid-catalysed rearrangement,
89*
.
Alkyl IPôns, stabilisation, 62, 8 #
ites, decdmpqfition,
2
Alkyl hydro]
folysis,
^ ^ B l cation, stabilisation, 63j

Anllic rearrangements, 29w
Ally* c a t i o n ^ t a b i l i s a t i o j n 3 , 83
Allylicjear J g e m e j ^ f r ^ 86,172
A m i d e S y ^ K j induction, 16W
Amino-l^^^Ppounds, 115
A n t i - M a H p i h k o v addition, 142, 244
Anti-oxj^Pts, 254
Anthracene
delocalisation energy, 13
photo-oxidation, 254
photo-dimerisation, 258
Arndt-Eistert reaction, 93
Aromaticity, 9,101
and ease of substitution, 103
Arylation, 255
orientation in, 256
Atactic polymers, 248
Autoxidation, 252
benzaldehyde, 253
cumene, 100
tetralin, 253
Baeyer-Villiger oxidation, 99
Basicity
effect of solvent, 50
origin o f I n organic compounds,
Basic strength
aliphatic amines, 49
amides, 51
aniline, 52
guanidine, 51
heterocyclic bases, 55
quaternary alkylammonium hydr
oxides, 50
substituted anilines, 53
Beckmann rearrangement, 95
Benzene, structure of, 9
Benzilic acid change, 180
Benzoin condensation 179
Benzoyl peroxide, 236,240
thermal fission, 240
Benzyl cation, stabilisation, 63, 83
Benzyne intermediates, 135
Bimolecular reactions, 59
Bisulphite derivatives, 163
Ond
angles, 4, 5
heterolytic fission, 14, 231
homolytic fission, 14, 231
order, 9
Bonding orbitals, 4
Bouveault-Blanc reduction, 170
Bredt's rule, 200
r
Index
Bromination
aromatic, 106,250
Lewis acids in, 106
Bromine addition
acetylene dicarboxylic acid, 140
cyclopentene, 36
ethylene, 137,243
maleic acid, 139
styrene, 141
1,2-Bromohydrins, pinacolones from,
90
Bromonium ions, 138, 246
N-Bromosuccinimide, 251
1-Bromotriptycene, 65
Cannizzaro reaction, 35,167
Canonical structures, 12
Carbanions, 14,210-230
addition reactions, 155, 170-180
displacement reaction, 221-230
elimination reactions, 193, 203
formation, 211
from acetaldehyde, 173
acetone, 173, 226
acetylene, 172,211,222
acid anhydrides, 176
aliphatic nitro-compounds,
174, 212,220
azomethines, 216
cyclopentadiene, 212
diethyl malonate, 156,221
esters, 176
It organo-metallic compounds,
238
*
triphenylmethane, 210,213
in alkylation, 221
benzoin condensation, 179
bromination of ketones, 226
decarboxylation, 228
Reimer-Tiemann reaction, 224
tautomerism, 215-221
Wurtz reaction, 223
stabilisation, 211
stereochemistry, 213
Carbenes, 93, 207, 224
Carbon atom, 1
Carbon-carbon bond
double, 5,137,157
energy in acetylene, 7
ethane, 6
ethylene, 6
lengths in acetylene, 7
benzene, 9
ethane, 6
ethylene, 6
single, 4
triple, 7
Carbonium ions, 14, 80-93
addition to alkenes, 144
allyl, 63, 83
264
Carbonium ionscontinued
benzyl, 63,83
cycloheptatrienyl, 84
formation, 80
.
intermediates in Swl, 59, 62, 63; 68
loss of H from, 84, 88
/?-phenylethyl, 83
planar, 60, 68
reactions, 84
rearrangement, 86-93
stabilisation, 62, 82
tropylium, 84
Carbonyl group, 158-188
hydration, 1 6 0 ^ ^ ^
nature of, 16, raPV
protection, 163
reaction with acetylide ion, 172
alcohol's, 162
aldehydes and ketones,

