Water Treatment Process

CONTENTS
Water Purification
1. Overview
2. Sedimentation
3. Flotation
4. Coagulation and flocculation
5. Coagulation chemicals
6. Coagulation: Important factors and the beaker test
Disinfection
7. Overview
8. Chlorination
9. UV Treatment
10.Ozone
Residual Handling and Treatment
Package Plants
Water purification
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the process in which the flocs that have been formed during coagulation and flocculation are allowed
to settle from the water.
Sedimentation is a suitable process for the removal of flocs formed from silt and clay particles that are relatively heavy
and settle readily. However, certain flocs are relatively light and do not settle readily and a process such as flotation
must be used for their removal. Light flocs are formed when algae or organic matter is flocculated.
The flocs collect as sludge at the bottom of the sedimentation tank from where it must be removed on a regular
basis. The clean water leaves the sedimentation tank through collection troughs located at top of the tank.
There are a variety of designs for sedimentation tanks available. These include:
Large rectangular tanks in which the water enters one side and leaves at the other end. This type id
normally used at large conventional treatment tanks.
Circular tanks with flat or cone shaped bottoms are also used, especially at smaller works.
Flocculated water enters the tank at a central distribution section and clarified water leaves the tank at
collection troughs at the circumference of the tank. The design and flow conditions in a sedimentation
tank must be such that the minimum amount of flocs leaves with the clarified water.
The flocs that settle in the sedimentation tank collect at the bottom of the tank as sludge from where it must be
removed on a regular basis to prevent accumulation in the tank. If sludge is not withdrawn regularly according to
operating schedules, the quality of the clarified water may deteriorate due to re-entrainment.
The sludge from the sedimentation tank has a large pollution potential because it contains all the suspended material
removed from the water together with the chemicals used for coagulation. It must therefore be disposed of in a proper
manner to prevent contamination of water source. The sludge is withdrawn from the sedimentation tank in a diluted
form (2-5% solids) and is sometimes thickened (Excess water removed) before disposal. At smaller treatment works
sludge is disposed of in sludge lagoons. The lagoons are large holding dams in which the sludge compacts and clear
water accumulates on top of the sludge. The clear water may be recycled to the inlet of the plant.
Disclaimer: This fact sheet was produced, primarily to distribute general knowledge on water (uses, users, information, management) to people in South
Africa. You use this at your own risk
Water purification
Flotation
Why is flotation used for water treatment?

Flotation is an effective process for the removal of relatively light types of flocs.
What does the flotation process involve?

Flotation involves the formation of small bubbles in water that has to be flocculated. The bubbles attach to the floc
causing them to rise to the surface where they are collected as a froth that is removed from the top of the flotation unit.
A typical flotation unit is illustrated below.
How is the fine bubbles formed?

Air is dissolved under pressure in a small amount of water in a device called a saturator. This water that is saturated
with dissolved air is added to the main stream of water that is to be treated. When the pressure is released after the
saturated water is mixed with the water to be treated, the dissolved air comes out of solution in the form of fine
bubbles.
How does flotation differ from sedimentation?

Both sedimentation and flotation remove the bulk of the flocs from the water. However, most of the time a small
amount of (broken) flocs or non-flocculated colloidal material remains in the water. This material has to be removed to
ensure a low enough turbidity in the water. A sufficiently low turbidity level is required for the effective disinfection of
the water and to remove all traces of murkiness from the water. Removal of turbidity to low levels is achieved by
means of sand filtration.
Sedimentation and flotation are two processes that perform the same function. Sedimentation is normally used when
raw water contains mainly silt or clay particles, while flotation is normally used when the raw water contains algae or
other types of organic material.
Water purification
Coagulation and flocculation
What does coagulation involve?

Coagulation is the process by means of which the colloidal particles are destabilised (i.e. the nature of the colloidal
particles is changed so that they form flocs through the process of flocculation that can be separated from the water).
Destabilisation is achieved through the addition of chemicals (called coagulants) to the water.
Different chemicals can be used as coagulants. The most common coagulants are aluminium sulphate, ferric
chloride, lime, and polyelectrolytes. Coagulant-aids are also sometimes used. These are substances added in very
small quantities to improve the action of the primary coagulant (See fact sheet on Coagulant Chemicals).
What does flocculation involve?

