Romanticism

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Romanticism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Romanticism (also the Romantic era or the Romantic period) was an artistic, literary, musical
and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most
areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized
by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature,
preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial
Revolution,[1] the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the
scientific rationalization of nature.[2] It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and
literature, but had a major impact on historiography,[3] education,[4] and the natural sciences.[5] It
had a significant and complex effect on politics, and while for much of the Romantic period it was
associated with liberalism and radicalism, its long-term effect on the growth of nationalism was
perhaps more significant.
The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing
new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and aweespecially that
experienced in confronting the new aesthetic categories of the sublimity and beauty of nature. It
considered folk art and ancient custom to be noble statuses, but also valued spontaneity, as in the
musical impromptu. In contrast to the rational and Classicist ideal models, Romanticism revived
medievalism[6] and elements of art and narrative perceived as authentically medieval in an attempt
to escape population growth, early urban sprawl, and industrialism.
Although the movement was rooted in the German Sturm und Drang movement, which preferred
intuition and emotion to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, the events and ideologies of the
French Revolution were also proximate factors. Romanticism assigned a high value to the
achievements of "heroic" individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the
quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of
freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural
inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century,
Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism.[7] The decline of Romanticism during this
time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread
of nationalism.[8]
Contents
1 Defining Romanticism
1.1 Basic characteristics
1.2 Etymology
1.3 The period
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1.4 Context and place in history

2 Romantic literature
2.1 Germany
2.2 Great Britain
2.2.1 England
2.2.2 Scotland
2.3 France
2.4 Poland
2.5 Russia
2.6 Spain
2.7 Portugal
2.8 Italy
2.9 South America
2.10 United States
2.10.1 Influence of European Romanticism on American writers
3 Romantic visual arts
4 Romanticism and music
5 Romanticism outside the arts
5.1 Sciences
Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer above the
5.2 Historiography
Sea of Fog, 1818
5.3 Theology
6 Romantic nationalism
6.1 Polish nationalism and messianism
7 Gallery
8 Romantic authors
9 Scholars of Romanticism
10 See also
10.1 Related terms
10.2 Opposing terms
10.3 Related subjects
10.4 Related movements
11 Notes
Eugne Delacroix, Death of Sardanapalus,
12 References
1827, taking its Orientalist subject from a play
13 Further reading
by Lord Byron
14 External links
Defining Romanticism
Basic characteristics
Defining the nature of Romanticism may be
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approached from the starting point of the primary

importance of the free expression of the feelings of
the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on
emotion is summed up in the remark of the German
painter Caspar David Friedrich that "the artist's
feeling is his law".[9] To William Wordsworth,
poetry should begin as "the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings," which the poet then "recollect[s]
in tranquility," evoking a new but corresponding
emotion the poet can then mould into art.[10] To
express these feelings, it was considered that the
content of the art had to come from the imagination
of the artist, with as little interference as possible
from "artificial" rules that dictated what a work
should consist of. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and
others believed there were natural laws that the
imaginationat least of a good creative artist
would unconsciously follow through artistic
inspiration if left alone.[11] As well as rules, the
Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808
influence of models from other works was
considered to impede the creator's own imagination,
so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his
own original work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism, and to
be derivative was the worst sin.[12][13][14] This idea is often called "romantic originality."[15]
Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief and
interest in the importance of nature. However, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the
artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the
Enlightenment, Romantics were distrustful of the human world, and tended to believe that a close
connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy. Romantic art addressed its audiences
with what was intended to be felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in literature, "much of
romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves".[16]
According to Isaiah Berlin, Romanticism embodied "a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to
burst through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner
states of consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement
and change, an effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate effort at self-assertion
both individual and collective, a search after means of expressing an unappeasable yearning for
unattainable goals."[17]
Etymology
The group of words with the root "Roman" in the various European languages, such as "romance"
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and "Romanesque", has a complicated history, but by the

middle of the 18th century "romantic" in English and
romantique in French were both in common use as adjectives of
praise for natural phenomena such as views and sunsets, in a
sense close to modern English usage but without the sexual
connotation. The application of the term to literature first
became common in Germany, where the circle around the
Schlegel brothers, critics August and Friedrich, began to speak
of romantische Poesie ("romantic poetry") in the 1790s,
contrasting it with "classic" but in terms of spirit rather than
merely dating. Friedrich Schlegel wrote in his Dialogue on
Poetry (1800), "I seek and find the romantic among the older
moderns, in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that
age of chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon
and the word itself are derived."[18]
In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to
roman, meaning the fairly new literary form of the novel, had
some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. The
use of the word did not become general very quickly, and was
probably spread more widely in France by its persistent use by
Madame de Stal in her De l'Allemagne (1813), recounting her travels in Germany.[19] In England
Wordsworth wrote in a preface to his poems of 1815 of the "romantic harp" and "classic lyre",[19]
but in 1820 Byron could still write, perhaps slightly disingenuously, "I perceive that in Germany, as
well as in Italy, there is a great struggle about what they call 'Classical' and 'Romantic', terms which
were not subjects of classification in England, at least when I left it four or five years ago".[20] It is
only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in 1824 the Acadmie
franaise took the wholly ineffective step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature. [21]
William Blake, The Little Girl
Found, from Songs of Innocence
and Experience, 1794
The period
The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different
artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place
"roughly between 1770 and 1848",[22] and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In
English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view,
and about 1830, perhaps a little later than some other critics.[23] Others have proposed
17801830.[24] In other fields and other countries the period denominated as Romantic can be
considerably different; musical Romanticism, for example, is generally regarded as only having
ceased as a major artistic force as late as 1910, but in an extreme extension the Four Last Songs of
Richard Strauss are described stylistically as "Late Romantic" and were composed in 194648.[25]
However, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier.
The early period of the Romantic Era was a time of war, with the French Revolution (17891799)
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followed by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These wars, along with the political and social turmoil
that went along with them, served as the background for Romanticism.[26] The key generation of
French Romantics born between 17951805 had, in the words of one of their number, Alfred de
Vigny, been "conceived between battles, attended school to the rolling of drums".[27] According to
Jacques Barzun, there were three generations of Romantic artists. The first emerged in the 1790s
and 1800s, the second in the 1820s, and the third later in the century.[28]
Context and place in history

The more precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism has been the subject of
debate in the fields of intellectual history and literary history throughout the 20th century, without
any great measure of consensus emerging. That it was part of the Counter-Enlightenment, a
reaction against the Age of Enlightenment, is generally accepted in current scholarship. Its
relationship to the French Revolution, which began in 1789 in the very early stages of the period, is
clearly important, but highly variable depending on geography and individual reactions. Most
Romantics can be said to be broadly progressive in their views, but a considerable number always
had, or developed, a wide range of conservative views,[29] and nationalism was in many countries
strongly associated with Romanticism, as discussed in detail below.
In philosophy and the history of ideas, Romanticism was seen by Isaiah Berlin as disrupting for
over a century the classic Western traditions of rationality and the idea of moral absolutes and
agreed values, leading "to something like the melting away of the very notion of objective
truth",[30] and hence not only to nationalism, but also fascism and totalitarianism, with a gradual
recovery coming only after World War II.[31] For the Romantics, Berlin says,
in the realm of ethics, politics, aesthetics it was the authenticity and sincerity of the
pursuit of inner goals that mattered; this applied equally to individuals and groups
states, nations, movements. This is most evident in the aesthetics of romanticism, where
the notion of eternal models, a Platonic vision of ideal beauty, which the artist seeks to
convey, however imperfectly, on canvas or in sound, is replaced by a passionate belief in
spiritual freedom, individual creativity. The painter, the poet, the composer do not hold
up a mirror to nature, however ideal, but invent; they do not imitate (the doctrine of
mimesis), but create not merely the means but the goals that they pursue; these goals
represent the self-expression of the artist's own unique, inner vision, to set aside which
in response to the demands of some "external" voice church, state, public opinion,
family friends, arbiters of taste is an act of betrayal of what alone justifies their
existence for those who are in any sense creative.[32]
Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of defining Romanticism in his seminal
article "On The Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his Essays in the History of Ideas (1948);
some scholars see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some like Robert
Hughes see in it the inaugural moment of modernity,[33] and some like Chateaubriand, Novalis and
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge see it as the beginning of a tradition of

resistance to Enlightenment rationalisma "CounterEnlightenment" [34][35] to be associated most closely with
German Romanticism. An earlier definition comes from Charles
Baudelaire: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice
of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling."[36]
The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a new
style of Realism, which affected literature, especially the novel
John William Waterhouse, The
and drama, painting, and even music, through Verismo opera.
Lady of Shalott, 1888, after a
This movement was led by France, with Balzac and Flaubert in
poem by Tennyson; like many
literature and Courbet in painting; Stendhal and Goya were
Victorian paintings, romantic but
important precursors of Realism in their respective media.
not Romantic
However, Romantic styles, now often representing the
established and safe style against which Realists rebelled,
continued to flourish in many fields for the rest of the century and beyond. In music such works
from after about 1850 are referred to by some writers as "Late Romantic" and by others as
"Neoromantic" or "Postromantic", but other fields do not usually use these terms; in English
literature and painting the convenient term "Victorian" avoids having to characterise the period
further.
In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the
process of great change and improvement had largely vanished, and some art became more
conventionally political and polemical as its creators engaged polemically with the world as it was.
Elsewhere, including in very different ways the United States and Russia, feelings that great change
was underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion in art remained
prominent, as did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but
experimentation with form and technique was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous
technique, as in the poems of Tennyson or many paintings. If not realist, late 19th-century art was
often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier
Romantics did not trouble with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose of art, above
all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often
underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists.
Romantic literature
In literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the evocation or criticism of the past, the cult
of "sensibility" with its emphasis on women and children, the isolation of the artist or narrator, and
respect for nature. Furthermore, several romantic authors, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel
Hawthorne, based their writings on the supernatural/occult and human psychology. Romanticism
tended to regard satire as something unworthy of serious attention, a prejudice still influential
today.[37]
The precursors of Romanticism in English poetry go back to the middle of the 18th century,
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including figures such as Joseph Warton (headmaster at