172
aliphatic nitro-com
pounds, 174
amino-compounds,
164
carbanions, 170-180
Grignard reagents, 170
metals, 168
thiols, 163
reactivity of, in acid chlorides, 183
aldehydes, 159
amides, 159,183
esters, 159,183
ketones, 159
reduction with Al(OCHMe ) 166
LiAlH ,165
stereochemistry of addition to, 181
Carboxylic acid derivatives, reactivity
of, 183
Chain reactions, 231, 243, 244, 247,
248,251,252,253
initiation, 231,242,244, 247,260
propagation, 231,242, 245, 247, 260
termination, 231, 243, 246, 247
transfer agents, 248
Chloral hydrate, 161
Chldrination, aromr* c, with HOC1,
107
'V
-*
-*
Chifcaev reaction, 20iClaislb ester condensj on,
mixed, 178
reveibi|jty, 178
ClaiseSgchmidt qondeitdtion, 175,
2
Ition
Mention in n e i g h b o r i n g
group jMticipationAO
d e t e r m i n a M P ^ j relaafc. 66.
invprfon in SnT
rêntion in SnI, 69^
Conformation, 4
eclipsed and staggered, <
Irdex
Conformationcontinued
of 1,2,3,4-tetrabromoethane, 5
Conjugate
acids, 38
bases, 38
Conjugation, 7,16,149,154
Conjugative effect, 16
Cracking of petroleum, 89,236
Cyanoethylation, 153
Cyanohydrin, formation, 163
Cyclopropanes, isomerisation, 259
Curtius reaction, 93
Denomination,
1,2-dibromicl
with I, 206
with Zn, 205
Decarboxylation, 228
Dehydration of alcohols, acid-cata
lysed, 80
Delocalisation, 8
conditions for, 11
energy of benzene, 11
energy of conjugated dienes, 11
steric inhibition of, 21, 54,134
Diazoamino compounds, 114
Diazo coupling, 25,112
Diazohydroxides, 113, 255
Diazomethane, decomposition, 236,
258
Diazo salts, 112
decomposition, 75, 82, 85, 113
reaction with aromatic species, 112,
256
reaction with cuprous chloride, 255
Diazotisation, 75,114
Dieckmann reaction, 156,178,190
Diels-Alder reaction, 151
Dienes, conjugated, 7,11,12,149
Dienophiles, 152
. Diethyl malonate, acidity, 211
j3-Diketones, base-catalysed fission, 179
Dimedone, 156
Diphenyl disulphide, dissociation, 234
Diphenylpicrylhgfcazyl, 234
D i r a d j f c , 169, V , 254, 258
Electrophilic addition to C = C bond,

137-152
bromine, 137
carbonium ions in, 138, 141, 142,
143,144,149,151
hydrogen halide, 141,150
hypochlorous acid, 143
orientation, 141
osmium tetroxide, 145
ozone, 147
peracids, 146
n complexes in, 138
rate, 140
water, 143
Electrophilic addition to conjugated
dienes, 149
1,2-addition, 150
1,4-addition, 150
chlorine, 150
hydrogen halide, 150
Electrophilic reagents (electrophiles),
26
Electrophilic substitution, aromatic,
10,101-130
aniline, 124
chlorobenzene, 123
competition between substituents,
126
conditions of reaction, 124
effect of substituent already present,
116
^
electron availaljility in, 19,117
inductive effect in, 116
mesomeric effect in 117
naphthalene, 127
ortho/pararatios, 125
ir complexes, 101
position of substitution, 119, 126,
127,130
pyridine, 129
pyrrole, 129
relative ease of, 117,126,128,129
a complexes, 102
styrene, 122
transition states, 120,121
v. addition, 10,102
a-Elimination, 206
chloroform, 206
2,2-diphenylvinyl bromide, 207
^-Elimination, 189
alcohols, 189,192
aldoxime acetates, 37,190, 195
alkyl halides, 190, 191, 192, 194,
196
alkylonium salts, 196
benzene hexachloride, 194
t-butyl bromide, 191
carbanions in, 193, 203
carbonium ions in, 191
265
Index
^-Eliminationcontinued
chlorofumaric acid, 195
chloromaleic acid, 195
cinnamic acid dibromide, 205
dibromostilbene, 196
effect of activating groups, 203
orientation, 196
stereospecificity, 194,207
steric effects, 192,198,199,201
v. substitution, 201
eft-Elimination, 194,207
acetates, 207
cyclic transition states in, 208
methyl xanthates, 208
tertiary amine oxides, 209
Elimination reactions, 29, 37, 189-209
Elimination v. substitution, 191,201
effect of change of mechanism, 202
effect of conditions, 201
effect of reagent, 202
effect of structure, 201
E l mechanism, 191
effect of structure, 192
orientation in, 201
v.Sjvl, 192,201
E2 mechanism, 190,192-201
effect of structure, 194,199,200
orientation in, 196
stereospecificity, 194
v. SAT2, 201
Energetics of reaction, 30
Eniropy, 31
9
Epoxide, ring-opening, 78
acid-catalysed, 146
base-catalysed, 70,146
Esterification
acid-catalysed, 82,185
sterically hindered, 186
Esters
acidic hydrolysis, 185
basic hydrolysis, 184
conversion to amides, 184
exchange reactions, 184
hydrolysis in H ^ ' O , 35, 67
reduction with LiAlH 166
reduction with sodium, 169
steric hindrance in forming, 186
Ethers, cleavage with HI, 74
Ethyl acetoacetate, acidity, 211
Ethyleneimmonium salts, 72
Ethyl orthoformate in aldehyde syn
thesis, 222
Excited state, carbon, 3
4)
First order reactions, 59