Flocculation is considered to be part of the coagulation process and can take place in different types of equipment. A
simple mechanical stirrer can be used for flocculation or a specially designed channel with baffles to create the
desired flow conditions can also be used to flocculate the particles in the water. The basis of the design of a
flocculation channel is that the flow velocity of the water has to be reduced from a high initial value to a much lower
value to enable large, strong flocs to grow. If the flow velocity is too high the flocs may break up again, causing
settling of the broken flocs to be incomplete.
The objective of the flocculation step is to cause the individual destabilised colloidal particles to collide with one
another and with the precipitate formed by the coagulant in order to form larger floc particles. Flocculation involves
the stirring of water to which a coagulant has been added at a slow rate, causing the individual particles to collide
with each other and with the flocs formed by the coagulant. In this way the destabilised individual colloidal particles
are agglomerated and incorporated into the larger floc particles.
Flocculation is controlled through the introduction of energy into the water (through paddles or by means of baffles in
the flocculation channel) to produce the right conditions (required velocity gradient) for flocs to grow to the optimum
size and strength. The velocity gradient (or G-value) is an extremely important factor that determines the probability of
particles to collide and form flocs. If the G-values are too low, the probability of collisions is low and poor floc
formation results. If it is too high, shear forces become large and this may result in floc break-up.
Acceptable G-1
-1
values for the coagulation process is between 400 and 100 s . For the flocculation process, it is in the order of 100s .
How is the fine bubbles formed?

bubbles.

Both sedimentation and flotation remove the bulk of the flocs from the water. However, most of the time a small
amount of (broken) flocs or non-flocculated colloidal material remains in the water. This material has to be removed to
ensure a low enough turbidity in the water. A sufficiently low turbidity level is required for the effective disinfection of
the water and to remove all traces of murkiness from the water. Removal of turbidity to low levels is achieved by
means of sand filtration
Sedimentation and flotation are two processes that perform the same function. Sedimentation is normally used when
raw water contains mainly silt or clay particles, while flotation is normally used when the raw water contains algae or
other types of organic material.
Water purification
Coagulation chemicals
Different chemicals can be used as coagulants. The most common coagulants are aluminium sulphate, ferric chloride,
lime and polyelectrolytes. Coagulant-aids are also sometimes used. These are substances added in very small
quantities to improve the action of the primary coagulant. The characteristics of the different coagulants and the way in
which they function are as follows:
Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3.16H2O) is commonly used as a coagulant. The alum is dissolved in the water and
3+
the aluminium ions (Al ) that form, have a high capacity to neutralise the negative charges which are carried by the
colloidal particles and which contribute to their stability. The aluminium ions hydrolyse and form aluminium hydroxide
(Al(OH)3), which precipitates as a solid. During flocculation when the water is slowly stirred, the aluminium hydroxide
flocs catch or enmesh the small colloidal particles. The flocs settle readily and most of them can be removed in a
sedimentation tank.
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) is commonly used as a coagulant. When added to water, the ion precipitates as ferric
hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) and the hydroxide flocs enmesh the colloidal particles in the same way as the aluminium
hydroxide flocs do. The optimum pH for precipitation of iron is not as critical as with aluminium and pH values of
between 5 and 8 give good precipitation.
Lime can also be used as coagulant, but its action is different from that of alum and ferric chloride. When lime is
added to water the pH increases, resulting in the formation of carbonate ions from the natural alkalinity in the water.
The increase in carbonate concentration together with calcium added in the lime results in the precipitation of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The calcium carbonate crystals enmesh colloidal particles in the same way as alum or ferric
flocs. When lime is used as a coagulant, the pH has to be lowered in order to stabilise the water chemically. Carbon
dioxide is normally used for this purpose.
Polyelectrolytes are mostly used to assist the flocculation process and are often called flocculation aids. They are
polymeric organic compounds of long polymer chains that act to enmesh particles in the water. Polyelectrolytes can
be cationic (carrying a positive charge), anionic (carrying a negative charge) or non-ionic (carrying no net charge).
Aluminium polymers, such as poly-aluminium chloride that give rapid flocculation, efficient removal of organics
and less alum under certain conditions, but at a higher cost.
Activated silica is sometimes used as a flocculant together with alum as coagulant.

