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For most of the 40-plus years the term "dyslexia" has been in existence -- and although the diagnosis
has long been considered a "learning disability" -- it has been based on comparisons with average readers. Simply put, a child could be diagnosed with dyslexia if he or she shows an IQ in the "normal" range but falls at or below the 10th percentile on standardized reading tests. This cut-off has been arbitrary, often varying from district to district and based on Response to Intervention (RTI) criteria. As a result, a child who falls at the 12th percentile might be considered a poor reader while a child at the 10th percentile would be diagnosed with dyslexia. For parents who have a child diagnosed with dyslexia, it is obvious early in the educational process that their bright child is not just behind in reading, but dumbfounded by the written word. A child with dyslexia seems to struggle at every turn. Special educators, neurologists, and psychologists have understood that, too, and since the 1970s have assumed dyslexia has a neurological basis. "Dyslexia" stems from the Greek alexia, which means "loss of the word," and was the diagnostic term used when adults lost the ability to read after a brain injury. Dyslexia was a term adopted to confer a lesser, though still neurologically-based, form of reading impairment in children. However, determining the neurological basis has been elusive until recently.
The Search for a Neurological Basis
In early attempts at researching the underlying causes of dyslexia in the 1970s, there were no technological medical procedures to study brain processes that might be involved in reading normally or abnormally. Because of the inability to determine the neurological cause(s) of dyslexia, in some educational circles it became synonymous with "developmental reading disorder," and the cause was deemed unimportant. Rather, the goal was to develop and test interventions and measure their outcomes, without an effort to relate the interventions to underlying causation. A major limitation to that approach is that it is symptom-based, yet determining the cause is essential to identifying an effective solution. When we clump children together into a single diagnostic category based on test scores, we not only fail to address what might be causing the dyslexia, but we also ignore variability in performance that limits our ability to identify individual differences. Fortunately, advances in neuroscience, buttressed since the late 1990s by neuroimaging and brain electrophysiological technology, have led to an emerging consensus about the causes of dyslexia -underlying capacities essential for learning to read, which emerge through brain development, are less developed in children diagnosed with dyslexia. And the best news is that those processes are amenable to carefully designed training approaches.
The Dyslexic Brain
In the early to mid-2000s, research on the underlying basis of dyslexia pointed to a primary problem with the phonological processing of speech sounds. Early research, summarized in Stanislas Dehaene's Reading in the Brain (2009), identified problems with phonological awareness, or the ability to segment words into their component speech sounds. More recent research has delineated why that problem exists.
These findings have led to an emerging consensus, well summarized by Jane Hornickel and Nina Kraus in the Journal of Neuroscience in 2012: dyslexia is primarily an auditory disorder that arises from an inability to respond to speech sounds in a consistent manner. And Finn and colleagues at Yale published research in August 2014 (PDF, 4.7MB) indicating that this underlying problem with perception of speech sounds, in turn, affects the development of brain networks that enable a student to link a speech sound to the written letter. Based on this research, reading interventions for dyslexia should be most effective if they combine auditory perceptual training and memory for speech sounds (phonological memory) with exercises that require relating speech sounds to the written letter (phonemic awareness and targeted decoding). And, in fact, neuroscience research bears that out. Temple et al (2003) used fMRI to show that when a program with that type of intervention was used intensively (five days a week for six weeks) with 35 students (as well as three adults) diagnosed with dyslexia, not only did decoding and reading comprehension improve significantly, but brain regions active in typical readers during phonological awareness tasks were activated. Added to the neuroscience research on causation is additional scientific research conducted by education specialists on variability in patterns of dyslexia and the importance of individualizing interventions. Some children diagnosed with dyslexia read words as a whole and guess at internal detail, showing major problems with phonological awareness. But other children may over-decode to the point that they have trouble reading irregular sight words and read too slowly to comprehend what they have read. Ryan S. Baker and his colleagues at Columbia University, Polytechnique Montral, Carnegie Mellon, and other universities are researching the factors necessary for effective tutoring of students with learning issues (PDF, 682KB). Their research indicates that an effective tutor is one who considers variability and has the ability to diagnose what a student knows and does not know, and then adapt interventions to the diagnosis. For example, if a student has trouble with decoding, interventions that emphasize phonological awareness and provide additional practice with decoding are often helpful. But for children who over-decode, programs that build fluency through repetitive guided oral reading practice may be more useful. Baker and his colleagues have taken this research an extra step to determine the most effective intelligent tutoring systems -- technological interventions that can free up the teacher by providing adaptive tutoring programs individualized to each student.