Ferrocene, 213
Fluoririation, 250
Free energy
of activation, 31
of reaction, 30
266
Friedel-Crafts reaction
acylation, 111, 118
acylium ions in, 111
alkylation, 109,118
carbonium ions in, 85,109
dealkylation, 110
Lewis acids in, 85,109
polyalkylation, 111, 118
rearrangements, 86,109
with alkenes, 110
cyclic anhydrides, 112
n-propyl halides, 85,110
Gattermann-KocVreactJon. 112
1,2-Glycols
cis, formation, 145
trans, formation, 146
Glyoxal hydrate, 162
Gomberg-Bachmann reaction, 255
Grignard reagents
addition to carbonyl compounds,
170, 222
nature of, 170
Ground state, carbon, 3
Haloform reaction, 227
hydrolysis, 206
Halogenation, radical, 231,248
aromatic species, 250
propylene, 250
Halogens, radical addition
benzene, 244
olefines, 242
oi-Halogeno-ethers, formation, 164
Heat of hydrogenation
benzene, 11
conjugated dienes, 149
cyclohexene, 11
Hemi-acetals, 163
Hexacene, 254
Hexaphenylethane, 232,233
dissociation, 232
Hofmann elimination, 196
Hofmann reaction of amides, 93
Hybridisation, 3
Hybrids
1
Index
Hydrogen bondingcontinued
in keto/enol tautomerism, 219
salicylic acid, 47
Hydrogen bromide, addition
allyl bromide, 245
electrophilic, 141
1-methylcyclohexene, 246
propylene, 141, 244
radical, 244
vinyl bromide, 142
Hydroperoxides, 100,252
1,2-Hydroxy amines, conversion to,
pinacolones^L
Hydroxylatiofl
alkenes, 145
via epoxides, 146
, with K M n O 145
Os0 ,145
Hyperconjugation, 20, 62,197, 201
4
Irnino-etners, formation, 188

Inductive effect, 15,116
Inductomeric effect, 20
Ingold, 58
Inhibitors, 232
Initiators, 232, 247, 249, 252
Ion pair, 14, 69, .80,109,208
Ions, solvation, 39,40,60
Isomerisation, cis-*-trans, 243
Iso-ozonides, 148
Isotactic polymers, 248
K , 39
a
Kfc,48
Ketals, 163
Ketene, decomposition, 258
jS-Keto acids, decarboxylation, 229
/9-Ketoesters, 'acid decomposition',
178
Ketones
bromination, 226, 227
oxidation, 99
Kolbe electrolytic synthesis, 237
Kotbe-Schmid^Mction, 225
tyls, t ^ ^ n a l
decomposijjon,
1
,93
Methane, acidity, 210

