Symmetrical Faults

SYMMETRICAL
FAULTS

10/8/13
Revised: 10/8/13 1:49 PM
Symmetrical Faults
What is a fault?

A faults is any failure which interferes with the normal ow of
current.

Most faults on transmission lines of 115 kV and higher are caused
by lightning, which results in the ashover of insulators causing a
low impedance path to ground.

Line-to-line faults not involving ground are less common.

Experience shows that 70 to 80% of transmission line failures are
single line-to-ground faults.

Permanent faults are caused by lines being on the ground,
insulator strings breaking, ice loads, and equipment failure.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
What is a fault?

Roughly 5% of all faults involve all three phases and these are
called symmetrical three-phase faults or just symmetrical faults.

Line-to-line faults that do not involve ground and double line-to-
ground faults are called unsymmetrical faults since they cause an
imbalance between the phases.

The currents which ow in a power system immediately a\er the
occurrence of a fault dier from those owing a few cycles later
just before the circuit breakers are called upon to open the line
on both sides of the fault.
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Symmetrical Faults
What is a fault?

Two factors which determine the proper selecôn of circuit
breakers are the current owing immediately a\er the fault
occurs and the current which the breaker must interrupt.

In fault analysis values of these currents are calculated for
dierent types of faults at dierent locaôns in the system.

The informaôn obtained form these calculaôns are used to
determine the relay se_ng that control the circuit breakers.
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Symmetrical Faults
Transients in Series RL Circuits

The selecôn of a circuit breaker depends on:
normal opera^ng current
the current it has to interrupt
the maximum current it may have to momentarily carry
How does an over-current occur?

To approach the problem of calcula^ng the iniâl current when a
system is short-circuited, consider what happens when an ac
voltage is applied to an RL circuit.
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Symmetrical Faults
Mo^vaôn Transients in Series RL Circuits

t=0
L
R

i (t )
Vmax sin ( t + )

Dierenâl equaôn: Vmax sin ( t + ) = Ri + L di
dt

Soluôn: i (t ) = Vmax sin ( t + ) e Rt L sin ( )
Z
Z = R 2 + 2 L2 , = tan 1 ( L R )
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Symmetrical Faults
Mo^vaôn Transients in Series RL Circuits

Vmax

sin ( t + ) e Rt L sin ( )
i (t ) =
Z

ac-component
dc-component
constant

exponenâlly
amplitude
decaying

= 0

2

What about when a real synchronous generator is shorted?
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Symmetrical Faults
Review of Synchronous Generators.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
The Synchronous Generator

The synchronous generator is driven by a turbine to convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

The windings of the synchronous machine consDtute a group of
inducDvely coupled electric circuits, some of which rotate relaDve to
others so that the mutual inductances are variable.

The models developed for the the various windings are applicable to
both steady-state and transient analysis. Only linear magneDc
circuits are considered.
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Symmetrical Faults

The two principal parts of a synchronous machine are
ferromagneDc structures. The staDonary part (a hollow cylinder),
called the armature (see next slide), has longitudinal slots in which
there are coils of the armature windings. These carry the current to
an electrical load.

The rotor is the part of the machine which is mounted on the shaM
and rotates ins ide the hollow stator. The winding on the rotor,
called the eld winding, is supplied with dc current. The ux across
the air gap between the armature and rotor generates voltages in
the coils of the armature windings.
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Symmetrical Faults
10
The Synchronous Generator Two Types

Armature
Armature
Gap
Gap
Rotor
S
Rotor
N
X
The cylindrical rotor is called

a non-salient pole machine.
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The non-cylindrical rotor is

called a salient pole machine.
Symmetrical Faults
11

For the two-pole machine, one cycle of voltage is generated for
each revoluDon of the two-pole rotor. In the four-pole machine, two
cycles are generated in each armature coil per revoluDon.

Since the number of cycles of revoluDon equals the number of pairs
of poles, the frequency of the generated voltage is:

PN P
f =
= f m Hertz

2 60 2

where f is the electrical frequency in Hertz, P is the number of poles,
N is the rotor speed in RPM, and fm = N/60 is the mechanical
frequency in rpm.

We see that a two-pole, 60 Hz machine operates at 3600 rpm, while
a four-pole machine operates at 1800 rpm.
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Symmetrical Faults
12
The Synchronous Generator Cylindrical Rotor, Non-Salient

Pole Machine
Gap
Armature
Rotor
S
Direct Axis
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d-axis
Symmetrical Faults
13
The Synchronous Generator Non-cylindrical Rotor, Salient Pole

Machine

Armature

WELL COME BACK
TO THIS SHORTLY.
S
Gap
Rotor
d-axis
Direct Axis
q-axis
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Quadrature Axis
Symmetrical Faults
14
The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

a-axis
R, Laa
d-axis
ia +a
Staônary Armature
va
d-axis
R, L ff
if
+ v ff
R, Lbb
+ vb
b-axis
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ib
rotaôn
R, Lcc
vc
Symmetrical Faults
+
c ic
c-axis
15

a-axis
R, Laa
ia +a
d-axis
va
Staônary Armature
Laf
R, L ff
if
+ v ff
R, Lbb
+ vb
b-axis
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rotaôn
ib
Lcf
R, Lcc
Lbf
vc
Symmetrical Faults
+
c ic
c-axis
16

a-axis
R, Laa
ia +a
d-axis
va
Lac = Lca = M s
R, L ff
if
+ vb
b-axis
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rotaôn
+ v ff
R, Lbb
ib
Staônary Armature
Laf
Lab = Lba = M s
Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Ls
Lcf
R, Lcc
Lbf
Lbc = Lcb = M s
Symmetrical Faults
vc
+
c ic
c-axis
17

a-axis
R, Laa
ia +a
d-axis
va
Lac = Lca = M s
R, L ff
if
+ vb
b-axis
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rotaôn
+ v ff
R, Lbb
ib
Staônary Armature
Laf
Lab = Lba = M s
Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Ls
Lcf
R, Lcc
Lbf
Lbc = Lcb = M s
Symmetrical Faults
vc
+
c ic
c-axis
18
Laf = M f cos d
Lbf = M f cos ( d 120 )
Lcf = M f cos ( d 240 )
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Symmetrical Faults
19
Armature Flux Linkages

a = Laa ia + Labib + Lac ic + Laf i f = Ls ia M s ( ib + ic ) + Laf i f

b = Lba ia + Lbbib + Lbc ic + Lbf i f = Ls ib M s ( ia + ic ) + Lbf i f

c = Lca ia + Lcbib + Lcc ic + Lcf i f = Ls ic M s ( ia + ib ) + Lcf i f

Armature Flux Linkages

f = Laf ia + Lbf ib + Lcf ic + L ff i f

Balanced Three-Phase System
ia + ib + ic = 0
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Symmetrical Faults
20
Algebra

a = ( Ls + M s ) ia + Laf i f

b = ( Ls + M s ) ib + Lbf i f

c = ( Ls + M s ) ic + Lcf i f

Since the eld current is dc and the eld rotates with constant
angular velocity,
d d
= , d = t + o , i f = I f
dt
a = ( Ls + M s ) ia + M f I f cos ( t + o )
b = ( Ls + M s ) ib + M f I f cos ( t 120 + o )
c = ( Ls + M s ) ic + M f I f cos ( t 240 + o )
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Symmetrical Faults
21
Circuit Equaôns

va = Ra ia d a = Ra ia ( Ls + M s ) dia + M f I f sin ( t + o )
dt
dt
ea = 2 Ei sin ( t + o )

generator

Internal emf: ea = 2 Ei sin
(
t + o ) (or synchronous emf)