Bentonite and/or kaolin are sometimes added to water when the water to be flocculated contains too few particles
for effective flocculation.
bubbles.
Using a world first technique, CSIRO has found convincing evidence that the use of alum - aluminium sulphate - to treat drinking
water is safe.
"We found that the aluminium we get from alum-treated drinking water is such an insignificant amount we don't need to worry. Only 1-2% of our
daily intake of aluminium comes from water and of this, only the barest trace is absorbed. Much of the aluminium that is absorbed is then
excreted in urine," CSIRO scientist Dr Jenny Stauber says. The results have significance for water authorities around the world who use alum to
clarify drinking water as part of the water treatment process. Alum is later filtered from the water, but a small fraction dissolves and is not
removed. The cause of Alzheimer's disease is subject to international research. A variety of possible causes have been considered however
no link between aluminium intake and Alzheimer's has been established. However some conflicting evidence in earlier studies suggested that
aluminium that is left in treated drinking water may be more readily taken up by the body than aluminium from other sources.
"Aluminium is the Earth's third most common element and occurs naturally in food and water. Most of the aluminium we consume in our food
and drinking water is not absorbed and goes straight through our bodies to be excreted in faeces. What we were interested in was the trace that
is absorbed into our blood," Dr Stauber says. "If aluminium from water were to significantly increase the total amount of aluminium in the human
body, it would have to be in a form that is much more easily absorbed into our bloodstream ( i.e. more bioavailable) than aluminium in food
(which has low bioavailability). This is because a greater proportion of our daily intake of aluminium comes from food," Dr Stauber says. "We
were able to calculate that aluminium from alum-treated drinking water would contribute less than 1 per cent to our body burden of aluminium
over a lifetime. However the good news is that a related study on food shows that even what we get from food is well within the safe limits
determined by the World Health Organisation," Dr Stauber says.
CSIRO, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. Media Release: Ref 98/258. 2 November 1998
Water Purification: Disinfection

Overview
What does disinfection entail?
Disinfection of water entails the addition of the required amount of a chemical agent or disinfectant (e.g. Chlorine
gas, Cl2, ozone, chlorine dioxide and other chlorine compounds such as calcium hypochlorite (HTH), sodium
hypochlorite (bleach) and monochloramine) to the water and allowing contact between the water and disinfectant for a
predetermined period of time (under specified conditions of pH and temperature).
The term disinfection of water refers to the destruction of harmful micro-organisms in water to make it fit for domestic
use. Water that is disinfected is safe to drink but it may still contain harmless micro-organisms.
Sterilisation on the other hand, refers to the destruction of all organisms and applies only to specific applications
such as the production of water for sterile intravenous drips, etc.
Other methods of disinfection of water include boiling of the water or irradiation with ultra-violet light.
Is disinfection still necessary after suspended and colloidal matter has been removed?
A large fraction of bacteria and larger micro-organisms are removed during clarification processes, especially by sand
filtration. However, many bacteria and viruses still remain in clarified water even at low turbidity levels.
What else can be done to ensure that drinking water is safe?

Before disinfection, there are several other precautions that can keep drinking water safe:
Prevent pathogens from entering the water sources.
Clarify the water to remove the maximum number of micro-organisms from the water
Disinfect the water source.
Check for effectiveness of disinfection or whether the water is safe to drink, by:
Testing of indicator organisms, e.g. E. coli
Determining the amount of residual chlorine in the water. If there is residual chlorine present in water with
a low turbidity, it can normally be accepted that the water is safe to drink.
(Indicator organisms are microbes of faecal origin occurring in large numbers in faeces, but which are causative
themselves of the particular disease under consideration, but which indicate the presence of faecal contamination of
water, and thus the possibility of the presence of disease causing microbes).
Africa. You use this at your own risk.

Chlorination
How does disinfection by means of chlorine take place?
Chlorine is a strong oxidising agent and it reacts and oxidises some of the essential systems of micro-organisms,
thereby inactivating or destroying them. The different forms, in which chlorine is used for disinfection, have different
oxidising powers:
Chlorine gas
Delivered to the plant in gas cylinders and the chlorine are introduced into the water by means of special dosing
devices (chlorinators). Chlorine gas is the form of chlorine that is most commonly used at large-scale plants.
Calcium hypochlorite (commonly known as HTH)
Available in granular or tablet form and is therefore a very convenient to use, especially for smaller or rural plants. It
contains between 65% and 70% of available chlorine, it is relatively stable and can be stored for long periods (months)
in a cool dry environment.
Sodium hypochlorite (commonly known as household bleach)
Bleach is available as a solution, containing about 6 to 8 % available chlorine. It is relatively unstable and deteriorates
fairly rapidly, especially when exposed to sunlight, forming HOCl and OCl upon dissociation.
Monochloramine (NH2Cl or combined available chlorine)
Formed when HOCl is added to water that contains a small amount of ammonia. The ammonia reacts with HOCl to
form monochloramine. It is much less effective as a disinfectant than HOCl, however, it has the same advantage of
being much more stable in water than free available chlorine, rendering it more suitable for providing residual
protection in larger distribution systems.
How is disinfection by means if chlorine controlled?