Winchester College) and his brother Thomas Warton, Professor
of Poetry at Oxford University.[38] Joseph maintained that
invention and imagination were the chief qualities of a poet.
Thomas Chatterton is generally considered the first Romantic
poet in English.[39] The Scottish poet James Macpherson
influenced the early development of Romanticism with the
international success of his Ossian cycle of poems published in
Henry Wallis, The Death of
1762, inspiring both Goethe and the young Walter Scott. Both
Chatterton 1856, by suicide at 17
Chatterton and Macpherson's work involved elements of fraud,
in 1770
as what they claimed was earlier literature that they had
discovered or compiled was, in fact, entirely their own work.
The Gothic novel, beginning with Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764), was an
important precursor of one strain of Romanticism, with a delight in horror and threat, and exotic
picturesque settings, matched in Walpole's case by his role in the early revival of Gothic
architecture. Tristram Shandy, a novel by Laurence Sterne (175967) introduced a whimsical
version of the anti-rational sentimental novel to the English literary public.
Germany
An early German influence came from Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe, whose 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther had
young men throughout Europe emulating its protagonist, a
young artist with a very sensitive and passionate temperament.
At that time Germany was a multitude of small separate states,
and Goethe's works would have a seminal influence in
developing a unifying sense of nationalism. Another
philosophic influence came from the German idealism of
Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, making Jena
(where Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, Hegel, Schiller and
Title page of Volume III of Des
the brothers Schlegel) a center for early German Romanticism
Knaben Wunderhorn, 1808
(see Jena Romanticism). Important writers were Ludwig Tieck,
Novalis (Heinrich von Ofterdingen, 1799), Heinrich von Kleist
and Friedrich Hlderlin. Heidelberg later became a center of German Romanticism, where writers
and poets such as Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff met
regularly in literary circles.
Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, for example the German Forest,
and Germanic myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example E. T. A. Hoffmann's Der
Sandmann (The Sandman), 1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff's Das Marmorbild (The
Marble Statue), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements. The significance to
Romanticism of childhood innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all
combined to give an unprecedented importance to folk literature, non-classical mythology and
children's literature, above all in Germany. Brentano and von Arnim were significant literary
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figures who together published Des Knaben Wunderhorn ("The Boy's Magic Horn" or cornucopia),
a collection of versified folk tales, in 180608. The first collection of Grimms' Fairy Tales by the
Brothers Grimm was published in 1812.[40] Unlike the much later work of Hans Christian
Andersen, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish from 1835, these German works were at
least mainly based on collected folk tales, and the Grimms remained true to the style of the telling
in their early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One of the brothers, Jacob, published in
1835 Deutsche Mythologie, a long academic work on Germanic mythology.[41] Another strain is
exemplified by Schiller's highly emotional language and the depiction of physical violence in his
play The Robbers of 1781.
Great Britain
England
In English literature, the key figures of the Romantic movement are
considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth,
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe
Shelley, and the much older William Blake, followed later by the
isolated figure of John Clare. Also such novelists as Walter Scott from
Scotland and Mary Shelley, and the essayists William Hazlitt and
Charles Lamb. The publication in 1798 of Lyrical Ballads, with many
of the finest poems by Wordsworth and Coleridge, is often held to
mark the start of the movement. The majority of the poems were by
Wordsworth, and many dealt with the lives of the poor in his native
Lake District, or his feelings about naturewhich he more fully
developed in his long poem The Prelude, never published in his
lifetime. The longest poem in the volume was Coleridge's The Rime of
George Henry Harlow,
the Ancient Mariner, which showed the Gothic side of English
Byron c. 1816
Romanticism, and the exotic settings that many works featured. In the
period when they were writing, the Lake Poets were widely regarded
as a marginal group of radicals, though they were supported by the critic and writer William Hazlitt
and others.
In contrast Lord Byron and Walter Scott achieved enormous fame and influence throughout Europe
with works exploiting the violence and drama of their exotic and historical settings; Goethe called
Byron "undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century".[42] Scott achieved immediate success with
his long narrative poem The Lay of the Last Minstrel in 1805, followed by the full epic poem
Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish past, already evoked in Ossian;
Romanticism and Scotland were to have a long and fruitful partnership. Byron had equal success
with the first part of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage in 1812, followed by four "Turkish tales", all in
the form of long poems, starting with The Giaour in 1813, drawing from his Grand Tour, which had
reached Ottoman Europe, and orientalizing the themes of the Gothic novel in verse. These featured
different variations of the "Byronic hero", and his own life contributed a further version. Scott
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meanwhile was effectively inventing the historical novel, beginning in

1814 with Waverley, set in the 1745 Jacobite Rising, which was an
enormous and highly profitable success, followed by over 20 further
Waverley Novels over the next 17 years, with settings going back to
the Crusades that he had researched to a degree that was new in
literature.[43]
In contrast to Germany, Romanticism in English literature had little
connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded
with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the French
Revolution, whose collapse and replacement with the dictatorship of
Girodet, Chateaubriand
Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the movement.
in Rome, 1808
Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was
politically a firm Unionist. Several spent much time abroad, and a
famous stay on Lake Geneva with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the hugely influential novel
Frankenstein by Shelley's wife-to-be Mary Shelley and the novella The Vampyre by Byron's doctor
John William Polidori. The lyrics of Robert Burns in Scotland and Thomas Moore, from Ireland
reflected in different ways their countries and the Romantic interest in folk literature, but neither
had a fully Romantic approach to life or their work.
Though they have modern critical champions such as Gyrgy Lukcs, Scott's novels are today more
likely to be experienced in the form of the many operas that composers continued to base on them
over the following decades, such as Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Vincenzo Bellini's I
puritani (both 1835). Byron is now most highly regarded for his short lyrics and his generally
unromantic prose writings, especially his letters, and his unfinished satire Don Juan.[44] Unlike
many Romantics, Byron's widely publicised personal life appeared to match his work, and his death
at 36 in 1824 from disease when helping the Greek War of Independence appeared from a distance
to be a suitably Romantic end, entrenching his legend.[45] Keats in 1821 and Shelley in 1822 both
died in Italy, Blake (at almost 70) in 1827, and Coleridge largely ceased to write in the 1820s.
Wordsworth was by 1820 respectable and highly regarded, holding a government sinecure, but
wrote relatively little. In the discussion of English literature, the Romantic period is often regarded
as finishing around the 1820s, or sometimes even earlier, although many authors of the succeeding
decades were no less committed to Romantic values.
The most significant novelist in English during the peak Romantic period, other than Walter Scott,
was Jane Austen, whose essentially conservative world-view had little in common with her
Romantic contemporaries, retaining a strong belief in decorum and social rules, though critics have
detected tremors under the surface of some works, especially Mansfield Park (1814) and
Persuasion (1817).[46] But around the mid-century the undoubtedly Romantic novels of the
Yorkshire-based Bront family appeared, in particular Charlotte's Jane Eyre and Emily's Wuthering
Heights, which were both published in 1847.
Byron, Keats and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with little success in England, with Shelley's
The Cenci perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played in a public theatre in
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England until a century after his death. Byron's plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and
Scott's novels, were much more popular on the Continent, and especially in France, and through
these versions several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets
had little success on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of Shakespeare,
and went some way to restoring his original texts and removing the Augustan "improvements" to
them. The greatest actor of the period, Edmund Kean, restored the tragic ending to King Lear;[47]
Coleridge said that, Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning.[48]
Scotland
Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland increasingly
adopted English language and wider cultural norms, its literature
developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an
international reputation. Allan Ramsay (16861758) laid the
foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as
well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the
Habbie stanza as a poetic form.[49] James Macpherson (173696) was
the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to
have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published
translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as
a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal, written in 1762, was
Robert Burns in
speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation
Alexander Nasmyth's
of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited
portrait of 1787
more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic
movement in European, and especially in German literature, through
its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.[50] It was also
popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon.[51] Eventually it became clear that the
poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the
aesthetic expectations of his audience.[52]
Robert Burns (175996) and Walter Scott (17711832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle.
Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major
influence on the Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at
Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial
national anthem of the country.[53] Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish
ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.[54] It
launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy (1817), The Heart
of Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define
and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century. [55] Other major literary figures
connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg (17701835), Allan
Cunningham (17841842) and John Galt (17791839).[56] One of the most significant figures of
the Romantic movement, Lord Byron, was brought up in Scotland until he inherited his family's
English peerage.[57]
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Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary
magazines of the era, The Edinburgh Review (founded in 1802) and
Blackwood's Magazine (founded in 1817), which had a major impact
on the development of British literature and drama in the era of
Romanticism.[58][59] Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that
publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of
a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth
century, caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain
and become central to a wider formation of a "British Isles
nationalism."[60]
Raeburn's portrait of
Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with