Mf If
where: Ei =
2

For convenience (its arbitrary anyway) set o = + 90

We have the circuit model
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Symmetrical Faults
22

R
di
va = Ra ia ( Ls + M s ) a
dt
+ M f I f sin ( t + o )
~
eb
Ls + M s
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+
va
Ls + M s
+
_
ia a
ea = 2 Ei cos ( t + )
ec
vc
Ls + M s
ic +
c
Symmetrical Faults
ib
vb
+
23

Also:

ia = 2 I a cos ( t + a )

ib = 2 I a cos ( t + a 120 )

ic = 2 I a cos ( t + a 240 )

where a is the phase angle of the lag of the current ia with respect
to ea.
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Symmetrical Faults
24

ia = 2 I a cos ( t + a )
L
+
M

R
s
s

+

va = 2 Va cos t

ea = 2 Ei cos ( t + )

This is a steady-state model that misses details of the eld current
needed for transient analysis.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
25

To facilitate transient analysis (as with a fault) it is necessary to
recast this model into a dierent form.

Recall: f = Laf ia + Lbf ib + Lcf ic + L ff i f

Laf = M f cos d
and:
Lbf = M f cos ( d 120 )

Lcf = M f cos ( d 240 )
Subs^tu^ng:
f = M f ia cos d + ib cos ( d 120 ) + ic cos ( d 240 ) + L ff i f

i cos = 2 I cos cos ( t + )
a
d
a
d
a
= 2 I a cos ( t + + 90 ) cos ( t + a )
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Symmetrical Faults
26
To facilitate a symmetric fault it helps to recast this model a bit.

ia cos d = 2 I a cos d cos ( t + a )
= 2 I a cos ( t + + 90 ) cos ( t + a )
2cos cos = cos ( ) + cos ( + )
=
=
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Ia
2
Ia
2
cos ( a + 90 ) + cos ( 2 t + 2 a + 90 )
sin a sin ( 2 t + 2 a )
Symmetrical Faults
27
Similarly for the other two terms:

Ia
sin a sin ( 2 t + 2 a 120 )
ib cos ( d 120 ) =

2

Ia

sin a sin ( 2 t + 2 a 240 )
ic cos ( d 240 ) =
2

Subs^tu^ng:

i a cos d + ib cos ( d 120 ) + ic cos ( d 240 )

3sin a
= I a + sin 2 t + 2 + sin 2 t + 2 120 + sin 2 t + 2 240

(
(
) (
)
a)
a
a
=0

Ia

a This is a balanced second harmonic terms that
= 3
sin
2 sums to zero at every point in Dme.
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Symmetrical Faults
28
Subs^tu^ng:

f = M f ia cos d + ib cos ( d 120) + ic cos ( d 240) + L ff i f

M f Ia
3

= L ff i f 3
sin a = L ff i f +
M f id
2
2

where id = 3 I a sin a

2
or
ia cos d + ib cos ( d 120 ) + ic cos ( d 240 )
id =
3
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Symmetrical Faults
29
Observaôns:

3

f = L ff i f +
M f id , id = 3 I a sin a
2

The ux linkages with the eld winding that are due to a
combinaôn of the the three line currents do not vary with ^me.

They can thus be regarded as coming from a steady dc current id in
a c^ôus dc circuit coincident with the d-axis and thus staônary
with respect to the eld circuit.

The two circuits rotate together in synchronism and have mutual
inductance (3/2)1/2Mf between them.

Circuit model
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
30
Alternate Circuit Model Suitable for Transient Analysis

a-axis
d
d-axis
3
Mf
2
id
Armature equivalent winding
rota^ng with rotor
f
R, L ff
+ v ff
Field winding rota^ng with rotor
b-axis
c-axis
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Symmetrical Faults
31
Example A 60-Hz three-phase synchronous generator with

negligible armature resistance has the following inductance
parameters:

Laa = Ls = 2.7656mH , Lab = M s = 1.3828mH

L ff = 433.6569mH , M f = 31.6950mH

The machine is rated at 635 MVA, 0,9 power-factor lagging, 3600
rpm, 24 kV. When opera^ng under rated condiôns, the line-to-
neutral terminal voltage and the line current of phase a are

va = 19596cos t V , ia = 21603cos ( t 25.6569 )

Determine the magnitude of the synchronous internal voltage, the
eld current If, and the ux linkages with the eld winding. Repeat
these calculaôns when a load of 635 MVA is served at rated
voltage and unity power factor. What is the eld current for rated
armature voltage on a open circuit?
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
32
Example
24,000

va = 2
= 19596V
3

VA
635,000

ia =
= 2
= 21603A
V

3 24

= cos 1 0.9 = 25.8419, lagging

Synchronous Internal Voltage:
max
max
ea = 2 Ei cos ( t + )
dia
3 dia
= Ra ia + va + ( Ls + M s )
= va + ( 2.7656 + 1.3828)10
dt
dt
3 d
= 19596cos t + 21603( 2.7656 + 1.3828)10
cos ( t 25.6569 )
dt
= 19596cos t 21603( 2.7656 + 1.3828)103 sin ( t 25.6569 )
=0
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Symmetrical Faults
33
= 120
Example
sin ( x y ) = sin x cos y cos x sin y

Synchronous Internal Voltage:

2 Ei cos ( t + )

= 19596cos t 21603( 2.7656 + 1.3828)103 sin ( t 25.6569)

= 19596cos t 33875sin ( t 25.6569 )

= 34323cos t 30407sin t
= 45855cos ( t + 41.5384)

2 Ei = 45855, = 41.5384

Mf If
Ei
Field Current: E =
I = 2
= 3838A
i
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Mf
Symmetrical Faults
34
Example

M f Ia
Flux linkages with eld windings: f = L ff i f 3
sin a
2

a is the angle of lag measured wrt ea. Since ia lags 25.8419o
behind va, which lags 41.5384o behind ea, then
a = 25.8419o + 41.5384o = 67.3803o

21603

I a sin a =
sin67.3803 = 14100.6 A
2

Thus:
M f Ia
f = L ff i f 3
sin a
2
= 433.6569 3838 10 3
31.6950
14100.6 103
2
= 1664.38 948.06 = 716.31 Weber-turns
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
35
Example Repea^ng for unity power factor:

3 dia
ea = 2 Ei cos ( t + ) = va + ( 2.7656 + 1.3828)10
dt

= 19596cos t 33785sin t = 39057cos ( t + 59.8854 )

Ei
39057

If = 2
=
3838 = 3269 A
M f 45855

The current ia is in-phase with va, and lags ea by 59.8854o

I a sin a = 15276sin59.8854 = 13214 A
f = 433.6569 3269 10 3
3
31.6950
2
= 1417.62 888.43 = 529.19 Weber-turns
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Symmetrical Faults
13214 103
36
Example

We see that when the power factor of the load goes from 0.9
lagging to 1.0 under rated mega-voltamperes loading and voltage
condiDons, the eld current is reduced from 3838 to 3269 A . Also,
the net air-gap ux linking the eld winding of the generator
is reduced along with the demagneDzing inuence of armature
reacDon.