The Potential to Retrain the Brain
Our understanding of dyslexia has come very far in the past 40 years, with neurophysiological models developed in just the past five years explaining the underlying capacities required for reading and the best methods for individualized adaptive interventions. Fortunately, treatment options have kept pace with the research, and children with dyslexia today have the potential to train their brains to overcome the learning difficulties that earlier generations were destined to carry with them for a lifetime.
Most dyslexics will exhibit about 10 of the following traits and behaviors. These characteristics can vary from day-to-day or minute-to-minute. The most consistent thing about dyslexics is their inconsistency.
General
Appears bright, highly
intelligent, and articulate but unable to read, write, or spell at grade level.
Labelled lazy, dumb,
careless, immature, "not trying hard enough," or "behavior problem."
Isn't "behind enough" or "bad
enough" to be helped in the school setting.
High in IQ, yet may not test
well academically; tests well orally, but not written.
Feels dumb; has poor selfesteem; hides or covers up
weaknesses with ingenious compensatory strategies; easily frustrated and emotional about school reading or testing.
Dyslexic children and adults can
become avid and enthusiastic readers when given learning tools that fit their creative learning style.
Learn more.
Find help.
Talented in art, drama,
music, sports, mechanics, story-telling, sales, business, designing, building, or engineering.
Seems to "Zone out" or
daydream often; gets lost easily or loses track of time.
Difficulty sustaining attention; seems "hyper" or "daydreamer."
Math and Time
Management
Has difficulty telling time,
managing time, learning sequenced information or tasks, or being on time.
Computing math shows
dependence on finger counting and other tricks; knows answers, but can't do
Learns best through handson experience,
demonstrations, experimentation, observation, and visual aids.
Vision, Reading, and
Spelling
Complains of dizziness, headaches or stomach aches while reading.
Confused by letters, numbers, words, sequences, or verbal explanations.
Reading or writing shows
repetitions, additions, transpositions, omissions, substitutions, and reversals in letters, numbers and/or words.
it on paper.
Can count, but has difficulty
counting objects and dealing with money.
Can do arithmetic, but fails
word problems; cannot grasp algebra or higher math.
Memory and Cognition
Excellent long-term memory
for experiences, locations, and faces.
Poor memory for sequences,
facts and information that has not been experienced.
Thinks primarily with images
and feeling, not sounds or words (little internal dialogue).
Complains of feeling or seeing non-existent movement while reading, writing, or copying. Seems to have difficulty with vision, yet eye exams don't reveal a problem. Extremely keen sighted and observant, or lacks depth perception and peripheral vision.
sensitive to foods, additives, and chemical products.
Can be an extra deep or
Hearing and Speech
Has extended hearing; hears
things not said or apparent
to others; easily distracted by sounds.
Difficulty putting thoughts
into words; speaks in halting phrases; leaves sentences incomplete; stutters under stress; mispronounces long words, or transposes phrases, words, and syllables when speaking.
light sleeper; bedwetting
beyond appropriate age.
Unusually high or low
tolerance for pain.
Strong sense of justice;
emotionally sensitive; strives for perfection.
Mistakes and symptoms
increase dramatically with confusion, time pressure, emotional stress, or poor health.
Writing and Motor Skills
Trouble with writing or
copying; pencil grip is unusual; handwriting varies or is illegible. Clumsy, uncoordinated, poor at ball or team sports; difficulties with fine and/or gross motor skills and tasks; prone to motion-sickness. Can be ambidextrous, and often confuses left/right, over/under.
More Information:
Common Traits of Adult
Dyslexia
Symptoms and Diagnosis.
Davis Dyslexia Correction
Explained.