Walter Scott in 1822
specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage.
Theatres had been discouraged by the Church of Scotland and fears of
Jacobite assemblies. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by
small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of
the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed,
including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (17621851), often influenced by the
ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism.[61]
France
Romanticism was relatively late in developing in French literature, even more so than in the visual
arts. The 18th-century precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility, had become associated
with the Ancien regime, and the French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign
writers than those experiencing it at first hand. The first major figure was Franois-Ren de
Chateaubriand, a minor aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and
returned to France from exile in England and America under Napoleon, with whose regime he had
an uneasy relationship. His writings, all in prose, included some fiction, such as his influential
novella of exile Ren (1802), which anticipated Byron in its alienated hero, but mostly
contemporary history and politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval spirit (Gnie
du christianisme 1802), and finally in the 1830s and 1840s his enormous autobiography Mmoires
d'Outre-Tombe ("Memoirs from beyond the grave").[62]
After the Bourbon Restoration, French Romanticism developed in the lively world of Parisian
theatre, with productions of Shakespeare, Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and
adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in the
late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied
by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted assertion by one theatregoer in 1822
that "Shakespeare, c'est l'aide-de-camp de Wellington" ("Shakespeare is Wellington's aide-decamp").[63] Alexandre Dumas began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning with Henri
III et sa cour (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in
the manner of Scott, most famously The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, both of
1844. Victor Hugo published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving success on the stage with
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Hernania historical drama in a quasi-Shakespearian style that

had famously riotous performances, themselves as much a
spectacle as the play, on its first run in 1830.[64] Like Dumas, he
is best known for his novels, and was already writing The
Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831), one of the best known works
of his long career. The preface to his unperformed play
"Cromwell" gives an important manifesto of French
Romanticism, stating that "there are no rules, or models". The
career of Prosper Mrime followed a similar pattern; he is now
best known as the originator of the story of Carmen, with his
novella of 1845. Alfred de Vigny remains best known as a
dramatist, with his play on the life of the English poet
Chatterton (1835) perhaps his best work.
French Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include Alfred de
The "battle of Hernani" was
Musset, Grard de Nerval, Alphonse de Lamartine and the
fought nightly at the theatre in
flamboyant Thophile Gautier, whose prolific output in various
1830
forms continued until his death in 1872. George Sand took over
from Germaine de Stal as the leading female writer, and was a
central figure of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her
novels and criticism and her affairs with Chopin and several others.[65]
Stendhal is today probably the most highly regarded French novelist of the period, but he stands in
a complex relation with Romanticism, and is notable for his penetrating psychological insight into
his characters and his realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic fiction. As a survivor of the
French retreat from Moscow in 1812, fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for him,
and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of Realism. His most important works are Le Rouge
et le Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of
Parma, 1839).
Poland
Romanticism in Poland is often taken to begin with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz's first
poems in 1822, and end with the crushing of the January Uprising of 1863 against the Russians. It
was strongly marked by interest in Polish history.[66] Polish Romanticism revived the old
"Sarmatism" traditions of the szlachta or Polish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived
and portrayed in a positive light in the Polish messianic movement and in works of great Polish
poets such as Adam Mickiewicz (Pan Tadeusz), Juliusz Sowacki and Zygmunt Krasiski, as well
as prose writers such as Henryk Sienkiewicz. This close connection between Polish Romanticism
and Polish history became one of the defining qualities of the literature of Polish Romanticism
period, differentiating it from that of other countries. They had not suffered the loss of national
statehood as was the case with Poland.[67] Influenced by the general spirit and main ideas of
European Romanticism, the literature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as many scholars have
pointed out, in having developed largely outside of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue
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of Polish nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with leading

members of its government, left Poland in the early 1830s, during
what is referred to as the "Great Emigration," resettling in France,
Germany, Great Britain, Turkey, and the United States.
Their art featured emotionalism and irrationality, fantasy and
imagination, personality cults, folklore and country life, and the
propagation of ideals of freedom. In the second period, many of
the Polish Romantics worked abroad, often banished from Poland
by the occupying powers due to their politically subversive ideas.
Their work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of
political struggle for freedom and their country's sovereignty.
Elements of mysticism became more prominent. There developed
the idea of the poeta wieszcz (the prophet). The wieszcz (bard)
functioned as spiritual leader to the nation fighting for its
independence. The most notable poet so recognized was Adam
Mickiewicz.
Zygmunt Krasinski also wrote to inspire political and religious
hope in his countrymen. Unlike his predecessors, who called for
victory at whatever price in Poland's struggle against Russia,
Krasinski emphasized Poland's spiritual role in its fight for
independence, advocating an intellectual rather than a military
superiority. His works best exemplify the Messianic movement in
Poland: in two early dramas, Nie-boska komedyia[68] (1835; The
Undivine Comedy) and Irydion (1836; Iridion), as well as in the
later Psalmy przyszoci (1845), he asserted that Poland was the
Christ of Europe: specifically chosen by God to carry the world's
burdens, to suffer, and eventually be resurrected.
Russia
Adam Mickiewicz on the

Ayu-Dag, by Walenty
Wakowicz
Juliusz Sowacki, a Polish

poet considered one of the
"Three National Bards" of
Polish literature a major
figure in the Polish Romantic
period, and the father of
modern Polish drama.
Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writers

Konstantin Batyushkov (A Vision on the Shores of the Lethe,
1809), Vasily Zhukovsky (The Bard, 1811; Svetlana, 1813) and
Nikolay Karamzin (Poor Liza, 1792; Julia, 1796; Martha the
Mayoress, 1802; The Sensitive and the Cold, 1803). However the principal exponent of
Romanticism in Russia is Alexander Pushkin (The Prisoner of the Caucasus, 18201821; The
Robber Brothers, 1822; Ruslan and Ludmila, 1820; Eugene Onegin, 18251832). Pushkin's work
influenced many writers in the 19th century and led to his eventual recognition as Russia's greatest
poet.[69] Other Russian poets include Mikhail Lermontov (A Hero of Our Time, 1839), Fyodor
Tyutchev (Silentium!, 1830), Yevgeny Baratynsky (Eda, 1826), Anton Delvig, and Wilhelm
Kchelbecker.
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Influenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to explore the Romantic emphasis on
metaphysical discontent with society and self, while Tyutchev's poems often described scenes of
nature or passions of love. Tyutchev commonly operated with such categories as night and day,
north and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, and the still world of winter and spring
teeming with life. Baratynsky's style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling on the models of the
previous century.
Spain
Romanticism in Spanish literature developed a well-known literature with a huge variety of poets
and playwrights. The most important Spanish poet during this movement was Jos de Espronceda.
After him there were other poets like Gustavo Adolfo Bcquer, Mariano Jos de Larra and the
dramatist Jos Zorrilla, author of Don Juan Tenorio. Before them may be mentioned the
pre-romantics Jos Cadalso and Manuel Jos Quintana.[70] The plays of Antonio Garca Gutirrez
were adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdi's operas Il trovatore and Simon Boccanegra. Spanish
Romanticism also influenced regional literatures. For example, in Catalonia and in Galicia there
was a national boom of writers in the local languages, like the Catalan Jacint Verdaguer and the
Galician Rosala de Castro, the main figures of the national revivalist movements Renaixena and
Rexurdimento, respectively.[71]
Portugal
Modern Portuguese poetry develops its character from the work of its Romantic epitome, Almeida
Garrett, a very prolific writer who helped shape the genre with the masterpiece Folhas Cadas
(1853). This late arrival of a truly personal Romantic style would linger on to the beginning of the
20th century, notably through the works of poets such as Alexandre Herculano, Cesrio Verde and
Antnio Nobre. However, an early Portuguese expression of Romanticism is found already in
Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, especially in his sonnets dated at the end of the 18th century.
Italy
Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement, yet still important; it began officially in
1816 when Mme de Stal wrote an article in the journal Biblioteca italiana called "Sulla maniera e
l'utilit delle traduzioni", inviting Italian people to reject Neoclassicism and to study new authors
from other countries. Before that date, Ugo Foscolo had already published poems anticipating
Romantic themes. The most important Romantic writers were Ludovico di Breme, Pietro Borsieri
and Giovanni Berchet. Better known authors such as Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi
were influenced by Enlightenment as well as by Romanticism and Classicism.[72]
South America
Spanish-speaking South American Romanticism was influenced heavily by Esteban Echeverra,
who wrote in the 1830 and 1840s. His writings were influenced by his hatred for the Argentine
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dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, and filled with themes of blood

and terror, using the metaphor of a slaughterhouse to portray the
violence of Rosas' dictatorship.
Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in three
different periods. The first one is basically focused on the
creation of a sense of national identity, using the ideal of the
heroic Indian. Some examples include Jos de Alencar, who
wrote Iracema and O Guarani, and Gonalves Dias, renowned
by the poem "Cano do Exlio" (Song of the Exile). The
second period, sometimes called Ultra-Romanticism, is marked
by a profound influence of European themes and traditions,
involving the melancholy, sadness and despair related to
unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are commonly
quoted in these works. The third cycle is marked by social
poetry, especially the abolitionist movement; the greatest writer
of this period is Castro Alves.[73]
A print exemplifying the contrast

between neoclassical vs.
romantic styles of landscape and
architecture (or the "Grecian" and
the "Gothic" as they are termed
here), 1816
United States
In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen
Bryant's "To a Waterfowl", Romantic poetry was being
published. American Romantic Gothic literature made an early
appearance with Washington Irving's The Legend of Sleepy
Hollow (1820) and Rip Van Winkle (1819), followed from 1823
onwards by the Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore
Cooper, with their emphasis on heroic simplicity and their
fervent landscape descriptions of an already-exotic mythicized
Thomas Cole, The Course of
frontier peopled by "noble savages", similar to the philosophical
Empire: The Savage State (1 of
theory of Rousseau, exemplified by Uncas, from The Last of the
5), 1836
Mohicans. There are picturesque "local color" elements in
Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books.
Edgar Allan Poe's tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more influential in France than
at home, but the romantic American novel developed fully with the atmosphere and melodrama of
Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter (1850). Later Transcendentalist writers such as Henry
David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson still show elements of its influence and imagination, as
does the romantic realism of Walt Whitman. The poetry of Emily Dickinsonnearly unread in her
own timeand Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick can be taken as epitomes of American
Romantic literature. By the 1880s, however, psychological and social realism were competing with
Romanticism in the novel.
Influence of European Romanticism on American writers
The European Romantic movement reached America in the early 19th century. American
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Romanticism was just as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe. Like the Europeans,
the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to
individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis on intuitive perception, and the assumption
that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was filled with corruption.[74]
Romanticism became popular in American politics, philosophy and art. The movement appealed to
the revolutionary spirit of America as well as to those longing to break free of the strict religious
traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected rationalism and religious intellect. It
appealed to those in opposition of Calvinism, which includes the belief that the destiny of each
individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave rise to New England Transcendentalism,
which portrayed a less restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The new philosophy
presented the individual with a more personal relationship with God. Transcendentalism and
Romanticism appealed to Americans in a similar fashion, for both privileged feeling over reason,
individual freedom of expression over the restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a
rapturous response to nature. It encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid Calvinism, and promised a
new blossoming of American culture.[74][75]
American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the confinement of
neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America created a new literary
genre that continues to influence American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the
sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more
emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. America's preoccupation with freedom became a
great source of motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted in free expression and
emotion without so much fear of ridicule and controversy. They also put more effort into the
psychological development of their characters, and the main characters typically displayed
extremes of sensitivity and excitement.[76]
The works of the Romantic Era also differed from preceding works in that they spoke to a wider
audience, partly reflecting the greater distribution of books as costs came down during the
period.[26]
Romantic visual arts