The eld current required to maintain rated terminal voltage in the
machine under open-circuit condiDons (ia = 0) is
Ei
19596 103
If = 2
=
= 1640 A
M f 120 31.695
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
37
The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

The round-rotor theory already just considered gives good results
for the steady-state performance of the synchronous machine.
However, for transient analysis we need to consider a two-axis
model.

We now introduce the two-axis model by means of the equaDons of
the salient-pole machine in which the air gap varies between poles.

The largest generaDng units are steam-turbine driven with round-
rotor construcDon; fossil-red units have two poles and nuclear
units have four pole s for reasons of economical design and
eciency. Hydroelectric generators usually have more pole-pairs
and are of salient-pole construcDon. These units run at lower
speeds so as to avoid mechanical damage due to centrifugal forces.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
38

The three-phase salient-pole machine, like its round-rotor
counterpart, has three symmetrically distributed armature windings
a, b, and c, and a eld winding f on the rotor which produces a
sinusoidal ux distribuDon around the air gap.

In both types of machines the eld sees the same air gap and
magneDzing paths in the stator regardless of the rotor posiDon.
Thus, the eld winding has constant self-inductance L.

Moreover, both machine have the same sinusoidal varying mutual
inductances as before. The dierence is that the self- inductances
Laa , Lbb, and Lcc and the mutual inductances Lab, Lbc, and Lca between
them are no longer constant but also vary as a funcDon of the rotor
angular displacement.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
39

a = Laa ia + Labib + Lac ic + Laf i f
Flux Linkages:
b = Lba ia + Lbbib + Lbc ic + Lbf i f

c = Lca ia + Lcbib + Lcc ic + Lcf i f

These look the same as seen before (Slide 19), but unlike the case
of the round rotor the Ls are no longer well-approximated by
constants.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
40

For the armature,

Self-inductances: Ls > Lm > 0

Laa = Ls + Lm cos 2 d

Lbb = Ls + Lm cos 2 ( d 2 3)

Lcc = Ls + Lm cos 2 ( d + 2 3)

Mostly based on
geometrical
Mutual-inductances: M s > Lm > 0
consideraôns
Lab = Lba = M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 )

Lbc = Lcb = M s Lm cos 2 ( d 2 )
Lca = Lac = M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 5 6 )

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
41

For the rotor,
Self-inductances:
L ff
Field winding:
D-Damper winding: LD
Q-Damper winding: LQ

Mutual-inductances:
Field/D-winding: M r
Field/Q-winding: 0
Mostly based on
D-winding/Q-winding: 0
geometrical

consideraôns
Armature/Field: Laf = L fa = M f cos 2 d
Lbf = L fb = M f cos 2 ( d 2 3)
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Lcf = L fc = M f cos 2 ( d 4 3)
Symmetrical Faults
42

Armature-damper winding mutual-inductances,

Armature/D-winding: What are these?

LaD = LDa = M D cos 2 d

LbD = LDb = M D cos 2 ( d 2 3)

LcD = LDc = M D cos 2 ( d 4 3)

Armature/Q-winding:
LaQ = LQa = M Q cos 2 d
LbQ = LQb = M Q cos 2 ( d 2 3)

LcQ = LQc = M Q cos 2 ( d 4 3)
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Symmetrical Faults
Mostly based on
geometrical
consideraôns
43

Damper Windings or
Amortisseur Windings
Shorting
Bar
Field Windings
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
44
Two-Axis Machine Model

Clearly the equaDons for the ux linkages of the salient-pole
machine are more complicated than their round-rotor counterparts.

Fortunately, the equaDons of the salient-pole machine can be
expressed in a simple form by transforming the a , b, and c variables
of the stator into corresponding sets of new variables, called the
direct-axis , quadrature-axis , and zero-sequence quanDDes
which are disDnguished by the subscripts d, q , and 0: respecDvely.

The three stator currents ia, ib, and ic can be transformed into three
equivalent currents, called the direct-axis current id, the quadrature-
axis current iq and the zero-sequence current io. The transformaDon
is made by a matrix P called Parks Transformaôn.
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Symmetrical Faults
45
Parks Transformaôn

Recall for the round rotor machine we found (Slide 30) id, what we
will now call the direct current as:

2

id =
3

q-axis

Quadrature Axis

S

d-axis
N
S
N
N

Direct Axis
rotaôn
d-axis

S

Note how the q-axis lags the d-axis by 90-degrees.
X
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
46
Parks Transformaôn

Note how the q-axis lags the d-axis by 90-degrees.

2

id =
3

2
ia sin d + ib sin ( d 120 ) + ic sin ( d 240 )
iq =

3

cos cos ( 120 ) cos ( 240 )

d
d
d
2

sin
P=
sin ( d 120 ) sin ( d 240 )
d
3

?
?
?

Dene P as a unitary matrix: P 1 = PT
The unitary property assures that the power is unaltered by P.
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Symmetrical Faults
47
Parks Transformaôn

cos cos ( 120 ) cos ( 240 )
d
d
d

sin
2
sin
120
sin
240
(
)
(
)
d
d
d

P=
3

1
1
1

2
2
2

Parks transformaDon gives what is known as the Two-Axis Model of
a salient pole generator.
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Symmetrical Faults
48
Parks Transformaôn

v
i

v
id
d
d
a
a
q = P b
vq = P vb
iq = P ib
i0
ic
c
vc
0
v0

The P-transformaDon denes a set of currents, voltages, and ux
linkages for three cDDous coils, one of which is the staDonary 0-
coil. The other two are the d-coil and the q-coil, which rotate in
synchronism with the rotor. The d- and q-coils have constant ux
linkages with the eld and any other windings which may exist on
the rotor. The resulDng d, q, and 0 ux-linkage equaDons are

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
49
Parks Transformaôn

For example, the resulDng d, q, and 0 ux-linkage equaDons are
from the stator ux-linkages as follows:

L
=L i +L i +L i +L i
a
aa a
ab b
ac c
af f
b = Lba ia + Lbbib + Lbc ic + Lbf i f

c = Lca ia + Lcbib + Lcc ic + Lcf i f

d
q
a a
= P b b
c c

d
P 1 q
0

d
q
0
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L
aa
= Lab

Lac
aa
= P Lab
Lac
Lab
Lbb
Lbc
Lab
Lbb
Lbc
L
a aa
b = Lab

c Lac
1
= P q

Lac
d
Lbc P 1 q
Lcc
0

Lac
d
1
Lbc P q
Lcc
0
Lab
Lac
Lbb
Lbc
Lbc
Lcc
i
af
a
ib + Lbf

ic Lcf
i
f
Laf

+ Lbf

Lcf
af
+ P Lbf
Lcf
i
f
i
f
Symmetrical Faults
50
Parks Transformaôn

SubsDtuDng for the Ls from the previous table:
L
Lab Lac
aa
Lab Lbb Lbc
Lac Lbc Lcc
Ls + Lm cos 2 d
M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 ) M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 5 6 )
= M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 ) Ls + Lm cos 2 ( d 2 3) M s Lm cos 2 ( d 2 )
M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 5 6 ) M s Lm cos 2 ( d 2 ) Ls + Lm cos 2 ( d + 2 3)
L
cos 2 d
cos 2 ( d + 6 )
cos 2 ( d + 5 6 )
Ms Ms
s
= Ms
Ls
M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 ) cos 2 ( d 2 3) cos 2 ( d 2 )
cos 2 ( d + 5 6 ) cos 2 ( d 2 ) cos 2 ( d + 2 3)