Michael reaction 155
Molozonides, 148
Naphthalene
delocalisation energy, 13
electrophilic substitution, 127
Neighbouring group participation, 70
Neopentyl rearrangement, 87
Ninhydrin, 162
Nitration, 104
kinetics, 105
no isotope effect in, 36,105
with dilute H N O 106
nitrating mixture, 104
Nitriles
addition, 188
hydrolysis, 188
Nitrogen, migration to electron-defi
cient, 93-98
Nitromethane, acidity, 211
Nitronium ion, 104
Nitrosation
amines, 75,85
phenol, 106
Nitroso amines, 76
Nitrosonium ion, 75,106
Nucleophilic addition to activated
C = C bonds, 153
Nucleophilic addition to C = 0 ,
158-188
effect of pH, IIP
_
effect of structure, 159,183
Nucleophilic reagents (nucleophiles),
26, 27, 72
Nucleophilic substitution, aliphatic,
58-79
alcohols with SOC1,, 69
allyl halides, 63
alkylation of reactive methylenes, 77,
221
benzyl halides, 63
1-bromotriptycene, 65
t-butyl chloride, 59
/?-chlorohydrins, 70
effect of Ag, 82
entering group, 72
leaving group, 73
solvent, 60
'> structure, 61
a-halogeno-acids, 71
H as catalyst, 74
I
..
,.
,74
kinetics, 58
list of reactions, 76
mechanism, 58
methyl bromide, 58
neighbouring group participation, 70
neopentyl halides, 65
t
Ifjflr'^Mr'w
[reduction^|66
6,117
^
ng groups, 121
267
Index
Nucleophilic substitutioncontinued
stereochemistry, 66-72
steric effects, 62, 64
triphenylmethyl chloride, 63
vinyl halides, 64
Nucleophilic substitution, aromatic,
130-136
activated phenyl halides, 132
benzyne intermediates, 135
diazonium salts, 132
intermediates, 133
nitrobenzene, 131
phenyl halides, 64,132
pyridine, 131
Orbitals
atomic, 1
bonding, 4
co-linear, 7
. delocalised, 8
! hybridisation, 3
localised, 4
molecular, 4
.: overlapping, 3, 6
6
plane trigonal, 5
' Ortho/para-directing groups, 120
Ortho/para ratios, 125
Osmic esters, cyclic, 145
- Overlapping,orbitalj, 3
:
oxês
Tr
assignment of configuration, 96
formation, 164
Oxygen
as diradical, 243, 252,260
. migration to electron-deficient, 99
Ozonides, decomposition, 149
Ozonolysis of alkenes, 147
'
Panetn,238
Pentaerythritdl, 174 . _
Perbenzoic acid, 253
Perkin reaction, 176
Perlon,98<
Peroxide effect, 244
Peroxides, 236, 240, 244, 247
rearrangement, 100"
. Phenanthrene, delocalisation energy, 13
Phenonium ion, 83
(8-Phenylethyl cation, stability, 83
Photo dimerisation, 258
Photo oxidation, 254
* bonds, 6
it orbitals, 6 '
Pinacol/pinacolone conversion, 90
Pinacols, formation, 169, 237
pK , 39
pAf*,48
a
268
Polymerisation
isobutene, 144
oriented, 248
vinyl, 247
Propane, AlBr,-catalysed rearrange
ment, 86
n-Propylamine, reaction with H N O , 85
Proton acceptors, 38
Proton donors, 38
Prototropy, 215
Pseudo-acids, 215,220
s
Racemisation, 6 f c | l ^ f i
in SATI, 68
Radicals, 14,27, 231-260
*
addition reactions, 242-248
alkyl, 234,240
allyl, 234,251
apocamphyl, 239
benzoate, 236,240
benzoyl, 237, 253
benzyl, 234,244, 251
carboxyl, 237
detection, 238
dimerisation, 235,237,247
displacement reactions, 248-257
disproportionation, 236
from electrolysis, 237
oxidation/reduction, 237, 254
photochemical fission, 235,242
thermal fission, 235, 240
half-life, 238
hydroxyl, 237, 260
in arylation, 255
autoxidation, 252
halogenation, 248
polymerisation, 247
long-lived, 232
methylene, 236, 258
pentachloro-ethyl, 242,243
perbenzoate, 253
peroxy, 243, 252
phenyl, 241,255,257
rearrangement, 1
short-lived, 234-!
ereochemistry,
ti%henylmethyl,
Rati "
1
Index
Sandmeyer reaction, 255
Saytzeff elimination, 196
Second order reaction, 59
obonds, 4
S/vl mechanism, 59, 68
SAT2 (aromatic) mechanism, 132
Sn2 mechanism, 59, 66
SJV2' mechanism, 87
Sm mechanism, 69
Solvolysis, 60
sp hybrids, 7
sp* hybrids, 5
sp* hybrids, 3
Steric hindra
Substitution
electrophilic, 277101-130
nucleophilic, 28, 58-79, 130-136
radical, 14, 28,248-257
Sulphonation, 108
Sulphonium salts, cyclic, 72
1
Tantomerism, 215-221
acid-catalysed, 218
azomethines, 216
concerted v. stepwise mechanism, 215
distinction from mesomerism, 216
effect of solvent, 217,220
keto-enol, 215,219
phenylnitromethane, 220
rate, 218
structure and position of equilibrium
in,219
Terminators, 248
Tetra-arylhydrazines, dissociation, 233
Tetrachlorc-ethylene, addition of
chlorine, 242
Thio-acetals, 163
Thio-ketals, 163
hydrogenolysis, 163
Toluene, reaction with DC1/A1C1,, 102
Transesterification, 184
Transition states, 31
steric crowding in, 62,65
Tricyanomethane, acidity, 210
Triketohydrindene hydrate (ninhydrin), 162
Triphenylmethane, acidity, 210
Triphenylmethyl radicals, 232, 239
Tropylium (cycloheptatrienyl) cation,
84
Tschitschibabin reaction, 131