In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in landscape painting, where from as early as the
1760s British artists began to turn to wilder landscapes and storms, and Gothic architecture, even if
they had to make do with Wales as a setting. Caspar David Friedrich and J. M. W. Turner were born
less than a year apart in 1774 and 1775 respectively and were to take German and English
landscape painting to their extremes of Romanticism, but both their artistic sensibilities were
formed when forms of Romanticism was already strongly present in art. John Constable, born in
1776, stayed closer to the English landscape tradition, but in his largest "six-footers" insisted on the
heroic status of a patch of the working countryside where he had grown upchallenging the
traditional hierarchy of genres, which relegated landscape painting to a low status. Turner also
painted very large landscapes, and above all, seascapes. Some of these large paintings had
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contemporary settings and staffage, but others had small figures

that turned the work into history painting in the manner of
Claude Lorrain, like Salvator Rosa a late Baroque artist whose
landscapes had elements that Romantic painters repeatedly
turned to. Friedrich often used single figures, or features like
crosses, set alone amidst a huge landscape, "making them
images of the transitoriness of human life and the premonition
of death."[77]
Thomas Jones, The Bard, 1774, a

prophetic combination of
Romanticism and nationalism by
the Welsh artist
Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the

mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and
proportions. These included William Blake and Samuel Palmer
and the other members of the Ancients in England, and in
Germany Philipp Otto Runge. Like Friedrich, none of these artists had significant influence after
their deaths for the rest of the 19th century, and were 20th century rediscoveries from obscurity,
though Blake was always known as a poet, and Norway's leading painter Johan Christian Dahl was
heavily influenced by Friedrich. The Rome-based Nazarene movement of German artists, active
from 1810, took a very different path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with
religious and nationalist themes.[78]
The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the
strong hold of Neoclassicism on the academies, but from the
Napoleonic period it became increasingly popular, initially in
the form of history paintings propagandising for the new
regime, of which Girodet's Ossian receiving the Ghosts of the
French Heroes, for Napoleon's Chteau de Malmaison, was one
of the earliest. Girodet's old teacher David was puzzled and
disappointed by his pupil's direction, saying: "Either Girodet is
mad or I no longer know anything of the art of painting".[79] A
new generation of the French school,[80] developed personal
Romantic styles, though still concentrating on history painting
with a political message. Thodore Gricault (17911824) had
Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussyhis first success with The Charging Chasseur, a heroic military
Trioson, Ossian receiving the
figure derived from Rubens, at the Paris Salon of 1812 in the
Ghosts of the French Heroes,
years of the Empire, but his next major completed work, The
180002
Raft of the Medusa of 1821, remains the greatest achievement
of the Romantic history painting, which in its day had a
powerful anti-government message.
Eugne Delacroix (17981863) made his first Salon hits with The Barque of Dante (1822), The
Massacre at Chios (1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827). The second was a scene from the
Greek War of Independence, completed the year Byron died there, and the last was a scene from
one of Byron's plays. With Shakespeare, Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other
works of Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North Africa, painting colourful scenes of
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mounted Arab warriors. His Liberty Leading the People (1830) remains, with the Medusa, one of
the best-known works of French Romantic painting. Both reflected current events, and increasingly
"history painting", literally "story painting", a phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance
meaning the painting of subjects with groups of figures, long considered the highest and most
difficult form of art, did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than those from
religion or mythology.[81]
Francisco Goya was called "the last great painter in whose art thought and observation were
balanced and combined to form a faultless unity".[82] But the extent to which he was a Romantic is
a complex question. In Spain, there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the
Enlightenment, in which Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti-rational
monsters thrown up by his imagination are only superficially similar to those of the Gothic
fantasies of northern Europe, and in many ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism
of his training, as well as looking forward to the Realism of the later 19th century.[83] But he, more
than any other artist of the period, exemplified the Romantic values of the expression of the artist's
feelings and his personal imaginative world.[84] He also shared with many of the Romantic painters
a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and impasto,
which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism under a self-effacing finish.
Sculpture remained largely impervious to Romanticism,
probably partly for technical reasons, as the most prestigious
material of the day, marble, does not lend itself to expansive
gestures. The leading sculptors in Europe, Antonio Canova and
Bertel Thorvaldsen, were both based in Rome and firm
Neoclassicists, not at all tempted to allow influence from
medieval sculpture, which would have been one possible
approach to Romantic sculpture. When it did develop, true
Romantic sculpturewith the exception of a few artists such as
Rudolf Maison[85] rather oddly was missing in Germany, and
mainly found in France, with Franois Rude, best known from
his group of the 1830s from the Arc de Triomphe in Paris,
David d'Angers, and Auguste Prault. Prault's plaster relief
entitled Slaughter, which represented the horrors of wars with
exacerbated passion, caused so much scandal at the 1834 Salon
that Prault was banned from this official annual exhibition for
nearly twenty years.[86] In Italy, the most important Romantic
sculptor was Lorenzo Bartolini.[87]
Cavalier gaulois by AntoineAugustin Prault, Pont d'Ina,

Paris
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Francisco Goya, The Third

of May 1808, 1814
Thodore Gricault, The

Raft of the Medusa, 1819
Eugne Delacroix, Liberty

Leading the People 1830
J.M.W. Turner, The

Fighting Tmraire tugged
to her last Berth to be
broken up, 1839
In France, historical painting on idealized medieval and Renaissance themes is known as the style
Troubadour, a term with no equivalent for other countries, though the same trends occurred there.
Delacroix, Ingres and Richard Parkes Bonington all worked in this style, as did lesser specialists
such as Pierre-Henri Rvoil (17761842) and Fleury-Franois Richard (17771852). Their pictures
are often small, and feature intimate private and anecdotal moments, as well as those of high
drama. The lives of great artists such as Raphael were commemorated on equal terms with those of
rulers, and fictional characters were also depicted. Fleury-Richard's Valentine of Milan weeping for
the death of her husband, shown in the Paris Salon of 1802, marked the arrival of the style, which
lasted until the mid-century, before being subsumed into the increasingly academic history painting
of artists like Paul Delaroche.[88]
Another trend was for very large apocalyptic history paintings, often combining extreme natural
events, or divine wrath, with human disaster, attempting to outdo The Raft of the Medusa, and now
often drawing comparisons with effects from Hollywood. The leading English artist in the style was
John Martin, whose tiny figures were dwarfed by enormous earthquakes and storms, and worked
his way through the biblical disasters, and those to come in the final days. Other works such as
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Delacroix's Death of Sardanapalus included larger figures,

and these often drew heavily on earlier artists, especially
Poussin and Rubens, with extra emotionalism and special
effects.
Elsewhere in Europe, leading artists adopted Romantic
styles: in Russia there were the portraitists Orest
Kiprensky and Vasily Tropinin, with Ivan Aivazovsky
Francesco Hayez, Crusaders Thirsting
specializing in marine painting, and in Norway Hans Gude
near Jerusalem
painted secenes of fjords. In Italy Francesco Hayez
(17911882) was the leading artist of Romanticism in
mid-19th-century Milan. His long, prolific and extremely successful career saw him begin as a
Neoclassical painter, pass right through the Romantic period, and emerge at the other end as a
sentimental painter of young women. His Romantic period included many historical pieces of
"Troubadour" tendencies, but on a very large scale, that are heavily influenced by Gian Battista
Tiepolo and other late Baroque Italian masters.
Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the
exaltation of an untamed American landscape found in the paintings of the Hudson River School.
Painters like Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed
Romantic themes in their paintings. They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world, such
as in Fredric Edwin Churchs piece Sunrise in Syria. These works reflected the Gothic feelings of
death and decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that Nature is powerful and will eventually
overcome the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish themselves from
their European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea of an
American identity in the art world is reflected in W. C. Bryants poem, To Cole, the Painter,
Departing for Europe, where Bryant encourages Cole to remember the powerful scenes that can
only be found in America.
Some American paintings (such as Albert Bierstadts The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak)
promote the literary idea of the noble savage by portraying idealized Native Americans living in
harmony with the natural world. Thomas Cole's paintings tend towards allegory, explicit in The
Voyage of Life series painted in the early 1840s, showing the stages of life set amidst an awesome
and immense nature.
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Thomas Cole, Childhood,

one of the 4 scenes in The
Voyage of Life, 1842
William Blake, Albion

Rose, 1794-5
Louis Janmot, from his

series "The Poem of the
Soul", before 1854
Thomas Cole, 1842, The

Voyage of Life
Old Age
Romanticism and music

Musical Romanticism is predominantly a German phenomenonso much so that one respected
French reference work defines it entirely in terms of "The role of music in the aesthetics of German
romanticism".[89] Another French encyclopedia holds that the German temperament generally "can
be described as the deep and diverse action of romanticism on German musicians", and that there is
only one true representative of Romanticism in French music, Hector Berlioz, while in Italy, the
sole great name of musical Romanticism is Giuseppe Verdi, "a sort of [Victor] Hugo of opera,
gifted with a real genius for dramatic effect". Nevertheless, the huge popularity of German
Romantic music led, "whether by imitation or by reaction", to an often nationalistically inspired
vogue amongst Polish, Hungarian, Russian, Czech, and Scandinavian musicians, successful
"perhaps more because of its extra-musical traits than for the actual value of musical works by its
masters".[90]
Although the term "Romanticism" when applied to music has come to imply the period roughly
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from 1800 until 1850, or else until around