Ls
M s M s
cos 2 d
cos 2 ( d + 6 )
cos 2 ( d + 5 6 )
1 0 0
1 1 1
= ( Ls + M s ) 0 1 0 M 1 1 1 Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 ) cos 2 ( d 2 3) cos 2 ( d 2 )
0 0 1
1 1 1
cos 2 ( d + 5 6 ) cos 2 ( d 2 ) cos 2 ( d + 2 3)
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Symmetrical Faults
51
Parks Transformaôn

Now for the tedious part subsDtute all this

L
cos 2
L
L
1
0
0
1
1
1

L
L
L = ( L + M ) 0 1 0 M 1 1 1 L cos 2 ( + 6 )
0
0
1
1
1
1
cos 2 ( + 5 6 )
L
L

L
M cos 2
L
L

= P L
L
L P + P M cos 2 ( 2 3) i
L
L
L
M cos 2 ( 4 3)

cos cos ( 120) cos ( 240)
2 sin
sin ( 120 ) sin ( 240 )
P =
, P = P
3 1
1
1
2
2
2

to get
aa
ab
ac
ab
bb
bc
ac
bc
cc
cos 2 ( d + 6 )
cos 2 ( d 2 3)
cos 2 ( d 2 )
cos 2 ( d + 5 6 )
cos 2 ( d 2 )
cos 2 ( d + 2 3)
aa
ab
ac
ab
bb
bc
ac
bc
cc
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
52
Parks Transformaôn

3
L
0
0
i
to get d d
Mf
d

q = 0 Lq 0 iq + 2
0 0 0 L0 i0
0

where:
3
Direct-axis inductance: Ld = Ls + M s + Lm
2

3
L
=
L
+
M
Lm
Quadrature-axis inductance: q
s
s
2

Zero-sequence inductance: L0 = Ls 2 M s

all constants!
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
i
f
53
Parks Transformaôn

The equaDon for the ux linkages of the eld circuit remain
unchanged (Slide 28):
3
f = L ff I f +
M f id
2
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
54
Parks Transformaôn

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
55
Ignore damper winding for the moment.

a-axis
q-axis
iq
d-axis
3
Mf
2
id
R, Lq
R, Ld
Rotaôn
if
R, L ff
+ v ff
b-axis
All coils rotate together.

c-axis
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
56

The constant inductance coecients make for quite simple to use.
Physically, these simpler ux-linkage equaDons show that Ld is the
self-inductance of an equivalent d-axis armature winding which
rotates at the same speed as the eld and which carries current id to
produce the same mmf on the d-axis as do the actual stator
currents ia, ib, and ic.

Similarly for Lq and iq and the q-axis.

The cDDous d-axis winding and the eld winding represenDng the
physical eld can be considered to act like two coupled coils which
are staDonary with respect to each other as they rotate together
sharing the mutual inductance between them.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
57

Furthermore, the eld and the d-axis coil do not couple
magneDcally with cDDous q winding since it lags the d-axis in space
by 90.

The zero-sequence inductance L0 is associated with a staDonary
cDDous armature coil with no coupling to any other coils. Under
balanced condiDons this coil carries no current, and therefore we
omit it from our discussion .
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
58
Example To get a feeling for Parks Transformaôn

Under steady-state operaDng condiDons the armature of the
salient-pole synchronous generator carries symmetrical sinusoidal
three-phase currents:

ia = 2 I a sin ( d a )

ib = 2 I a sin ( d 120 a )

ic = 2 I a sin ( d 240 a )

Find the corresponding d-q-0 currents of the armature.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
59

cos cos ( 120 ) cos ( 240 )

d
d
d
i
ia
d

2 sin d sin ( d 120 ) sin ( d 240 )

iq =

ib
3 1
1
1

i0
ic

2
2
2

MulDply through:

2

cos d ia + cos ( d 120 ) ib + cos ( d 240 ) ic
id =
3

2
sin d ia + sin ( d 120 ) ib + sin ( d 240 ) ic
iq =

3

2 1
i0 = ( i a + ib + ic ) = 0 balanced three-phase
3 2
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
60

2sin x cos y = sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x y )
Simplifying
ia cos d = 2 I a sin ( d a ) cos d =
Ia
2
sin ( 2 d a ) sin a
ib cos ( d 120 ) = 2 I a cos ( d 120 ) sin ( d 120 d )

=
Ia
2
sin ( 2 d 240 a ) sin a
ic cos ( d 240 ) = 2 I a cos ( d 240 ) sin ( d 240 d )

=
10/8/13
Ia
2
sin ( 2 d 480 a ) sin a
Symmetrical Faults
61

SubsDtuDng

i = 2 I a sin ( 2 ) + sin ( 2 240 ) + sin ( 2 480 ) 3sin

d
d
a
d
a
d
a
a

3
2

=
0

= 3 I a sin a

It should come as no surprise that iq = 3 I a cos a

Note how the expression for id is EXACTLY the same as for the
round-rotor machine (see Slide 30).
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
62
VOLTAGE EQUATIONS

Remarkably simple in d, q, 0 variables.

As before, the line to neutral voltages are:

d a
va = Ria

dt

generator

d

vb = Rib b
dt

d c

vc = Ric
dt

These would be EXTREMELY dicult to deal with if leM in terms of a,
b, c, but simplify TREMENDOUSLY using Parks transformaDon, but
going from a, b, c to d, q, 0 is a bit tedious.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
63
Voltage Equaôns

General procedure lots of algebra:
MulDply both sides by P

i

v
i

va
a

a d a
a
a
d
vb = R ib b P vb = RP ib P b
dt

dt
vc
ic
c
vc
ic
c

i

vd
d
d
1
v = R i P P
q
q
q
dt

i0
0
v0

Note: P = P ( t ) since d = t + o
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
64
Voltage Equaôns

General procedure lots of algebra:
v
d
vq
v0
10/8/13
i

d
d
d
= R iq P P 1 q
dt
i0
0
= R
= R

id
d
d
d
d
iq PP 1 q P P 1 q
dt
dt
i0
0
0

id
d
d
d
d T
iq q P P q This is the work.
dt
dt
i0
0
0
Symmetrical Faults
65
Voltage Equaôns

It all simplies to:

d
d

v
i dt

d
d d

q
vq = R iq

dt
v0
i0 d

0

dt

d
where = d

q

+ d

0
dt
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
66
Voltage Equaôns Summary:

d d
d-axis vd = Rid
q
dt

3

f = L ff i f +
M f id
2

3
d = Ld id +
M f if

2

d q
+ d
q-axis vq = Riq
dt

q = Lq iq

and since the eld winding is not subject to the P-transformaDon
v ff = R f i f +
10/8/13
d f
dt
Symmetrical Faults
67
Circuit Model

if
v ff
vd = Rid Ld
Rf
Field winding
v ff = R f i f +
d f
L ff
3
M
2 f
R
Ld
id
+
vd
d-axis
armature equivalent winding
q +
dt
R
Lq
Symmetrical Faults
iq
+
vq
q-axis
armature equivalent winding
+ d
10/8/13
did
q
dt
vq = Riq Lq
diq
dt
d
68
Circuit Model

We see that the eld coil is mutually coupled to the d-coil on the d-
axis. The q-coil is magneDcally uncoupled from the other two
windings since the d-axis and the q-axis are spaDally in quadrature
with one another.