Unimolecular reactions, 59
a,0-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds,
addition, 154
Vinyl polymerisation, 247
Wagner-Meerwein rearrangements, 88,
89,110
Wolff rearrangement, 92
Wurtz reaction, 223
Xanthates, pyroljais, 208
X-rays, chemicafjrction, 260
269

A Guidebook To Mechanism in Organic Chemistry

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A Guidebook to

j..tietiV type of emphasis where necessary,'and

'First year ci*>- iistry undergraduates should be dancing in the

'Dr Sykes has achieved the remarkable feat of perfu

Forewool by ProfessorJLord Todd, F.R.S.

Structure, Reactivity arid Mechanism .

The Strengths rtfcXtids and Bases

4 , Carbonium Ions, Electro^-JDeficient Nitrogen and Oxygen

Electrophilic and Nucleophilic Substitution in Aromatic

6 ^-Addition, to Carbon-Carbon Double Bonds

C^ASdition' to Carbon-Oxygen Double Bonds

Carbanions and their Reactions.

10 ^RacJ-icals and their Reactions

26th April, 1961.

T H E last twenty-five years have seen an enormous increase in our

The new approach avoids the learning of vast masses of apparently

select bibliography is, however, included in which the student's

T H E chief advantage of a mechanistic approach to the vast array of

two electrons, these electrons being distinguished from each other by

As yet, this m a r k s n o radical departure from the classical picture

We can thus designate the distribution of the six electrons of the

The 2s orbital takes u p its full complement of two electrons before

BONDING IN CARBON COMPOUNDS

Bond formation between two atoms is then envisaged as the progres

Structure, Reactivity and

(i) Carbon-carbon single bonds

Conformations are denned as different arrangements of the same

The staggered conformation is likely to be the more stable of

This then leaves, on each carbon atom, one unhybridised 2p

The electrons occupying this new m o l e c u l a r o r b i t a l ' a r e known as

so that it comes as n o surprise to realise that the characteristic reac

The acetylene molecule is thus effectively sheathed in a cylinder of

Structure, Reactivity and

In either case, overlapping of the p atomic orbitals on adjacent carbon

It should, perhaps, be mentioned that such delocalisation can only

Structure, Reactivity and

In other words, substitution can take place with overall retention of

The heat of hydrogenation of three isolated double bonds (i.e.

often being indicated by curved arrows (e.g. (IV) ->-(XII) or (XIII)),

This is the basis of the concept ^ f resonance. The individual

The Breaking and Forming of Bonds

THE BREAKING AND FORMING OF BONDS

A covalent bond between two atoms can essentially be broken in the

Structure, Reactivity and Mechanism

Such free radicals or ion pairs are formed transiently as reactive

When a positive charge is carried on carbon the entity is

Factors affecting Electron-availability

FACTORS AFFECTING E L E C T R O N - A V A I L A B I L I T Y IN BONDS AND AT

(i) Inductive effect

the electron density tends to be greater nearer chlorine than carbon

major exception being alkyl groups which are electron-donating.*

(ii) Mesomeric or conjugative effect

The actual structure is somewhere in between, i.e. a resonance hybrid'

Factors affecting Electron-availability

Delocalisation takes place (XX), so that an electron-deficient a t o m

but this involves separation of charge and will thus be correspond

In other words, the phenoxide ion (XXI) is stabilised with respect to

and contributes to its stability but it requires separation of charge and

Factors affecting Electron-availability