FAQs: Testing for Dyslexia
Free Online Assessment.
The Davis Dyslexia Correction program helps people with these
characteristics every day. The disabling aspects of Dyslexia are correctable and can be overcome.
What Is It? Dyslexia is the most common learning disability. It is defined by the International Dyslexia Association as: a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonologic component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede the growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. Someone with dyslexia has trouble reading and writing even though he or she has the intelligence and motivation needed to learn to read. Although people with dyslexia have trouble understanding words they read, they usually can understand the same words when they are read aloud by another person. Researchers don't know exactly what causes dyslexia, but they think a problem during development may affect the way the brain processes information. They also
believe that genetics (inheritance) plays a part. Although a gene for dyslexia has not been found, dyslexia does tend to run in families. Dyslexia is not caused by a physical disability, such as vision or hearing problems. Many people with dyslexia have average or above average intelligence. Basically, the brains of people with dyslexia have a hard time receiving, organizing, remembering or using information. In the United States, approximately 5% to 10% of the population probably has some sort of dyslexia.
Symptoms A person with dyslexia may have a hard time with:
Identifying words
Recognizing the sounds that make up words
Understanding and remembering what is read
Translating printed words into spoken words
Spelling
Organizing or sequencing thoughts
Rhyming words
Learning the alphabet and numbers during preschool and kindergarten
For example, a person with dyslexia tends to reverse or misread letters or words, such as confusing the letter "b" for "d" or reading the number "6" as "9." He or she may read the word "was" as "saw" or may switch the order of words in a sentence, such as "are there" instead of "there are." Because of these difficulties, a person with dyslexia usually reads slowly and tends to hesitate more often than expected. Dyslexia is not a vision problem. The eyes do not see words incorrectly, but the brain apparently has difficulty processing the visual information. It is important to note that many young children reverse letters and numbers, misread words or misunderstand words as a normal part of learning to read. Children with
dyslexia, however, continue to do so after their peers have stopped, usually by first or second grade. Dyslexia may not be recognized until a child starts school, when a student of normal intelligence begins to fall behind his or her classmates in academic performance.
Diagnosis Your doctor will ask about your child's medical, developmental and family histories and will examine the child for possible physical causes that could make reading difficult, such as hearing or vision problems. The doctor will look for signs of other problems that could be causing your child's reading difficulties. These could include motor coordination disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, anxiety and thyroiddisorders. If no physical causes are found, the doctor may refer your child to a learning specialist for evaluation. There is no single test to diagnose dyslexia. A number of standardized tests are used to evaluate a child's intelligence, language, behavior and academic skills. Psychologists or education specialists at schools or hospitals can do the tests. There is no single test to diagnose dyslexia.
Expected Duration Dyslexia cannot be cured, but people with this disorder can learn ways to be successful in schoolwork. With early diagnosis and appropriate treatment, many people with dyslexia go on to succeed both academically and professionally. However, dyslexia is a lifelong condition, not a temporary developmental delay.
Prevention There is no known way to prevent dyslexia. However, because the neurologic problems that cause dyslexia may be related to prenatal factors, and children who are born prematurely or at a low birth weight are at higher risk for dyslexia, it is wise to follow the usual recommendations for a healthy pregnancy.
Treatment Several techniques and strategies are used to help people with dyslexia. These include taping lectures rather than writing notes, listening to books on tape rather
than reading them, using flash cards, and using computer software to check spelling and grammar. Treatment may involve time spent with speech and language therapists, tutors, and special education teachers. With support, most children with dyslexia adjust to their learning disability and remain in a regular classroom. Some may require special education.
When To Call a Professional
Call your doctor if your child seems to be far behind his or her friends and classmates in reading or writing, particularly if there is a family history of dyslexia or another learning disorder. If your child is having trouble in school and you think there are signs of a learning disability, talk with your child's teacher and doctor. That way, you can catch any problems early and give your child the best chance for success.
Prognosis Most children with dyslexia can do well academically and professionally, despite the fact that dyslexia is a lifelong disability. The outlook for each child with dyslexia depends on how severe the disability is, how early it is diagnosed and the quality of the treatment.