However, there is interacDon between the two axes by means of the
voltage sources which are rotaDonal emfs or speed voltages internal
to the machine due to the rotaDon of the rotor.

Note that the speed voltage in the d-axis depends on q, and
similarly, the speed voltage in the q-axis depends on d.

These sources represent ongoing electromechanical energy
conversion.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
69
Example No numbers, but again to appreciate the model

A direct current If is supplied to the eld winding of an unloaded
salient-pole synchronous generator rotaDng with constant angular
velocity . Determine the open-circuit armature voltages and their
d-q-0 components.
i
i

d
a 0
Since open circuited: i = P i = 0
q
b

ic 0
i0

SubsDtuDng these into:

d d
3
3
v
=
Ri
=
L
i
+
M
i
,
=
L
i
+
M f if

d
d
q
f
ff f
f d
d
d d
dt
2
2

d
d
vq = Riq q + d , q = Lq iq , v ff = R f i f + f
dt
dt

gives
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
70

d d
gives
v
=
q = 0
3
d
dt
d =
M f if

2
d q
3

q = 0
vq =
+ d =
M f if

dt
2
0 = 0

d 0
v0 = Ri0
=0

dt
Thus:
v
v
v v

d
d
a
a

T
vq = P vb vb = P vq

v0
v0
vc vc

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
71

1
cos d
sin d

2
0
v
va
d

1
2
T
cos ( d 120 ) sin ( d 120 )
3M i
vb = P vq =

3
2
2 f f
v0
vc
0
cos ( 240 ) sin ( 240 ) 1
d
d

sin d

3
sin ( d 120 ) M f i f
=

2
sin ( d 240 )

Again this is idenDcal to the round-rotor machine.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
72
Summary

Park's transformaDon replaces the physical staDonary windings of
the armature by:

1. A direct-axis circuit which rotates with the eld circuit and is
mutually coupled to it.
2. A quadrature-axis circuit which is displaced 90 from the d-axis,
and thus has no mutual inductance with the eld or other d-axis
circuits although it rotates in synchronism with them, and
3. A staDonary stand-alone 0-coil with no coupling to any other
circuit, and thus not shown.

This model is most useful in analyzing the performance of the
synchronous machine under short-circuit condiDons, which we now
(nally!) consider.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
73
TRANSIENT AND SUBTRANSIENT EFFECTS

When a fault occurs in a power network, the current owing is
determined by the internal emfs of the machines in the network, by
their impedances, and by the impedances in the network between
the machines and the fault.

The current owing in a synchronous machine immediately aMer the
occurrence of a fault diers from that owing a few cycles later and
from the sustained, or steady-state, value of the fault current. This
is because of the eect of the fault current in the armature on the
ux generaDng the voltage in the machine.

The current changes relaDvely slowly from its iniDal value to its
steady-state value owing to the changes in reactance of the
synchronous machine.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
74

Our interest now is in the inductance eecDve in the armature of
the synchronous machine when a three-phase short circuit suddenly
occurs at its terminals.

Before the fault occurs, suppose that the armature voltages are va,
vb, and vc, and that these give rise to the voltages vd, vq, and v0
according to Parks TransformaDon.

The short circuit of phases a , b, and c imposes the condiDons va = vb
= vc = 0 which lead to the condiDons vd = vq = 0.

Thus, to simulate short-circuit condiDons, the terminals of the d-axis
and q-axis circuits of the circuit model must also be shorted.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
75

if
v ff
Rf
Field winding
L ff
3
M
2 f
Ld
id
+
vd
R +
d-axis vd
+
vd
The switches S should be

interpreted in a symbolic
sense; namely, when the
switches are both open, the
sources - Vd and - Vq are in
the circuit, and when the
switches are closed, the two
sources are removed from
the circuit.

10/8/13
q +
+
q-axis vq
iq
+
vq
Lq
+
vq
+ d
Symmetrical Faults
76

Since the model is linear we now use superposiDon. Assume that
the rotor speed remains at its pre-fault steady-state value.

With both switches closed we have the steady-state operaDon of
the machine since the added sources vd and vq do nothing.

Suddenly opening the switches adds the series voltage sources vd
and vq producing the required short circuits.

Thus, the sources vd and vq determine the instantaneous
changes from the steady state due to the sudden short-circuit fault.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
77

We can calculate the fault-induced changes of all variables by
sewng the external sources v, vd and vq equal to zero and suddenly
applying the voltages vd and vq to the unexcited rotaDng
machine, as shown in the next slide.

The internal speed voltages q and d are iniDally zero because
ux linkages with all coils are zero in the (next) gure before
applying the voltages vd and vq.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
78

if
v ff = 0
Rf
Field winding
L ff
3
M
2 f
id
t=0
+
vd
Ld d-axis
q + = 0
R
Lq
q-axis
iq
t=0
+
vq
+ d = 0
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
79

3
M f id
From the d-axis summary: f = L ff i f +
2

3

d = Ld id +
M f if
2

3
M f id
we compute the change f = L ff i f +
2

3

d = Ld id +
M f i f
2

But since the eld winding is a closed, physical winding its ux
linkages (eld current) cannot change instantaneously, so set
1
f = 0 i f =
L ff
10/8/13
3
M f id
2
Symmetrical Faults
80

SubsDtuDng: i f = 1 3 M f id
L ff 2

3
into: d = Ld id +
M f i f
2

2
3 Mf
gives: d = Ld
id
2 L ff

The ux linkage per unit current denes the d-axis transient
inductance:
2

d
3 Mf
Ld =
= Ld

i
2 L
d
10/8/13
ff
Symmetrical Faults
81

2
M
3 f
The d-axis transient inductance: Ld = Ld
2 L ff

2
3 Mf
Since
>0
2 L ff

the direct-axis transient reactance Xd = Ld is always less than the
direct-axis synchronous reactance Xd = Ld.

Thus, following abrupt changes at its terminals, the synchronous
machine reects in its armature a transient reactance which is less
than its steady-state reactance.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
82
TRANSIENT AND SUBTRANSIENT EFFECTS Further Consideraôns

In dening Xd, we assume that the eld is the only physical rotor
winding. As previously menDoned, most salient-pole machines of
pracDcal importance have damper windings consisDng of shorted
copper bars through the pole faces of the rotor; and even in a
round-rotor machine, under short-circuit condiDons eddy currents
are induced in the solid rotor as if in damper windings.

