Dr.

Aimi Syamimi binti Ab Ghafar / Cik Sumaiya binti Mashori

D1-118
Office : 07-4533005 / Mobile : 0175233915
[email protected]

 Introduction to Measurement System

Introduction to Sensor Technologies
Temperature Sensors and Measurement
Sensing Methods

Thermoelectric Effect
Varying Resistance Device Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Radiation Thermometers
Thermography (Thermal Imaging)
Thermal Expansion Method
Quartz Thermometers
Fibre-Optic Temperature Sensors
Acoustic Thermometers

Characteristic and Typical Applications

Selection of Temperature Sensors
2

 Process a system which generates information

Observer a person who needs this information from the process
Purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process.

The observer is presented with a number which is the current value of the
information variable.
Measured variable information variable

R.S. Figliola and D.E. Beasley, Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements

 Ideal measurement system measured value = true value

Accuracy of a system closeness of the measured value to the true value

A perfectly accurate system is a theoretical ideal and the accuracy of a real

system is quantified using measurement system error, E

=
=
Example #1: measured value of flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m3/h and

the true value is 11.2 m3/h, then the error E = 0.2 m3/h
Example #2: measured value of rotational speed of an engine is 3140 rpm

and the true value is 3133 rpm, then E = +7 rpm

Error is the main performance indicator for a measurement system
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 Sensing element
In contact with the process and gives an output which depends on the variable to be

measured. Examples:
Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain

Signal conditioning element

Takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more suitable for

further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency

Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts
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 Signal processing element

Takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more suitable for
presentation. Examples:
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital
Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming digital data

Data presentation element

Presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognised by the observer.
Examples:
Simple pointerscale indicator

Chart recorder
Alphanumeric display

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Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)

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 Any given temperature cannot be related to a fundamental standard of

temperature in the same way that the measurement of other quantities

can be related to the primary standards of mass, length, and time
If two bodies of lengths, 1 and 2 , are connected together end to end,

the result is a body of length 1 + 2

However, if two bodies at the same temperature are connected

together, the joined body has the same temperature as each of the
original bodies.
Length

Temperature

3 = 1 + 2

3 1 + 2
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 In the absence of such a relationship, it is necessary to establish fixed, reproducible

reference points for temperature in the form of freezing and triple points of
substances where the transition among solid, liquid, and gaseous states is sharply
defined:
The triple point of hydrogen : -259.35C
The freezing point of zinc

: 419.53C

The freezing point of gold

: 1064.18C

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Change of state
of material

Color change

Thermoelectric
effect

Resistance
change
Sensitivity of
semiconductor
device

Sensitivity of
fiber-optic
devices

Temperature
measurement

Radiative heat
emission

Resonant
frequency
change

Thermography
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 Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that, when any two

different metals are connected together, an e.m.f., which is a function of the

temperature, is generated at the junction between the metals
The general form of this relationship is

= 1 + 2

+ 3

+ +

Approximately zero!

where e is the e.m.f. generated and T is the absolute temperature

Hence, the e.m.f.temperature relationship is approximately linear according to

1 (Eq.1)

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The e.m.f. temperature characteristics for some standard

thermocouple materials

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 The e.m.f. generated at the point where the

different wires are connected together is

represented by a voltage source, E1, and the
point is known as the hot junction
The temperature of the hot junction is

customarily shown as Th on the diagram

The e.m.f. generated at the hot junction is

measured at the open ends of

thermocouple, which is known as
reference junction

the
the

(a) Thermocouple and (b)

equivalent circuit

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 There are now three junctions in the system

and consequently three voltage sources, E1,

E2, and E3, with the point of measurement of
the e.m.f. (still called the reference junction)
being moved to the open ends of the
extension leads
The measuring system is completed by

connecting the extension leads to the

voltage-measuring instrument. As the
connection leads will normally be of
different materials to those of the
thermocouple
extension
leads,
this
introduces two further e.m.f.-generating
junctions E4 and E5

(a) Equivalent circuit for a thermocouple with

extension leads and (b) equivalent circuit for a
thermocouple and extension leads connected to a
20
meter

 The net output e.m.f. measured (Em) is then given by

= 1 +2 +3 + 4 +5 (Eq.2)

and this can be reexpressed in terms of 1 as

1 = 2 3 4 5 (Eq.3)
Law of intermediate metals: This states that the e.m.f. generated at the junction

between two metals or alloys A and C is equal to the sum of the e.m.f. generated at
the junction between metals or alloys A and B and the e.m.f. generated at the
junction between metals or alloys B and C, where all junctions are at the same
temperature
This can be expressed more simply as
= + (Eq.4)
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 The e.m.f. Em measured by the voltage-measuring

instrument is the sum of only two e.m.f.s, consisting

of the e.m.f. generated at the hot junction
temperature, E1, and the e.m.f. generated at the
reference junction temperature, Eref

The e.m.f. generated at the hot junction can then be

calculated as
1 = + (Eq.5)

can be calculated from (Eq.1) if the

temperature of the reference junction is known. In
practice, this is often achieved by immersing the
reference junction in an ice bath to maintain it at a
reference temperature of 0 C

Effective e.m.f. sources in a

thermocouple measurement system 22

 Use tables of e.m.f. and temperature values known as thermocouple tables. These

include compensation for the effect of the e.m.f. generated at the reference
junction (Eref), which is assumed to be at 0 C
Example 1
If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromelconstantan thermocouple is 13.419

mV with the reference junction at 0 C, the appropriate column in the tables shows
that this corresponds to a hot junction temperature of 200 0 C

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DIFFICULT TO
ACHIEVE!

Thermocouple temperature measurement circuits

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 It is common practice in many practical applications of thermocouples to maintain the

reference junction at a nonzero temperature by putting it into a controlled environment

maintained by an electrical heating element
In order to still be able to apply thermocouple tables, correction then has to be made

for this nonzero reference junction temperature using a second thermoelectric law
known as the law of intermediate temperatures. This states that:
,0 = , + ,0

(Eq.6)

,0 = e.m.f. with junctions at temperatures Th and T0

, = e.m.f. with junctions at temperatures Th and Tr

,0 = e.m.f. with junctions at temperatures Tr and T0
T0 = 0 C
Tr is the nonzero reference junction temperature that is somewhere between T0 and Th
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 Example 1
Suppose that the reference junction of a chromelconstantan thermocouple is

maintained at a temperature of 80 C and the output e.m.f. measured is 40.102 mV

when the hot junction is immersed in a fluid
Solution:

Tr = 80 C, , = 40.102 mV
From the Table, ,0 = 4.983 mV
Apply Eq.6, ,0 = 40.102 + 4.983 = 45.085 mV
Again referring to the tables, this indicates a fluid temperature of 600 C

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 Sensing Methods
Thermoelectric Effect
Varying Resistance Device Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Radiation Thermometers
Thermography (Thermal Imaging)
Thermal Expansion Method
Quartz Thermometers
Fibre-Optic Temperature Sensors
Acoustic Thermometers
Characteristic and Typical Applications

Selection of Temperature Sensors

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