Chlorine concentration. Normally, sufficient chlorine must be added to water to give a free chlorine residual of not
less than 0,2 mg/l after 20 minutes contact time.
Chlorine contact time. This is the time of contact between the dissolved chlorine and each unit or pocket of water.
pH. Tables are available that give combinations of dosage and contact time at different pH values.
Turbidity. When water contains colloidal particles, they may shield the micro-organisms from the action of the
disinfectant, or alternatively react with the chlorine and in this way prevent effective disinfection.
Exposure to sunlight and water temperature. Chlorine in water is rapidly broken down by sunlight to the inactive
chloride ion Cl , which has no disinfecting power. Therefore chlorine contact tanks should always be covered and
chlorine compounds should be stored in the dark.
Advantages:
Chlorination is a well-established technology.
Presently, chlorine is more cost-effective than either UV or ozone disinfection.
Chlorine disinfection is reliable and effective against a wide spectrum of pathogenic organisms.
Chlorine is effective in oxidizing certain organic and inorganic compounds.
Chlorine can eliminate certain noxious odors while disinfecting.
ETI (Environmental Technology Initiative). Project funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Assistance Agreement No. CX824652
Disadvantages:
All forms of chlorine are highly corrosive and toxic. Thus, storage, shipping, and handling pose a risk, requiring increased safety regulations.

UV Radiation
How does UV radiation work?
Ultraviolet or UV-light is light outside the range usually detectable by the human eye. It can be used to deactivate
protozoans so that they can't reproduce and to significantly reduce the bacteria in water.
UV radiation kills or inactivates micro-organisms, provided each organism receives a minimum amount of radiation.
UV radiation functions on the principle that each unit of water must be exposed to the radiation for a minimum amount
of time at minimum dosage intensity
Commercial UV units are used to disinfect water in many small- and large-scale water treatment plants. UV
disinfection units have been used for many years and the process is accepted as an effective disinfection method.
It is important that the water to be disinfected is properly pre-treated to ensure a low turbidity, preferably lower than
0,5 NTU. If the water contains high turbidity levels the colloids either absorb some of the radiation or shield the microorganisms against radiation, which reduces the effectiveness of the process.
A further important aspect is that the UV tubes are prone to the formation of layers of scale or other fouling material.
This also reduces the effectiveness of radiation. It is therefore important that the tubes are regularly inspected and
cleaned to prevent formation of scale or accumulation of other material on them.
What are the disadvantages and advantages of UV radiation?

UV is as effective as chlorine in destroying micro-organisms.
The main advantage of UV disinfection compared to chlorine for small-scale and rural applications is that the handling
and dosing of hazardous chlorine compounds is eliminated.
UV disinfection is a physical process rather than a chemical disinfectant; thus eliminating the need to generate, handle, transport, or store
toxic/hazardous or corrosive chem
There is no residual effect that can be harmful to humans or aquatic life.
UV disinfection has a shorter contact time when compared with other disinfectants (approximately 20 to 30 seconds with low-pressure lamps).
UV disinfection equipment requires less space than other methods.
The main disadvantage of UV disinfection is the fact that there is no residual protection against re-contamination. It
also has a high operating cost and it must be kept in mind that anything which blocks UV light from reaching the water
will result in a lack of treatment.
Low dosages may not effectively inactivate some viruses, spores, and cysts.
Turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS) in the wastewater can render UV disinfection ineffective. UV disinfection with low-pressure lamps
is not as effective for secondary effluent with TSS levels above 30 mg/L.
UV disinfection is not as cost-effective as chlorination, but costs are competitive when chlorination-dechlorination is used.
here is no measurable residual to indicate the efficacy of UV disinfection.

Ozone
What is ozone?
Oxygen in the air (O2) is composed of two oxygen molecules. Under certain conditions, three oxygen atoms can be
bound together instead, forming ozone (O3). It is also referred to as activated or enriched oxygen.
Ozone occurs naturally in the earth's atmosphere and protects us from the sun's harmful rays. Thousands of tons of
ozone are produced daily during thunderstorms or around high-tension lines.
Ozone is applied commercially as a disinfectant instead of chlorine and other disinfectants. It is used in air and water
purification. It destroys algae, bacteria, molds and mildews, eliminates spores, yeast and fungus and inactivates
viruses and cysts
How does ozone disinfect water?