The eects of the eddy-current damping circuits are represented by
direct-axis and quadrature-axis closed coils, which are treated in
very much the same way as the eld winding except that they have
no applied voltage.

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
83

To account for the addiDon of damper windings, we need only add
to our model the closed D-circuit and Q-circuit shown on the next
slide, which have self-inductances LD and LQ and mutual inductances
with the other windings as shown.

In the steady state the ux linkages are constant between all circuits
on the same rotor axis. The D- and Q-circuits are then passive
(having neither induced nor applied voltages) and do not enter into
steady-state analysis.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
84

+
Rf
if
v ff
3
M
2 f
id
+
vd
L ff
Field winding
Ld d-axis
MR
+
iD
RD
v D = 0 D-damper winding LD
q +
3
M
2 D
iQ
3
M
2 Q
+
RQ
vQ = 0 Q-damper winding LQ
R
Lq q-axis
iq
+
vq
+ d
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
85

Under short-circuit condiDons, however, we can determine
from the iniDal d-axis ux- linkage changes resulDng from sudden
shorDng of the synchronous machine with damper-winding eects.

The procedure is the same as already discussed.

The eld and D-damper circuits represenDng closed physical
windings are mutually coupled to each other and to the d-coil
represenDng the armature along the direct axis. There cannot be
sudden change in the ux linkages of the closed windings, and so we
can write the ux-linkage changes along the d-axis by modifying our
earlier results as follows:
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
86

3

f = L ff i f +
M f id + M r iD = 0
2

3
3

d = Ld id +
M f i f +
M D iD

2
2

3
=
M D id + M R i f + LD iD = 0

D
2

Note how these are similar to our previous equaDons but have extra
terms because of the addiDonal self- and mutual inductances
associated with the D-damper circuit.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
87

3
3
Solving:
M f LD
Mr M D
2
i f = 2
id

2
L ff LD M r

3
3
M D L ff
Mr M f

2
iD = 2
id
2

L ff LD M r
and subsDtuDng:

2
2

d
3 M f LD + M D L ff 2 M f M r M D
= Ld = Ld
2

id
2
L ff LD M r

This is the direct-axis sub-transient inductance.

A similar inductance can be dened for the q-axis.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
88

The direct-axis sub-transient reactance is Xd = Ld

Xd is considerably smaller than Xd, hence Xd < Xd < Xd

We have shown that the synchronous machine has dierent
reactances when it is subjected to short-circuit faults at its
terminals.

Immediately upon occurrence of the short circuit, the armature of
the machine behaves with an eecDve reactance Xd, which
combines with an eecDve resistance determined by the damping
circuits to dene a direct-axis, short-circuit sub-transient Dme
constant Td, typically in the range of 0.03 seconds.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
89

The direct-axis sub-transient reactance is Xd = Ld

The period over which Xd is eecDve is called the sub-transient
period, and this is typically 3 to 4 cycles of system frequency in
duraDon.

When the damper-winding currents decay to negligible levels, the
D- and Q-circuits are no longer needed and the model reverts to
original one obtained.

The machine currents decay more slowly with a direct-axis, short-
circuit transient Dme-constant Td determined by Xd and a machine
resistance which depends on Rf of the eld.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
90

The period of eecDveness of Xd is called the transient period and
Td is of the order of 1 second.

Finally , for sustained steady-state condiDons the d- and q-axis
reactances Xd = Ld and Xq = Lq determine the performance of the
saient-pole machine, just as the synchronous reactance Xd applies to
the round-rotor synchronous machine in the steady state.

The various reactances are supplied by the machine manufacturers.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
91
Example Same Example as from Slide 32.

Calculate the per-unit value of Xd. Use the raDngs of 635 MVA and
24 kV as base quanDDes.

As before: Ld = Ls + M f = 2.7656 + 1.3828 = 4.1484mH

The transient inductance is calculated from:
2

2
M
31.695
)
3 f
3 (

Ld = Ld
= 4.1484
= 0.6736mH
2 L ff
2 433.6569

The transient reactance is:
X d = Ld = 120 0.6736mH = 0.254
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
92
Example Same Example as from Slide 33.

The impedance base on the machine raDngs is

2

Vbase
242
Z base =
=
= 0.907

VI base 635

Thus:
0.254
X d =
= 0.28 per unit

0.907

Note: X d = Ld = 120 4.1484mH = 1.5639 1.72 per unit

Hence X d X d
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
93
Short-Circuit Currents

As seen in the beginning, when an ac voltage is applied suddenly
across a series R-L circuit the current generally has two
components:

a dc component, which decays according to the Dme
constant L/R of the circuit,

and a steady-state sinusoidally varying component of
constant amplitude.

A similar but more complex phenomenon occurs when a short
circuit appears suddenly across the terminals of a synchronous
machine. We have the model do the short-circuit analysis.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
94
Short-Circuit Currents

The resulDng phase currents in the machine will have dc
components, which cause them to be oset or asymmetrical
when ployed as a funcDon of Dme as we have seen.

We generally neglect the dc-components of the currents.

If we were to examine the current in one of the phases we would
nd that the ac-component varied as:

1 1
1 t T 1
1 t T

i ( t ) = 2 Ei cos t
+
e
+

X
X
X
X
X
d
d d
d
d

We see the inuence of the transient and sub-transient reactances.
d
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
95

i (t )
et Td
et Td
2 Ei cos t
t=0
Xd
Short occurs at t = 0.
Time
2 Ei cos t
Xd
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
96

With the dc levels removed (which wouldnt make through the
transformer anyway), the armature phase current has three
componetns, two of which decay at dierent rates over the sub-
transient and transient periods.

NeglecDng the small armature resistance, the height at point a is
the maximum value of the sustained short-circuit current, with rms
value given by:
I =
10/8/13
1
2
2 Ei
Xd
Ei
Xd
Symmetrical Faults
97

If the envelope of the current wave is extended back to zero Dme
and the rst few cycles where the fallo is very rapid were
neglected, the intercept is at height b.

The rms value of this current is known as the transient current:

Ei
I =

X d

Similarly, the rms value of the current whose height is at c is known
as the sub-transient current:
I =
10/8/13
Ei
X d
Symmetrical Faults
98

The sub-transient current is oMen called the iniDal symmetrical rms
current, a more descripDve name because it conveys the idea of
neglecDng the dc component and taking the rms value of the ac
component of the current immediately aMer the occurrence of the
fault .

Ei
Ei
I =
The simple equaDons: I =
X d
X d

indicate a method of determining the fault current in a generator
when its reactances are known.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
99

If the generator is unloaded when the fault occurs, the machine is
represented by the no-load voltage to neutral in series with the
proper reactance:
jX d
jX d
Ei
Used to calculate currents

for sub-transient condiDons.
10/8/13
Ei

for transient condiDons.
Symmetrical Faults
jX d
Ei

for steady-state condiDons.
100
Example Two generators are connected in parallel to the low-

voltage side of a three-phase - Y transformer as shown.

G1

G2

-Y

Generator 1 is rated 50,000 kVA, 13.8 kV. Generator 2 is rated
25,000 kVA, 13.8 kV. Each generator has a sub-transient reactance
of 25% on its own own base. The transformer is rated 75,000 kVA,
13.8 /69Y kV, with a reactance of 10% . Before the fault occurs, the
voltage on the high-voltage side of the transformer is 66 kV. The
transformer is unloaded and there is no circulaDng current between
the generators. Find the sub-transient current in each generator
when a three-phase short circuit occurs on the high-voltage side of
the transformer.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
101
Example

Select 69 kV, 75,000 kVA as the base in the high-voltage circuit.
Then, the base voltage on the low-voltage side is 13.8 kV.

50,000 kVA
VA = 75,000 kVA
13.8 kV

V = 13.8 kV
VA = 75,000 kVA
G1

66
V = 69 kV
E
=
E
=
=
0.957
p.u.
i1
i2
69
G2

-Y

25,000 kVA
75,000 kVA
13.8 kV
13.8 /69Y kV

75,000
= 0.365 p.u.
= 0.25
For Generator 1: X d1
50,000

Base
Base
Base
Base
10/8/13
V VABase
.
Note: How did I get this? Z p.u. = Z rated rated
V
VA
base
rated
Symmetrical Faults
102
Example

Select 69 kV, 75,000 kVA as the base in the high-voltage circuit.
Then, the base voltage on the low-voltage side is 13.8 kV.

50,000 kVA
VA = 75,000 kVA
13.8 kV

V = 13.8 kV
VA = 75,000 kVA
G1

66
V = 69 kV
E
=
E
=
=
0.957
p.u.
i1
i2
69
G2

-Y

25,000 kVA
75,000 kVA
13.8 kV
13.8 /69Y kV

75,000
For Generator 2: X d2 = 0.25
= 0.750 p.u.
25,000

Transformer: X t = 0.1 p.u.
Base
Base
Base
Base
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
103
Example

Pictured below is the reactance diagram before the fault. A three-
phase fault is simulated by closing the switch.

The internal voltages of the two machines may be considered to be
in parallel since they are idenDcal in magnitude and phase and no
circulaDng current ows between them.
jX d1
= j0.375
G1
G2
10/8/13
Ei
Ei
jX d2 = j0.75
Symmetrical Faults
jX t = j0.1
P (fault)
104
Example

The equivalent sub-transient reactance is:

X d1
X d2
0.375 0.75

X d = X d1
=
= 0.25 p.u.
jX d2 =

X d1
+ X d2 0.375 + 0.75

With Ei1 = Ei2 = Ei

the current in the short-circuit is:
X d1
X d2
0.375 0.75
= X d1
=
= 0.25 p.u.
jX d2 =
X d1
+ X d2 0.375 + 0.75
Ei
0.957
I =
=
= j2.735 p.u.
j ( X d + X t ) j ( 0.25 + 0.1)
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
105
Example

The voltage on the -side of the transformer is:

Vt = I jX t = j2.735 j0.1 = 0.2735 p.u.

In generators 1 and 2:
Ei Vt
0.957 0.2735
I1=
=
= j1.823 p.u.
jX d1
j0.375
I 2 =
10/8/13
Ei Vt
2
jX d2
0.957 0.2735
=
= j0.912 p.u.
j0.75
Symmetrical Faults
106
Summary

The steady-state performance of the synchronous machine relies on
the concept of synchronous reactance Xd, which is the basis of the
steady-state equivalent circuit of the machine.

Transient analysis of the synchronous generator requires a two-axis
machine model. We have seen that the corresponding equaDons
involving physical a-b-c phase variables can be simplied by Parks
transformaDon, which introduces d,q,0 currents, voltages, and ux
linkages. Simplied equivalent circuits which follow from the d-q-0
equaDons of the machine allow deniDons of the subtransient
reactance Xd and transient reactance Xd.

The transient reactance is also important for system stability
analysis.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
107
Power Systems Three-Phase Short Circuits

AssumpDons made to calculate the sub-transient fault current for a
three-phase short circuit in a power system:

1. Transformers are represented by their leakage reactances.
Winding resistances, shunt admiyances, and Y phase shiMs
are neglected.
2. Transmission lines are represented by their equivalent series
reactances. Series resistances and shunt admiyances are
neglected.
3. Synchronous machines are represented by constant-voltage
sources behind subtransient reactances. Armature resistance,
saliency, and saturaDon are neglected.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
108

These assumpDons are made for simplicity, and may not always
apply. For example, in distribuDon systems, the resistances
of primary and secondary distribuDon lines may in some cases
signicantly reduce fault current magnitudes.

Saliency: The word saliency is used as a short expression for the fact
that the rotor of a synchronous machine has dierent electric and
magneDc properDes on two axes 90o apart; the direct axis, or axis of
symmetry of a eld pole, and the quadrature axis, or axis of
symmetry midway between two eld poles. This dierence between
the two axes is present not only in salient-pole machines but also,
to a lesser extent, in round-rotor machines, because of the presence
of the eld winding on the direct axis only.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
109

Consider a generator that is loaded when a fault occurs.

Fault
Z ext

locaôn P This is a steady-state
Pre-Fault Model
model. It does not
Pre-fault

+
IL
+
current
capture transient
Synchronous

jX dg
reactance
behavior.

Terminal
VL = V f
Z
V
+
L

t voltage
No-Load

voltage E g

Neutral

If a three-phase short circuit fault occurs from P to neutral, the
equivalent circuit shown above does not saDsfy the condiDons for
calculaDng sub-transient current.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
110

AMer the fault occurs, here is the correct circuit:

Z ext
P I L

+
+

jX dg

Vt

V f ZL
+
S

Eg

Neutral

Fault Model
Eg = Vt + jX dg
I L = V f + Z ext + jX dg
I L
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
111

With the switch open:

Eg = Vt + jX dg
I L

This equaDons denes Eg, the sub-transient internal voltage, is
used to calculate the subtransient current I.

Similarly, to calculate the transient current I, it must be supplied
through the transient reactance Xdg and the transient internal
voltage Eg:
Eg = Vt + jX dg
IL
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
112

Thus, the value of the load current IL determines the values of the
voltages Eg and Eg, which are both equal to the no-load voltage Eg
only when IL is zero so that Eg is then equal to Vt.

It is important to note that the parDcular value of Eg in series with
Xg represents the generator immediately before and immediately
aMer the fault occurs only if the prefault current in the generator
has the corresponding value of IL. On the other hand, Eg in series
with the synchronous reactance Xdg is the equivalent circuit of the
machine under steady-state condiDons for any value of the load
current. The magnitude of Eg is determined by the eld current of
the machine, and so for a dierent value of IL in the pre-fault circuit
lEgI would remain the same but a new value of Eg would be
required.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
113

Synchronous motors have reactances of the same type as
generators. When a motor is short-circuited, it no longer receives
electric energy from the power line, but its eld remains energized
and the inerDa of its rotor and connected load keeps it rotaDng for a
short period of Dme.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
114

The internal voltage of a synchronous motor causes it to contribute
current to the system, for it is then acDng like a generator. By
comparison with the corresponding formulas for a generator the
subtransient internal voltage Em and transient internal voltage Em
for a synchronous motor are given by

Em = Vt jX dm
I L
Em = Vt jX dm
IL
where Vt is now the terminal voltage of the motor.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
115

Fault currents in systems containing generators and motors under
load may be solved in one of two ways:

1. by calculaDng the subtransient (or transient) internal voltages of
the machines or

2. by using Thvenin's theorem.