1900, the contemporary application of
"romantic" to music did not coincide with
this modern interpretation. Indeed, one of
the earliest sustained applications of the
term to music occurs in 1789, in the
Mmoires of Andr Grtry.[91] This is of
particular interest because it is a French
source on a subject mainly dominated by
Germans, but also because it explicitly
acknowledges its debt to Jean-Jacques
Ludwig van Beethoven,
Rousseau (himself a composer, amongst
painted by Joseph Karl
Jean Auguste Dominique
other things) and, by so doing, establishes
Stieler, 1820
Ingres, Portrait of
a link to one of the major influences on
Niccol Paganini, 1819
the Romantic movement generally.[92] In
1810 E.T.A. Hoffmann named Mozart,
Haydn and Beethoven as "the three masters of instrumental
compositions" who "breathe one and the same romantic spirit". He
justified his view on the basis of these composers' depth of evocative
expression and their marked individuality. In Haydn's music, according
to Hoffmann, "a child-like, serene disposition prevails", while Mozart
(in the late E-flat major Symphony, for example) "leads us into the
depths of the spiritual world," with elements of fear, love, and sorrow,
"a presentiment of the infinite ... in the eternal dance of the spheres".
Beethoven's music, on the other hand, conveys a sense of "the
monstrous and immeasurable," with the pain of an endless longing that
Frederic Chopin in 1838
"will burst our breasts in a fully coherent concord of all the
by Eugne Delacroix
passions."[93] This elevation in the valuation of pure emotion resulted
in the promotion of music from the subordinate position it had held in
relation to the verbal and plastic arts during the Enlightenment. Because music was considered to
be free of the constraints of reason, imagery, or any other precise concept, it came to be regarded,
first in the writings of Wackenroder and Tieck and later by writers such as Schelling and Wagner, as
preeminent among the arts, the one best able to express the secrets of the universe, to evoke the
spirit world, infinity, and the absolute.[94]
This chronologic agreement of musical and literary Romanticism continued as far as the middle of
the 19th century, when Richard Wagner denigrated the music of Meyerbeer and Berlioz as
"neoromantic": "The Opera, to which we shall now return, has swallowed down the
Neoromanticism of Berlioz, too, as a plump, fine-flavoured oyster, whose digestion has conferred
on it anew a brisk and well-to-do appearance."[95]
It was only toward the end of the 19th century that the newly emergent discipline of
Musikwissenschaft (musicology)itself a product of the historicizing proclivity of the
ageattempted a more scientific periodization of music history, and a distinction between
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Viennese Classical and Romantic periods was proposed. The key figure in this trend was Guido
Adler, who viewed Beethoven and Franz Schubert as transitional but essentially Classical
composers, with Romanticism achieving full maturity only in the post-Beethoven generation of
Frdric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Berlioz, and Franz Liszt. From Adler's viewpoint, found in
books like Der Stil in der Musik (1911), composers of the New German School and various
late-19th-century nationalist composers were not Romantics but "moderns" or "realists" (by
analogy with the fields of painting and literature), and this schema remained prevalent through the
first decades of the 20th century.[92]
By the second quarter of the 20th century, an awareness that radical changes in musical syntax had
occurred during the early 1900s caused another shift in historical viewpoint, and the change of
century came to be seen as marking a decisive break with the musical past. This in turn led
historians such as Alfred Einstein[96] to extend the musical "Romantic Era" throughout the 19th
century and into the first decade of the 20th. It has continued to be referred to as such in some of
the standard music references such as The Oxford Companion to Music[97] and Grout's History of
Western Music[98] but was not unchallenged. For example, the prominent German musicologist
Friedrich Blume, the chief editor of the first edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart
(194986), accepted the earlier position that Classicism and Romanticism together constitute a
single period beginning in the middle of the 18th century, but at the same time held that it
continued into the 20th century, including such preWorld War II developments as expressionism
and neoclassicism.[99] This is reflected in some notable recent reference works such as the New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians[92] and the new edition of Musik in Geschichte und
Gegenwart.[100]
Franz Liszt, 1847
Daniel Auber, c.1868
Giovanni Boldini, Portrait

of Giuseppe Verdi, 1886
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Robert Schumann, 1839
Hector Berlioz, 1850
Giacomo Meyerbeer, 1847
Felix Mendelssohn, 1839
Richard Wagner, c. 1870s
In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career depending on
sensitive middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron, as had been the case with earlier
musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation of virtuosi who made
their way as soloists, epitomized in the concert tours of Paganini and Liszt, and the conductor
began to emerge as an important figure, on whose skill the interpretation of the increasingly
complex music depended.[101]
Romanticism outside the arts

Sciences
The Romantic movement affected most aspects of intellectual life, and Romanticism and science
had a powerful connection, especially in the period 180040. Many scientists were influenced by
versions of the Naturphilosophie of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von
Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and others, and without abandoning empiricism,
sought in their work to uncover what they tended to believe was a unified and organic Nature. The
English scientist Sir Humphry Davy, a prominent Romantic thinker, said that understanding nature
required an attitude of admiration, love and worship, [...] a personal response.[102] He believed
that knowledge was only attainable by those who truly appreciated and respected nature.
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Self-understanding was an important aspect of Romanticism. It had

less to do with proving that man was capable of understanding nature
(through his budding intellect) and therefore controlling it, and more to
do with the emotional appeal of connecting himself with nature and
understanding it through a harmonious co-existence.[103]
Historiography
History writing was very strongly, and many would say harmfully,
influenced by Romanticism.[104] In England Thomas Carlyle was a
highly influential essayist who turned historian; he both invented and
Akseli Gallen-Kallela,
exemplified the phrase "hero-worship",[105] lavishing largely uncritical
The Forging of the
praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell, Frederick the Great
Sampo, 1893. An artist
and Napoleon. Romantic nationalism had a largely negative effect on
from Finland deriving
the writing of history in the 19th century, as each nation tended to
inspiration from the
produce its own version of history, and the critical attitude, even
Finnish "national epic",
cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency to
create romantic stories with clearly distinguished heroes and
the Kalevala
[106]
villains.
Nationalist ideology of the period placed great emphasis
on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to vastly over-emphasize the
continuity between past periods and the present, leading to national mysticism. Much historical
effort in the 20th century was devoted to combating the romantic historical myths created in the
19th century.
Theology
To insulate theology from reductionism in science, 19th-century post-Enlightenment German
theologians moved in a new direction, led by Friedrich Schleiermacher and Albrecht Ritschl. They
took the Romantic approach of rooting religion in the inner world of the human spirit, so that it is a
person's feeling or sensibility about spiritual matters that comprises religion.[107]
Romantic nationalism
One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which
became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the
movement, with their focus on development of national languages and folklore, and the importance
of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to
calls for self-determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of
Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning. One of the most important functions of medieval
references in the 19th century was nationalist. Popular and epic poetry were its workhorses. This is
visible in Germany and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic substrates dating
from before the Romanization-Latinization were sought out. And, in Catalonia, nationalists
reclaimed Catalanism from before the Hispanicization of the Catholic Monarchs in the 15th
10/4/2016 4:16 PM
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century, when the Crown of Aragon was unified with the

Castilian nobility.
Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by Rousseau,
and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von Herder, who in 1784
argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a
people, and shaped their customs and society.
The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after
the French Revolution with the rise of Napoleon, and the
reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and
republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other
nations: self-determination and a consciousness of national
unity were held to be two of the reasons why France was able to
defeat other countries in battle. But as the French Republic
became Napoleon's Empire, Napoleon became not the
inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In
Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to
engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among
others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word
Volkstum, or nationality, was coined in German as part of this
resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the
unity of language and nation in his address "To the German
Nation" in 1806:
Those who speak the same language are joined to
each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by
nature herself, long before any human art begins;
they understand each other and have the power of
continuing to make themselves understood more and
more clearly; they belong together and are by nature
one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each
people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in
accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only
when in every people each individual develops
himself in accordance with that common quality, as
well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality
then, and then only, does the manifestation of
divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to
be.[108]
Egide Charles Gustave Wappers,

Episode of the Belgian
Revolution of 1830, 1834, Muse
d'Art Ancien, Brussels. A
romantic vision by a Belgian
painter.
Hans Gude, Fra Hardanger,

1847. Example of Norwegian
romantic nationalism.
This view of nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm,
the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the
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Kalevala, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or Ossian, where the claimed ancient roots
were invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were
preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists,
but fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For
instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales
by Charles Perrault, which they thought proved they were not truly German tales;[109] Sleeping
Beauty survived in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr convinced them that the figure of
the sleeping princess was authentically German. Vuk Karadi contributed to Serbian folk
literature, using peasant culture as the foundation. He regarded the oral literature of the peasants as
an integral part of Serbian culture, compiling it to use in his collections of folk songs, tales, and
proverbs, as well as the first dictionary of vernacular Serbian.[110] Similar projects were undertaken
by the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjrnsen and Jrgen Moe,
and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[111]
Polish nationalism and messianism

Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening
of many Central European peoples lacking their own national
states, not least in Poland, which had recently lost its
independence when Russia's army crushed the Polish Uprising
under Nicholas I. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths,
customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped
to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the
The November Uprising
dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic
(183031) in Kingdom of Poland
nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed
against the Russian Empire
struggle for independence also became popular themes in the
arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic
poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz, who developed an idea that Poland was the
Messiah of Nations, predestined to suffer just as Jesus had suffered to save all the people. The
Polish self-image as a "Christ among nations" or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its
history of Christendom and suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the
Catholic Church served as bastion of Poland's national identity and language, and the major
promoter of Polish culture. The partitions came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for the
security for Western civilization. Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama Dziady (directed
against the Russians) where he depicts Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say
unto you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them
civilization ... You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters". In "Books of
the Polish nation and Polish pilgrimage" Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and
a Christ of Nations, that would save mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most
known ones are the moral aspect of part II, individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as
deeply patriotic,messianistic and Christian vision in part III of poem. Zdzisaw Kpiski, however,
focuses his interpretation on Slavic pagan and occult elements found in the drama. In his book
Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes about hermetic, theosophic and alchemical philosophy on the
10/4/2016 4:16 PM
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book as well as Masonic symbols.
Gallery
Emerging Romanticism in the 18th century
Joseph Vernet, 1759,

Shipwreck; the 18th
century "sublime"
Joseph Wright, 1774, Cave

at evening, Smith College
Museum of Art,
Northampton,
Massachusetts
Henry Fuseli, 1781, The

Nightmare, a classical
artist whose themes often
anticipate the Romantic
Philip James de
Loutherbourg,
Coalbrookdale by Night,
1801, a key location of the
English Industrial
Revolution
French Romantic painting
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29 of 42
Thodore Gricault, The

Charging Chasseur, c.
1812
Ingres, Death of Leornardo Eugne Delacroix,

da Vinci, 1818, one of his
Collision of Moorish
Troubadour style works
Horsemen, 184344
Eugne Delacroix, The

Bride of Abydos, 1857,
after the poem by Byron
Other
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Joseph Anton Koch,

Waterfalls at Subiaco
18121813, a "classical"
landscape to art historians
James Ward, 18141815,

Gordale Scar
John Constable, 1821, The

Hay Wain, one of
Constable's large "six
footers"
J. C. Dahl, 1826, Eruption

of Vesuvius, by Friedrich's
closest follower
William Blake, c. 182427,

The Wood of the
Self-Murderers: The
Harpies and the Suicides,
Tate
Karl Bryullov, The Last

Day of Pompeii, 1833, The
State Russian Museum, St.
Petersburg, Russia
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31 of 42
J. M. W. Turner, The
Burning of the Houses of
Lords and Commons
(1835), Philadelphia
Museum of Art
Hans Gude, Winter

Afternoon, 1847, National
Gallery of Norway, Oslo
Ivan Aivazovsky, 1850,

The Ninth Wave, Russian
Museum, St. Petersburg
John Martin, 1852, The

Destruction of Sodom and
Gomorrah, Laing Art
Gallery
Frederic Edwin Church,

1860, Twilight in the
Wilderness, Cleveland
Museum of Art
Albert Bierstadt, 1863, The