By oxidation of specific cell wall components, the ozone disinfects water and kills bacteria. However, ozone is non
specific and it will oxidise many different types of chemicals, both organic and inorganic, e.g. manganese, iron, or
minerals, proteins or other organics. The presence of these components will reduce the concentration of ozone in the
water and therefore, the germicidal properties of the gas.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of ozone treatment?

Advantages:
It does not leave any residual, harmful chemical in the water.
Ozonation does not produce any taste or odour in the water.
Ozone is absolutely environmentally friendly.
It kills all pathogenic organisms by a direct effect on their DNA.
Disinfection occurs 30,000 times faster than with chlorine, so a prolonged contact time is unnecessary.
As ozone is an unstable gas, it has to be produced on site, thus no gas or chemical storage facilities are
necessary.
There is no regrowth of microorganisms after ozonation, unlike ultraviolet and chlorine disinfection.
Ozone is generated onsite, and thus, there are fewer safety problems associated with shipping and handling.
Ozone decomposes rapidly, and therefore, it leaves no harmful residual that would need to be removed after treatment.
Disadvantages:
Ozone is a very powerful oxidant
The initial set-up is costly
High electricity consumption
Unlike chlorine and iodine, ozone does not protect the water after application.
Ozonation is more complex than other disinfection technologies.
Ozone is very reactive and corrosive, thus requiring corrosion-resistant material, such as stainless steel.
Ozone is extremely irritating and possibly toxic, so off-gases from the contactor must be destroyed to prevent worker exposure.
The cost of treatment is relatively high, being both capital- and power-intensive.
There is no measurable residual to indicate the efficacy of ozone disinfection.
Residual handling and treatment
What waste products are generated during water treatment?

Substances removed during water treatment form waste products. These substances include:
debris removed from the raw water by screens
suspended and colloidal material removed during sedimentation and filtration
In the case of specialised processes, different waste streams are formed such as the brine from desalination
plants.
How can waste be handled and disposed of?

There are different methods of handling and disposal of waste products. Organic wastes must be stabilised before
disposal, while inorganic wastes are normally concentrated or dewatered before disposal.
Sludge is produced at a water treatment plants. It contains colloidal and suspended material that settled in
the sedimentation tank. The quantity and quality of the sludge depends on the raw water quality and the type
of coagulant and flocculants used. For turbid waters (where the suspended solids concentration is more than
1000 mg/), about 1% to 3% of the water treated, can be generated as sludge.
Sludge must be discharged in its most concentrated form, as the water discharged with the sludge, is very
seldom reclaimed on a small works and is therefore lost.
At small water treatment works, holding ponds or dams are provided of sufficient size to hold all the sludge
produced at the water treatment works. The normal practice is to have two dams side by side, which would
allow the waterworks operator to take one dam out of operation, allow the clear water on top of the sludge
layer to drain out, or evaporate. The sludge is allowed to dry out after which it can then be removed from the
dry pond and used as a landfill on a suitable site.
The solids remaining in the water after sedimentation are removed in the sand filters. The suspended solids
remain in the upper layer of the sand in the filter bed and are removed during back washing of the filter bed,
forming the filter wash water which normally contains 100 to 1000mg/ solids. In small plants wash water is
gravitated to a holding tank or sludge lagoon, where most of the suspended matter settles and the overflow
runs into the nearest stream. At larger works, the supernatant from the wash water is returned to the head of
the works, after settling of the suspended solids. At an effective water treatment plant, the filter wash water
volume is between 2% and 5 % of the water treated volume.
Chemical wastes are produced in most treatment works. The chemicals used at the plant (coagulants,
stabilizing agents and disinfectants) are fed into day tanks, where they are diluted to be fed, with dosing
pumps or gravity feeders to the incoming raw water. When these tanks are cleaned, chemical wastes are
produced. It is good practice to clean these holding tanks on a regular basis and drain the residues into the
filter wash water/sludge system where it will find its way in the sludge lagoons.
The residues should not be discharged into a natural water course as it could lead to fish kills as slugs of the
residues could dramatically change the pH conditions in small ponds.
Screenings are substances removed by screens placed at the entrance of a water treatment works. The
purpose is to keep out weeds, algae and floating debris. These screenings consist of grass, weeds, wood,
etc. and could be disposed of in fills or could be burned.
Algae can be removed by mechanical screens or strainers, or by a flotation plant. These organic residues can
be disposed of in sludge lagoons, to an existing sewage works or dumped on waste heaps. The dried algae
can also be composted and then disposed of in landfills.
The processes used for the removal of dissolved inorganic substances always produce rejects and
concentrates, which must be disposed of and which require special methods to ensure that the environment
is not polluted. The usual method of disposal is in a lined dam with sufficient area to allow for full evaporation
and ensuring that overflow or leakage does not take place.
PACKAGE PLANTS
What is a package treatment plant?
The term package treatment plant is used to denote relatively small-scale treatment plants (usually less than 500
k/d), that are not constructed as permanent structures, but rather as movable units. Typically a package plant is preassembled and transported to site or assembled on site on a structure such as a container. Package plants can be
made up of conventional, as well as advanced treatment processes.
The concept of a package plant is that it must be a self-contained unit that is capable of producing water of the
required quality from the raw water source. Package treatment plants have been developed as a rapid way of
meeting the demand for treated water in situations where treated water is not available or where there is a temporary
need for water, e.g. construction sites.
Package plants are more and more used to meet the needs of rural or isolated communities for water supply where
the construction of a conventional treatment plant would not be feasible. This type of plant is also used to provide an
emergency water supply in crisis situations.
Which processes are used in a package treatment plant?