An example will illustrate.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
116

Suppose that a synchronous generator is connected to a
synchronous motor by a line of external impedance Zext.

The motor is drawing load current IL from the generator when a
symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at the motor
terminals.

The equivalent circuits and current ows of the system immediately
before and immediately aMer the fault occurs are
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
117

Before the Fault:
Z ext
IL
+
Eg
Vt
Vf
+
Em
jX dg
jX dm
Neutral
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
118

A\er the Fault:

Z ext
I g P I m
+
Eg
Vt
Vf
+
Em
jX dg
I '' f
jX dm
Neutral
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
119

By replacing the synchronous reactances of the machines by their
subtransient reactances, we calculate the subtransient internal
voltages of the machine immediately before the fault occurs using
our earlier results (Slide 113 and 116):

Eg = V f + jX dg
I L

Em = V f jX dg
I L

Now from the faulted circuit:
V f + Z ext + jX dg
I L
Eg
Vf
I g =
=
=
+ IL
Z ext + jX dg
Z ext + jX dg
Z ext + jX dg
Vf
I L
Em V f jX dg
I m =
=
=
IL
jX dg
jX dg
jX dg
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
120

Adding:

I f = I g + I m

Vf
Vf

=
+ IL +
IL
Z ext + jX dg
jX dm

Vf
Vf

=
+
Z ext + jX dg
jX dm

Note that the fault current does not include the pre-fault current,
i.e., the load current an important observaDon.

Again, Vf is the pre-fault voltage at the fault point.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
121

To determine the subtransient current using Thvenin's Theorem,
noDng that only the pre-fault voltage at the fault point need be
known, we can apply VTh = Vf at the fault point and to an otherwise
dead subtransient network as follows:
P
Z ext
jX dm
jX dg
Zth
Neutral
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
122

To determine the subtransient current using Thvenin's Theorem,
noDng that only the pre-fault voltage at the fault point need be
known, we can apply VTh = Vf at the fault point and to an otherwise
dead subtransient network as follows:
Z ext
I gf P I mf
jX dg
10/8/13
+
Eg = 0
Vt
This polarity
preserves
the proper
direcôn V f
for If.
I f
jX dm
+
Em = 0
Symmetrical Faults
123

Thevenins Equivalent:
I gf
jX dg
+
Vf
Z ext
I mf
jX dm
10/8/13
I '' f
Symmetrical Faults
124

ZTh = Z ext + jX dg
|| jX ''dm
=
jX dm
Z ext + jX dg
(Z
ext
+ jX dg
+ jX dm
I f =
10/8/13
Vf
ZTh
= Vf
Z ext + j X dm
+ X dg
jX dm
Z ext + jX dg
Symmetrical Faults
125
Example: A synchronous generator and motor are rated

30,000 kVA, 13.2 kV, and both have subtransient reactances
of 20%. The line connecDng them has a reactance of 10% on
the base of the machine raDngs. The motor is drawing
20,000 kW at 0.8 power-factor leading and a terminal
voltage of 12.6 kV when a symmetrical three-phase fault
occurs at the motor terminals.

Find the subtransient currents in the generator, the motor,
and the fault by using the internal voltages of the machine.
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
126
Example: SoluDon
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
127
Example: SoluDon
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
128
Example: SoluDon
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
129
Example: SoluDon (via Thevenins Theorem)
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
130
Example:

Remember, the total current is the transient response plus the
steady-state response, hence:
I g = I gf + I L
I m = I mf
I L
10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
131
Example:

Usually, load current is omiyed in determining the current in each
line upon occurrence of a fault. In the Thvenin method neglect of
load current means that the prefault current in each line is not
added to the component of current owing toward the fault in the
line.

The previous example neglects load current if the subtransient
internal voltages of all machines are assumed equal to the voltage
Vf at the fault before the fault occurs, for such is the case if no
current ows anywhere in the network prior to the fault.

More on this later

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
132
Example:

Resistances, charging capacitances, and o-nominal tap-changing of
transformers are also usually omiyed in fault studies since they are
not likely to inuence the level of fault current signicantly.

CalculaDon of the fault current is thus simplied since the network
model becomes an interconnecDon of inducDve reactances and all
currents throughout the faulted system are in-phase, as the
Thevenin example demonstrated.

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
133
What About More Complicated Networks?

We rst need to consider some aspects of Network CalculaDons

10/8/13
Symmetrical Faults
134

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SYMMETRICAL

Revised: 10/8/13 1:49 PM

Transients in Series RL Circuits

Mo^va^on Transients in Series RL Circuits

Mo^va^on Transients in Series RL Circuits

Review of Synchronous Generators.

The Synchronous Generator

The Synchronous Generator

The Synchronous Generator Two Types

The cylindrical rotor is called

The non-cylindrical rotor is

The Synchronous Generator

The Synchronous Generator Cylindrical Rotor, Non-Salient

The Synchronous Generator Non-cylindrical Rotor, Salient Pole

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Ls

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Ls

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

Lbf = M f cos ( d 120 )

Lcf = M f cos ( d 240 )

Armature Flux Linkages

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Cylindrical Rotor Model

f = M f ia cos d + ib cos ( d 120 ) + ic cos ( d 240 ) + L ff i f

i cos = 2 I cos cos ( t + )

To facilitate a symmetric fault it helps to recast this model a bit.

Similarly for the other two terms:

= I a + sin 2 t + 2 + sin 2 t + 2 120 + sin 2 t + 2 240

Alternate Circuit Model Suitable for Transient Analysis

Field winding rota^ng with rotor

Example A 60-Hz three-phase synchronous generator with

Example Repea^ng for unity power factor:

The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

Lab = Lba = M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 )

Lca = Lac = M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 5 6 )

The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

LbQ = LQb = M Q cos 2 ( d 2 3)

The Synchronous Generator - Salient Rotor Model

Two-Axis Machine Model

b = Lba ia + Lbbib + Lbc ic + Lbf i f

Lab Lbb Lbc

Lac Lbc Lcc

= M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 ) Ls + Lm cos 2 ( d 2 3) M s Lm cos 2 ( d 2 )

M s Lm cos 2 ( d + 5 6 ) M s Lm cos 2 ( d 2 ) Ls + Lm cos 2 ( d + 2 3)

cos 2 ( d + 5 6 ) cos 2 ( d 2 ) cos 2 ( d + 2 3)

= ( Ls + M s ) 0 1 0 M 1 1 1 Lm cos 2 ( d + 6 ) cos 2 ( d 2 3) cos 2 ( d 2 )

Ignore damper winding for the moment.

Two-Axis Machine Model

All coils rotate together.

Two-Axis Machine Model