Rocky Mountains, Lander's
Peak
Romantic authors
Jane Austen
Nikoloz Baratashvili
William Blake
Bront family
Robert Burns
Lord Byron
Thomas Carlyle
Alexander Chavchavadze
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Alexandre Dumas
Maria Edgeworth
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ugo Foscolo
Aleksander Fredro
Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe
Nikolai Gogol
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Victor Hugo
Washington Irving
John Keats
Zygmunt Krasiski
Jzef Ignacy Kraszewski
Herman Melville
Adam Mickiewicz
Cyprian Kamil Norwid
Mikhail Lermontov
Alessandro Manzoni
Grigol Orbeliani
Edgar Allan Poe
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Alexander Pushkin
Mary Robinson
George Sand
Walter Scott
Mary Shelley
Percy Shelley
Juliusz Sowacki
Henry David Thoreau
William Wordsworth
Scholars of Romanticism
Gerald Abraham
M. H. Abrams
Donald Ault
Jacques Barzun
Ian Bent
Isaiah Berlin
Tim Blanning
Harold Bloom
Friedrich Blume
James Chandler
Jeffrey N. Cox
Carl Dahlhaus
Northrop Frye
Peter Kitson
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe
Paul de Man
Jerome McGann
Anne K. Mellor
Jean-Luc Nancy
Ashton Nichols
Leon Plantinga
Christopher Ricks
Charles Rosen
Ren Wellek
Susan J. Wolfson
See also
Related terms
Humboldtian
Goethean
Nationalism
Sentimentalism
Transcendentalism
Opposing terms
Neoclassicism
Positivism
Rationalism
Realism
The Academy
The Enlightenment
Utilitarianism
Related subjects
Coleridge's theory of life
Dark Romanticism
Folklore
Gothic fiction
List of romantics
Mal du sicle
Middle Ages in history
Neo-romanticism
Post-romanticism
Romantic epistemology
Romantic hero
Romantic medicine
Romantic poetry
List of Romantic
poets
Romanticism in science
Ultra-Romanticism
Opium and Romanticism
Related movements
Decadent movement
Dsseldorf School
German Romanticism
Hudson River School
List of Hudson River
School artists
Nazarene movement
Norwegian romantic
nationalism
Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood
Sturm und Drang
Vegetarianism and
Romanticism
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Notes
1. Encyclopdia Britannica. " ''Romanticism''. Retrieved 30 January 2008, from Encyclopdia Britannica
Online". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
2. Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). " "Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time":
Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism". Foundations. Volume III, Number 1.
Archived from the original on May 13, 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-14.
3. David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman (1967)
4. Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the Western educational experience (1987) ch. 12 on Johann Heinrich
Pestalozzi
5. Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to
Charles Darwin," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 2005 149(3): 304315
6. Perpinya, Nria. Ruins, Nostalgia and Ugliness. Five Romantic perceptions of Middle Ages and a spoon
of Game of Thrones and Avant-garde oddity (http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/buch/isbn/3794).
Berlin: Logos Verlag. 2014
7. "'A remarkable thing,' continued Bazarov, 'these funny old romantics! They work up their nervous
system into a state of agitation, then, of course, their equilibrium is upset.'" (Ivan Turgenev, Fathers and
Sons, chap. 4 [1862])
8. Szabolcsi, B. (1970). "The Decline of Romanticism: End of the Century, Turn of the Century-Introductory Sketch of an Essay". Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 12: 263.
doi:10.2307/901360. JSTOR 901360.
9. Novotny, 96
10. From the Preface to the 2nd edition of Lyrical Ballads, quoted Day, 2
11. Day, 3
12. Ruthven (2001) p.40 quote: "Romantic ideology of literary authorship, which conceives of the text as an
autonomous object produced by an individual genius."
13. Spearing (1987) quote: "Surprising as it may seem to us, living after the Romantic movement has
transformed older ideas about literature, in the Middle Ages authority was prized more highly than
originality."
14. Eco (1994) p.95 quote: Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a
contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the "modern"
avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation from
nothingness," with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so on.
15. Waterhouse (1926), throughout; Smith (1924); Millen, Jessica Romantic Creativity and the Ideal of
Originality: A Contextual Analysis, in Cross-sections, The Bruce Hall Academic Journal Volume VI,
2010 PDF (http://eview.anu.edu.au/cross-sections/vol6/pdf/ch07.pdf); Forest Pyle, The Ideology of
Imagination: Subject and Society in the Discourse of Romanticism (Stanford University Press, 1995)
p.28.
16. Day 34; quotation from M.H. Abrams, quoted in Day, 4
17. Berlin, 92
18. Ferber, 67
19. Ferber, 7
20. Christiansen, 241.
22. in her Oxford Companion article, quoted by Day, 1
23. Day, 15
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34 of 42
24. Mellor, Anne; Matlak, Richard (1996). British Literature 1780-1830. NY: Harcourt Brace &
Co./Wadsworth. ISBN 978-1413022537.
25. Edward F. Kravitt, The Lied: Mirror of Late Romanticism (https://books.google.com
/books?id=WpR6Ja9eQzYC&pg=PA47&dq=%22Four+Last+Songs%22+%22Late+Romantic%22&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=FC92T8K_JIWA8gPP3JCeDQ&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22Four%20Last%20Songs%22%20%22Late%20Romantic%22&f=false) (New Haven and
London: Yale University Press, 1996): 47. ISBN 0-300-06365-2.
26. Greenblatt et al., Norton Anthology of English Literature, eighth edition, "The Romantic Period
Volume D" (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 2006):
27. Johnson, 147, inc. quotation
28. Barzun, 469
29. Day, 13; the arch-conservative and Romantic is Joseph de Maistre, but many Romantics swung from
youthful radicalism to conservative views in middle age, for example Wordsworth. Samuel Palmer's
only published text was a short piece opposing the Repeal of the corn laws.
30. Berlin, 57
31. Several of Berlin's pieces dealing with this theme are collected in the work referenced. See in particular:
Berlin, 34-47, 57-59, 183-206, 207-237.
32. Berlin, 57-58
33. Linda Simon The Sleep of Reason by Robert Hughes (http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public
/2004/february/bkpub1.asp)
34. Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder, Pimlico, 2000 ISBN 0-7126-6492-0 was one
of Isaiah Berlin's many publications on the Enlightenment and its enemies that did much to popularise
the concept of a Counter-Enlightenment movement that he characterised as relativist, anti-rationalist,
vitalist and organic,
35. Darrin M. McMahon, "The Counter-Enlightenment and the Low-Life of Literature in Pre-Revolutionary
France" Past and Present No. 159 (May 1998:77112) p. 79 note 7.
36. "Baudelaire's speech at the "Salon des curiosits Estethiques" (in French). Fr.wikisource.org. Retrieved
2010-08-24.
37. Sutherland, James (1958) English Satire (https://books.google.com/books?id=4kc4AAAAIAAJ&
pg=PA1) p.1. There were a few exceptions, notably Byron, who integrated satire into some of his
greatest works, yet shared much in common with his Romantic contemporaries. Bloom, p. 18.
38. John Keats. By Sidney Colvin, page 106. Elibron Classics
39. Thomas Chatterton, Grevel Lindop, 1972, Fyffield Books, page 11
40. Zipes, Jack (1988). The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World (1st ed.).
Routledge. pp. 78. ISBN 0-415-90081-6.
41. Zipes, Jack (2000). The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales. Oxford University Press. pp. 1314,
218219,. ISBN 978-0-19-860115-9.
47. Or at least he tried to; Kean played the tragic Lear for a few performances. They were not well received,
and with regret, he reverted to Nahum Tate's version with a comic ending, which had been standard
since 1689. See Stanley Wells, "Introduction" from King Lear Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 69.
48. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, Table Talk, 27 April 1823 in Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Morley, Henry
(1884). Table Talk of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Christobel, &c.
New York: Routledge. p. 38.
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49. J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins, 2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 311.
50. J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins, 2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 163.
51. H. Gaskill, The Reception of Ossian in Europe (Continuum, 2004), ISBN 0826461352, p. 140.
52. D. Thomson, The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian" (Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).
53. L. McIlvanney, "Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature", EighteenthCentury Life, vol. 29 (2), Spring 2005, pp. 2546.
54. K. S. Whetter, Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), ISBN
0-7546-6142-3, p. 28.
55. N. Davidson, The Origins of Scottish Nationhood (Pluto Press, 2008), ISBN 0-7453-1608-5, p. 136.
56. A. Maunder, FOF Companion to the British Short Story (Infobase Publishing, 2007), ISBN
0816074968, p. 374.
57. P. MacKay, E. Longley and F. Brearton, Modern Irish and Scottish Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2011), ISBN 0521196027, p. 59.
58. A. Jarrels, "'Associations respect[ing] the past': Enlightenment and Romantic historicism", in J. P.
Klancher, A Concise Companion to the Romantic Age (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), ISBN
0631233555, p. 60.
59. A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs,
English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), ISBN
0754664465, p. 210.
60. A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs,
English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), ISBN
0754664465, p. 209.
61. I. Brown, The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire
(17071918) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748624813, pp. 22930.
62. Christiansen, 202203, 24142.
63. Christiansen, 23946, 240 quoted.
65. Christiansen, 13038 on de Stal.
66. Leon Dyczewski, Values in the Polish cultural tradition (2002) p. 183
67. Christopher J. Murray, Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 17601850 (2004) vol. 2. p 742
68. "Nie-Boska komedia" (in Polish).
69. "Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (17991837)". University of Virginia Slavic Department. Retrieved
1 August 2011.
70. Philip W. Silver, Ruin and restitution: reinterpreting romanticism in Spain (1997) p. 13
71. Gerald Brenan, The literature of the Spanish people: from Roman times to the present (1965) p 364
72. La nuova enciclopedia della letteratura. Milan: Garzanti. 1985. p. 829.
73. Roberto Gonzlez Echevarra and Enrique Pupo-Walker, The Cambridge History of Latin American
Literature: Brazilian Literature (1996) vol. 2 p. 367
74. George L. McMichael and Frederick C. Crews, eds. Anthology of American Literature: Colonial through
romantic (6th ed. 1997) p 613
75. "Romanticism, American", in The Oxford Dictionary of American Art and Artists ed by Ann Lee
Morgan (Oxford University Press, 2007) online (http://www.oxfordreference.com/views
/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t238.e1140)
76. The relationship of the American poet Wallace Stevens to Romanticism is raised in the poem "Another
Weeping Woman" and its commentary.
77. Novotny, 96101, 99 quoted
78. Novotny, 112121
79. Honour, 184190, 187 quoted
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80. Walter Friedlaender, From David to Delacroix, 1974, remains the best available account of the subject.
81. "Romanticism". metmuseum.org.
82. Novotny, 142
83. Novotny, 133142
84. Hughes, 279280
85. McKay, James, The Dictionary of Sculptors in Bronze, Antique Collectors Club, London, 1995
86. Novotny, 397, 37984
87. Dizionario di arte e letteratura. Bologna: Zanichelli. 2002. p. 544.
88. Noon, throughout, especially pp. 124-155
89. Boyer 1961, 585.
90. Ferchault 1957.
91. Grtre 1789.
92. Samson 2001.
93. Hoffmann 1810, col. 632.
94. Boyer 1961, 58586.
95. Wagner 1995, 77.
96. Einstein 1947.
97. Warrack 2002.
98. Grout 1960, 492.
99. Blume 1970; Samson 2001.
100. Wehnert 1998.
102. Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and the Sciences, p.15.
103. Bossi, M., and Poggi, S., ed. Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 17901840, p.xiv;
Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and the Sciences, p.2.
104. E. Sreedharan (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000. Orient Blackswan.
pp. 12868.
105. in his published lectures On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History of 1841
106. Ceri Crossley (2002). French Historians and Romanticism: Thierry, Guizot, the Saint-Simonians,
Quinet, Michelet. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-97668-3.
107. Philip Clayton and Zachary Simpson, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science (2006) p 161
108. Fichte, Johann (1806). "Address to the German Nation". Fordham University. Retrieved October 1,
2013.
109. Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 31 ISBN 0-691-06722-8
110. Prilozi za knjievnost, jezik, istoriju i folklor (in Serbian). ,
. 1965. p. 264. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
111. Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p 846,
ISBN 0-393-97636-X
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(https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q8ZosSvB8C), pp. 83100. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press. ISBN 0253208696. excerpt (http://www.thefreelibrary.com
/Innovation+%26+repetition%3A+between+modern+%26+postmodern+aesthetics.a0138814075)
Einstein, Alfred. 1947. Music in the Romantic Era. New York: W. W. Norton.
Ferber, Michael. 2010. Romanticism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford and New York:
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1952.
Greenblatt, Stephen, M. H. Abrams, Alfred David, James Simpson, George Logan, Lawrence
Lipking, James Noggle, Jon Stallworthy, Jahan Ramazani, Jack Stillinger, and Deidre Shauna
Lynch. 2006. Norton Anthology of English Literature, eighth edition, The Romantic Period
Volume D. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 9780393927207.
Gregory, Elizabeth. 1997. Quotation and Modern American Poetry: Imaginary Gardens with
Real Toads (https://books.google.com/books?id=koPUNqF9XtoC). Texas A&M University
Press.
Grtry, Andr-Ernest-Modeste. 1789. Mmoires, ou Essai sur la musique. 3 vols. Paris: Chez
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lauteur, de L'Imprimerie de la rpublique, 1789. Second, enlarged edition, Paris: Imprimerie