Most package plants consist of a series of conventional treatment processes similar to those used in a conventional
water treatment plant. There are also different package plants that employ advanced/specialised processes such as
membrane processes. The actual processes and objectives that are used in a package plant depend on the raw
water quality, the treatment objectives that are used in a package plant depend on the raw water quality, the treatment
objectives and circumstances and conditions under which the plant has to be operated.
Most package plants for community water supply from surface water sources employ conventional treatment
processes of:
Coagulation-flocculation
Sedimentation.
Sand filtration
Disinfection
The processes are similar to those of conventional treatment plants but the equipment used in a package plant often
is of a different design. For example, pressure sand filters are often used in package plants, compared to gravity
filters that are mostly used in conventional plants.
More information:
The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) at West Virginia University is a public service organization that
collects, develops, and distributes timely drinking water-related information.
(http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/ndwc/ndwc_about.htm).
A fact sheet Package Plants provides clear and concise information on:
How to select a package plant.
Types of package plants.
Advantages and limitations
Operation and maintenance
REFERENCES
DWAF (2002). Quality of domestic water supplies. Vol. 4: Treatment Guide. WRC No. TT 181/02, p. 16.
DWAF (2002). Quality of domestic water supplies. Vol. 4: Treatment Guide. WRC No. TT 1181/02, pp. 22 to 23.
DWAF (2002). Quality of domestic water supplies. Vol. 4: Treatment Guide. WRC No. TT 181/02, pp. 21 to 22.
DWAF (2002). Quality of domestic water supplies. Vol. 4: Treatment Guide. WRC No. TT 181/02.
DWAF (2002). Quality of domestic water supplies. Vol. 4: Treatment Guide. WRC No. TT 181/02, pp.32 - 37.
DWAF (2002). Quality of domestic water supplies. Vol. 4: Treatment Guide. WRC No. TT 181/02, pp. 33 - 36.
Canada Health (2005). Water treatment Devices for disinfection of drinking water
www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/water-eau/drink-potab/disinfect-desinfection_e.html
Aurozon (2007). Air and water treatment consultants. www.aurozon.com/index1.html
WISA (2002). Handbook for the operation of waste water treatment works. Ed. Phiilip Pybus.
DWAF (1998). Quality of domestic water supplies. Vol. 4: Treatment Guide. WRC No. TT 181/02
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CONTENTS

Why is flotation used for water treatment?

What does the flotation process involve?

How is the fine bubbles formed?

How does flotation differ from sedimentation?

What does coagulation involve?

What does flocculation involve?

How is the fine bubbles formed?

How does flotation differ from sedimentation?

Activated silica is sometimes used as a flocculant together with alum as coagulant.

How does flotation differ from sedimentation?

Water Purification: Disinfection

What else can be done to ensure that drinking water is safe?

Water Purification: Disinfection

How is disinfection by means if chlorine controlled?

Water Purification: Disinfection

What are the disadvantages and advantages of UV radiation?

Water Purification: Disinfection

How does ozone disinfect water?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of ozone treatment?

Residual handling and treatment

What waste products are generated during water treatment?

How can waste be handled and disposed of?

Which processes are used in a package treatment plant?

Copyright WAMTechnology CC. All Rights Reserved

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