de la rpublique, pluvise, 1797. Republished, 3 vols., Paris: Verdiere, 1812; Brussels:
Whalen, 1829. Facsimile of the 1797 edition, Da Capo Press Music Reprint Series. New York:
Da Capo Press, 1971. Facsimile reprint in 1 volume of the 1829 Brussels edition, Bibliotheca
musica Bononiensis, Sezione III no. 43. Bologna: Forni Editore, 1978.
Grout, Donald Jay. 1960. A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton & Company,
Inc.
Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor Amadeus. 1810. "Recension: Sinfonie pour 2 Violons, 2 Violes,
Violoncelle e Contre-Violon, 2 Fltes, petite Flte, 2 Hautbois, 2 Clarinettes, 2 Bassons,
Contrabasson, 2 Cors, 2 Trompettes, Timbales et 3 Trompes, compose et dedie etc. par
Louis van Beethoven. Leipsic, chez Breitkopf et Hrtel, Oeuvre 67. No. 5. des Sinfonies.
(Pr. 4 Rthlr. 12 Gr.)". Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12, no. 40 (4 July), cols. 63042 [Der
Beschluss folgt.]; 12, no. 41 (11 July), cols. 65259.
Honour, Hugh, Neo-classicism, 1968, Pelican.
Hughes, Robert. Goya. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. ISBN 0-394-58028-1.
Joachimides, Christos M. and Rosenthal, Norman and Anfam, David and Adams, Brooks
(1993) American Art in the 20th Century: Painting and Sculpture 19131993
(https://books.google.com/books?id=vc_pAAAAMAAJ).
Macfarlane, Robert. 2007. 'Romantic' Originality (http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content
/oso/3105617/2007/00000001/00000001/art00002), in Original Copy: Plagiarism and
Originality in Nineteenth-Century Literature (https://books.google.com
/books?id=Pt9mAAAAMAAJ), March 2007, pp. 1850(33)
Noon, Patrick (ed), Crossing the Channel, British and French Painting in the Age of
Romanticism, 2003, Tate Publishing/Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Novotny, Fritz, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 17801880 (Pelican History of Art), Yale
University Press, 2nd edn. 1971 ISBN 0-14-056120-X.
Ruthven, Kenneth Knowles. 2001. Faking Literature. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-66015-7 (cloth); ISBN 0-521-66965-0 (pbk).
Samson, Jim. 2001. "Romanticism". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Smith, Logan Pearsall (1924) Four Words: Romantic, Originality, Creative, Genius. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Spearing, A. C. 1987. Introduction section to Chaucer's The Franklin's Prologue and Tale
Steiner, George. 1998. "Topologies of Culture", chapter 6 of After Babel: Aspects of
Language and Translation, third revised edition. Oxford and New York: Oxford University
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Wagner, Richard. Opera and Drama, translated by William Ashton Ellis. Lincoln: University
of Nebraska Press, 1995. Originally published as volume 2 of Richard Wagner's Prose Works
(London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1900), a translation from Gesammelte
Schriften und Dichtungen (Leipzig, 187173, 1883).
Warrack, John. 2002. "Romanticism". The Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison
Latham. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866212-2.
Waterhouse, Francis A. 1926. Romantic 'Originality' (http://www.jstor.org/stable/27533952)
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in The Sewanee Review, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Jan., 1926), pp. 4049.
Wehnert, Martin. 1998. "Romantik und romantisch". Die Musik in Geschichte und
Gegenwart: allgemeine Enzyklopdie der Musik, begrndet von Friedrich Blume, second
revised edition. Sachteil 8: QuerSwi, cols. 464507. Basel, Kassel, London, Munich, and
Prague: Brenreiter; Stuttgart and Weimar: Metzler.
Further reading
Abrams, Meyer H. 1971. The Mirror and the Lamp. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-501471-5.
Abrams, Meyer H. 1973. Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic
Literature. New York: W.W. Norton.
Azurmendi, Joxe. 2008. Volksgeist. Donostia: Elkar. ISBN 978-84-9783-404-9.
Barzun, Jacques. 1943. Romanticism and the Modern Ego. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company.
Barzun, Jacques. 1961. Classic, Romantic, and Modern. University of Chicago Press. ISBN
9780226038520.
Berlin, Isaiah. 1999. The Roots of Romanticism. London: Chatto and Windus. ISBN
0-691-08662-1.
Blanning, Tim. The Romantic Revolution: A History (2011) 272pp
Breckman, Warren, European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents. New York:
Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007. "European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents".
Amazon.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
Cavalletti, Carlo. 2000. Chopin and Romantic Music, translated by Anna Maria Salmeri
Pherson. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series. (Hardcover) ISBN 0-7641-5136-3 ;
ISBN 978-0-7641-5136-1.
Chaudon, Francis. 1980. The Concise Encyclopedia of Romanticism. Secaucus, N.J.:
Chartwell Books. ISBN 0-89009-707-0.
Ciofalo, John J. 2001. "The Ascent of Genius in the Court and Academy." The Self-Portraits
of Francisco Goya. Cambridge University Press.
Cox, Jeffrey N. 2004. Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and
Their Circle. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521604239.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1979. "Neo-Romanticism". 19th-Century Music 3, no. 2 (November):
97105.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1980. Between Romanticism and Modernism: Four Studies in the Music of
the Later Nineteenth Century, translated by Mary Whittall in collaboration with Arnold
Whittall; also with Friedrich Nietzsche, "On Music and Words", translated by Walter Arnold
Kaufmann. California Studies in 19th Century Music 1. Berkeley: University of California
Press. ISBN 0-520-03679-4 (cloth); 0520067487 (pbk). Original German edition, as Zwischen
Romantik und Moderne: vier Studien zur Musikgeschichte des spteren 19. Jahrhunderts.
Munich: Musikverlag Katzbichler, 1974.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1985. Realism in Nineteenth-Century Music, translated by Mary Whittall.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26115-5 (cloth); ISBN
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0-521-27841-4 (pbk). Original German edition, as Musikalischer Realismus: zur

Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Munich: R. Piper, 1982. ISBN 3-492-00539-X.
Fabre, Cme, and Felix Krmer (eds.). 2013. L'ange du bizzare: Le romantisme noire de Goya
a Max Ernst, l'occasion de l'Exposition, Stadel Museum, Francfort, 26 septembre 2012 20
janvier 2013, Muse d'Orsay, Paris, 5 mars 9 juin 2013. Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz. ISBN
9783775735902.
Fay, Elizabeth. 2002. Romantic Medievalism. History and the Romantic Literary Ideal.
Houndsmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Gaull, Marilyn. 1988. English Romanticism: The Human Context. New York and London: W.
W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393955477.
Geck, Martin. 1998. "Realismus". Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine
Enzyklopdie der Musik begrnde von Friedrich Blume, second, revised edition, edited by
Ludwig Finscher. Sachteil 8: QuerSwi, cols. 9199. Kassel, Basel, London, New York,
Prague: Brenreiter; Suttgart and Weimar: Metzler. ISBN 3-7618-1109-8 (Brenreiter); ISBN
3-476-41008-0 (Metzler).
Gillespie, Gerald, Manfred Engel, and Bernard Dieterle (eds.). 2008. Romantic Prose Fiction
(= A Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages, Bd. XXIII; ed. by the
International Comparative Literature Association). Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John
Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-3456-8. [esp. pp. 263295].
Gossman, Lionel. 2007. Making of a Romantic Icon: The Religious Context of Friedrich
Overbecks Italia und Germania. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. ISBN
0-87169-975-3.
Grewe, Cordula. 2009. Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism. Burlington:
Ashgate. "Painting the Sacred in the Age of Romanticism". Amazon.com. Retrieved
2010-08-24.
Hamilton, Paul, ed. The Oxford Handbook of European Romanticism (2016).
Holmes, Richard. 2009. The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the
Beauty and Terror of Science. London: HarperPress. ISBN ISBN 9780007149520. New York:
Pantheon Books. ISBN 9780375422225. Paperback reprint, New York: Vintage Books. ISBN
978-1-4000-3187-0
Honour, Hugh. 1979. Romanticism. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0064333361 (cloth);
ISBN 0064300897 (pbk.).
Johnson, Lee. 1991. Eugne Delacroix (1798-1863) : paintings, drawings, and prints from
North American collections (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject
/collection/p15324coll10/id/59744), New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN
9780870996085.
Kravitt, Edward F. 1992. "Romanticism Today". The Musical Quarterly 76, no. 1 (Spring):
93109.
Lang, Paul Henry. 1941. Music in Western Civilization. New York: W. W. Norton.
McCalman, Iain (ed.). 2009. An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. Online at Oxford Reference Online
(http://www.oxfordreference.com/pages/Subjects_and_titles__t285) (subscription required)
Mason, Daniel Gregory. 1936. The Romantic Composers. New York: Macmillan.
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Masson, Scott. 2007. "Romanticism", Chapt. 7 in The Oxford Handbook of English Literature
and Theology, (Oxford University Press) 2007.
Murray, Christopher, ed. Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 17601850 (2 vol 2004); 850
articles by experts; 1600pp
O'Neill, J, ed. (2000). Romanticism & the school of nature : nineteenth-century drawings and
paintings from the Karen B. Cohen collection. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Plantinga, Leon. 1984. Romantic Music: A History of Musical Style in Nineteenth-Century
Europe. A Norton Introduction to Music History. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN
0-393-95196-0 ; ISBN 978-0-393-95196-7
Reynolds, Nicole. 2010. Building Romanticism: Literature and Architecture in Nineteenthcentury Britain. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11731-4.
Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. 1992. The Emergence of Romanticism. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0195073416
Rosen, Charles. 1995. The Romantic Generation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-674-77933-9.
Rosenblum, Robert, Modern Painting and the Northern Romantic Tradition: Friedrich to
Rothko, (Harper & Row) 1975.
Rummenhller, Peter. 1989. Romantik in der Musik: Analysen, Portraits, Reflexionen.
Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag; Kassel and New York: Brenreiter.
Ruston, Sharon. 2013. Creating Romanticism: Case Studies in the Literature, Science and
Medicine of the 1790s. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137264282.
Schenk, H. G. 1966. The Mind of the European Romantics: An Essay in Cultural History.:
Constable.
Spencer, Stewart. 2008. "The 'Romantic Operas' and the Turn to Myth". In The Cambridge
Companion to Wagner, edited by Thomas S. Grey, 6773. Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64299-X (cloth); ISBN 0-521-64439-9 (pbk).
Steve (2010-06-30). "Lionel Gossman's Making of a Romantic Icon: The Religious Context
of Friedrich Overbeck's "Italia und Germania" (American Philosophical Society Transaction
97-5; ISBN 0-87169-975-3) Diane Publishing's Blog". Dianepub.wordpress.com. Retrieved
2010-08-24.
Tekiner, Deniz. 2000. Modern Art and the Romantic Vision. Lanham, MD. University Press of
America. ISBN 9780761815280 (cloth); ISBN 9780761815297 (pbk.).
Workman, Leslie J. 1994. "Medievalism and Romanticism". Poetica 3940: 134.
External links
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The Romantic Poets (http://www.poetseers.org
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Dictionary of the History of Ideas (http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local
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/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-26), Romanticism
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Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1.4 Context and place in history

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

approached from the starting point of the primary

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

and "Romanesque", has a complicated history, but by the

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Context and place in history

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Samuel Taylor Coleridge see it as the beginning of a tradition of

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

including figures such as Joseph Warton (headmaster at

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

meanwhile was effectively inventing the historical novel, beginning in

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hernania historical drama in a quasi-Shakespearian style that

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

of Polish nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with leading

Adam Mickiewicz on the

Juliusz Sowacki, a Polish

Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writers

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, and filled with themes of blood

A print exemplifying the contrast

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Romantic visual arts

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

contemporary settings and staffage, but others had small figures

Thomas Jones, The Bard, 1774, a

Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cavalier gaulois by AntoineAugustin Prault, Pont d'Ina,

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Francisco Goya, The Third

Thodore Gricault, The

Eugne Delacroix, Liberty

J.M.W. Turner, The

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Delacroix's Death of Sardanapalus included larger figures,

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Thomas Cole, Childhood,

William Blake, Albion

Louis Janmot, from his

Thomas Cole, 1842, The

Romanticism and music

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

from 1800 until 1850, or else until around

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Franz Liszt, 1847

Daniel Auber, c.1868

Giovanni Boldini, Portrait

Romanticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia