COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS for <1 SS, 6 Andy Martin * Kevin Brown © Paul Rigby « Simon Riley STANLEY THORNES© Andy Martin, Kevin Brown, Paul Rigby, Simon Riley 2000 Ilustrations © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd 2000, ‘The right of Andy Martin, Kevin Brown, Paul Righy and Simon Riley to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, wilhout permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further dotails of such licencos (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P OLP. First published in 2000 by ‘Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Lid Ellanborough House Wellington Street (CHELTENHAM GLs01YW A calalogue record for this baok is available fram the British Library, ISBN 0 7487 3558.5 Book plus Advanced Level Mathematics Tutorials Pure Mathematics CD-ROM sample {Tracle Edition) ISBN 0 7487 4523 8 Advanced Level Mathematies Tutorials Pure Mathematics CD-ROM Multi-user version ISBN 0 7487 39149 Single-user version ISU 07487 3918 1 oo 0102.03 04/10987654321 Cover photograph, STP Archive Photograph, p106, STP Archive Evory effort has been mado to contact copyright holders. The authors and publishers apologise to anyone whose rights have been ‘overlooked and will be happy to rectify any errors ar omissions at the earliest opportunity. ‘Typosot by Tho Alden Group, Oxford Printed and bound in Italy by STIGE, TurinContents Examination Papers 4 Algebra What you need to know Review 1.1 The Number System and Surds igindices 1.3 Polynomials 1.4 Factorisation 1.5 Solving Quadratic Equations 1.6 Simultaneous Equations Consolidation B Applications and Activities Summary 2 Coordinate Geometry: What you need to know: Review 2.1 Coordinate Geome! 2.2 The Equation of a Straight Line 2.3 More on the Straight Line 2.4 Inequalities 5 The Equation of a Circle Consolidation A Consolidation B Applications and Activities Summary 3 Trigonometry 1 hat you nes fo kuow 3.1 Trigonomotric Functions 3.2 Equations and Identities a Compound and Doublo: ompound and Double Angle Formulas 3.4 The Gosine Rule and the Sine Rule ‘The Area of a Triangle Consolidation A Consolidation B Applications and Activities Summary 4 Functions What you need to know: Review 4.1 Mappings and Functions 42 Inverse Function: 4.3 Composite Functions 4aTranslormations of Graphs and Functions 4.5 Even, Odd and Periodic Functions Consolidation A Consolidation B Applications and Activities ‘Summary & 1 1 1 3 a u 20 26 39 a4 a5,Contents 5 Differentiation 1 What you need to knaw Review 1 Finding the Grac Stationary Points: 5.3 Further Ap lications of Differentiation 4 The Chait Rule and Related Rates of Change 5 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions lidation A. Consolidation B Applications and Activities Summary tof a Curve 6 Algebra I What you need to know Review, 6.1 Polynomial Division 2 Algebraic Fractions 3 Partial Fractions 6.4 Curve Sketching Consolidation A 190 190 190 191 208 27 226 236 249 251 253 254 255 255 255 256 265 270 281 289 Consolidation BO Applications and Activities 292 Summary 7 Exponentials and Logarithms What you need to know Roview 7.1 Tho Exponential Function 7.2 Logarithms 293 294 204 204 295 300 7.3 Laws of Logarithms 304 7.4 Solving a* = b 309 nsolidation A ‘316 Consolidation Be Applications and Activitios 319 Summary 320 B Sequences and Series What you need to know 8.1 Sequences and Series 8.2 Arithmetic Progression 8.3 Geometric Progression 8.4 Convorgenco, Divergence and Oscillation 8.5 The Binomial Theorem and Power Series Consolidation A Consolidation B Applications and Act Summary 9 Integration I What you need to know Review 9.1 Indefinite Integration The Area Under a Graph The Arca Botween 9.5 Volumes of Revolution 9.6 Integration of Sine and Gosine Consolidation A Consolidation B Applications and Activities Summary 321 321 B21 322 828 335 340 346 354 355 357 358 359 359 359 360 367 377 384 390 397 399 401 402Contents 10 Trigonometry 1 403 What you need io know 403, Review 403 10.1 'The Factor Formulas 404 10.2 Functions of the Form f(x) = asinx + bcosx. 411 10.3 General Solutions of Trigonometric Equations er 427 Applications and Activities 420 ‘Summary 430 ifforontiati What you need to know 431 11.1 Differentiating Products and Quotients 433 11.2 Differentiating Exponentials and Logarithms 438 11.3 Further Triganomettic Differentiation 448 11/4 Using the Second Derivative 455 11.5 Implicit Differentiation 465 11.6 Parametric Differentiation. 472 11.7 Maclaurin Series 481 lation A 488 490 Applications and Activities 491 Summary 491 12 Integration I What you need fo know Review 12.1 Standard Integrals 12.2 Rational Functions 12.3 Integration by Parts 12.4 Integration by Substitution 12.5 The Area Under a Paramotrically Defined Curve 12.6 Differential Equations Consolidation A Consolidation B Applications and Act Summary vities 13 Numerical Methods What you need to know Review 13.1 Approximate Solutions of Equations 13.2 Numerical Integration Applications and Activities 587 ‘Summary 588 14 Vectors 590 What you need to know 590 Review 14.1 Vector Geomet 591 T4.2 Vectors in Two and ThFse Dimensions soo 44.3 The Sealar Product 614 14-4 The Vector Equation of a Straight Line 626 14.5 The Vector Equation of a Plane 643 Consolidation A 661 Consolidation B 663 Applications and Activ 665, Summary 665Contents vi 15 Proof and Mathematical Argument What you need to know matical Argument 15.2 Proof by Exhaustion and Disproof by Counter Example 15.3 Proof by Contradiction 15.4 Proof by Induction Consolidation A Applications and Activities Summary Answers a7 Formulas 724 Index 727 Examination Papers We are grateful to the following Awarding Bodies for permission to reproduce questions from their past examination papers @ Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA), including Northern Examinations and Assessment Board (NEAB), Associated Examining Board (AEB), Secondary Mathematics Project (SMP) and Joint Matriculation Board (JMB). @ The Edexcel Foundation, including University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC), @ Oxford, Cambridge and RSA (OCR), including University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), Oxford & Cambridge Schools Examination Board (OCSEB) and Mathematics in Education and Industry (MED), @ Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examin and Assessment (NICCEA). @ =Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC), All answers and worked solutions provided for examination questions are the responsibility of the authors. Graphical calculator support An icon ( gi) is shown in the margin feature of this book to denote areas where the work can be further developed or demonstrated with a graphical calculator. A Graphical Calculator Support Pack is: also available to use alongside this book (ISBN: 07487 4524 6), containing k ulator settings for Texas, Sharp and Casio macl nal questions that build on the activities are also provided. Where there is a link on the page of this book to the pack this is indicated next to the icon in the margin.Advanced Level Mathematics Tutorials Pure Mathematics Advanced Level Mathematics Tutorials Pure Mathematics is a new CD-ROM resource. It is designed to provide further and valuable extra practice and additional support to your Pure Mathematics work, There are two versions of this programme, each providing Live Authored™ worked solutions to exercises from this book. ‘The Multi-user version provides worked solutions to 120 exercises; the Single-user version provides worked salutions to 75 exercises. Each worked solution is supported by an additional two new exercises to try. nin book to denote where a worked solution to an exercise on that page is provided on the CD-ROM. The relevant exercise number(s) is shawn with the icon, shown in the margin feature of the pages in this For further details of this new resource, contact Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, Ellenborough House, Wellington Street, Cheltenham, Glos GL50 1YW. Tel: 01242 267272. Fax: 01242 253695. e-mail: [email protected] Multi-user version: A sot of three identical disks containing 120 Live Authored™ worked solutions. Each disk is licensed to three users. ISBN 0 7467 3914 9 Single-user version: A single disk containing 75 Live Authored™ oxamples. ‘The disk is licensed to one user. ISBN 0 7487 39181 About the Authors @ Andy Martin is currently Head of Mathematics in a Doncaster school. He has also been a Pure Mathematics Examiner and Coursework Moderator since 1994 as well as a member of the Examination Board's subject committee. Andy is also the National Project Officer for a National Gurriculum Development project. @ Kevin Brown is currently Head of Mathematics at a school in St Helens. Kevin has many years’ teaching experience at a comprehensive school in Liverpool. He has also previously written material fora Mathematics multimedia package. @ Paul yy is currently Second in the Mathematics department of a high school in Bolton. Paul has worked previously at a comprehensive school in Oldham, @ Simon H Riley { is currently Head of Mathematics at a school in ant Examiner, vilIntroduction Complete Advanced Level Mathematics is an exciting new series of mathematics books, Teacher Resource Files and other support materials (see page viii) fom Stanley Thornes for those studying at Advanced Level. It has been developed following an extensive period of research and consultation with a wide number of teachers, students and others. All the authors are experienced and practising teachers and, in some cases, Advanced Level Mathematics Examiners. Chapters have been trialed in schools and colleges. All the requirements for complete success in Advanced Level Mathematics are provided by this seri This book covers all the requirements for Pure Mathematics from all the latest Advanced Level specifications and course requirements for AS and A Level mathematics. It will provide you with: @ Material that builds on work done at GGSE level, where appropriate. Comprehensive coverage and clear explanations of all Pure Mathematics topics and skills. Numerous exercises and worked examples with questions and clear diagrams, Precise and comprehensive teaching text with clear progression. Margin notes that provide supporting commentary on key topics, formulas and other aspects of the work. In text highlighted ‘hints’ to assist with important areas, such as specific calculations in worked examples and key formulas. Margin icons for topics requiring the use of a graphical calculator or computer. Topics that can be developed with IT. are included throughout. © A comprehensive list of formulas that students need to know, with chapter references, and a full index. Chapters in this book contain a number of key features: @ What you need to know sections covering prerequisite knowledge for a chapter. © Review sections with practice questions on what you need to know. Worked Examples and supporting commentary. Technique and Contextual Exercises to give thorough practice in all Pure Mathematics concept areas and skills. © Consolidation A and B Exercises, which include actual examination questions, to build on the work in a chapter and provide practice in a variety of question types. Applications and Activities as a support to coursework. A Summary of all the key concepts covered. Companion volumes for Mechanics (0 7487 3559 3) and Statistics (0 7487 3560 7) and a Pure Mathematics Teacher Resource File (0 7487 3561 5) are also available in this series. villCOMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS for <1 SS, 6 Andy Martin * Kevin Brown © Paul Rigby « Simon Riley STANLEY THORNESCOMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS Pure Mathematics Andy Martin * Kevin Brown © Paul Rigby * Simon Riley STANLEY THORNES Thais one } (N00 AN 2969-1XC-BEBR1 Algebra | What you need to know How to use index form, How to evaluate Va x Va. How to collect like terms, How to expand brackets. How to solve linear equations. How to factorise algebraic expressions. How to use a division algorithm (method) without a calculator. Review Write the following in index form: a xxx do axaxbxbxb bo 7x7x7 @ xox © XXxXKX f{ Sax 2ax2a Find the exact value of the following: a V36 x V36 d vi6 x vi6 b Vix ve e vaxva © Vax Va Po Vex VE By collecting like terms simplify the following expressions: a 2v43x do ayy 43x Bb ox? + ax? - 2x? e 2% —avd4 © 6y—3y4+4e f 249% —ax ‘Multiply out, or expand, the following terms in brackets, simplifying the answer where possible: a ax +2) B (x+1)(x+2) b 2(x-3) ho (x—2)( +3) © ~2(x42) i (x+#4)(x=1) d -3(x-a) j (e483) +5) © —5(x+2y—3) k (x—2)(x-3) f 6(2x—2y — 12) 1 (x-4)? Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes MatComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics Irrationals and surds ‘There are some numbers that cannot be written in this form. These numbers have a decimal expansion that doesn't terminate, but goes on forever without repeating. These numbers are known as irrational numbers, Some examples of irrational numbers are x, 2, v5 and V7. ‘They cannot be evaluated exactly; calculators simply give an approximation to 8, 10 or 12 decimal places. The ancient Grecks called numbers like /2, /5 and V7 incommensurables. Now they are often referred to as surds. Not all irrationals are surds; x is not a surd. Surds are used to give exact answers instead of an approximation to many decimal places (in much the same way as fractions are proferred to decimals). Surds can also be manipulated using the following properties. WBERYS Property 1 Learn these properties. i BREE 5 pens BEES pes Example 3 ‘Simplify: a vas b va c Ov7F+2v7 dd 5V9- VF Solution a V5 = VOx5 =Vax V5 4 Using property 1. =3v5 bo VH=Vaxe =Vax V6 <4 Using property 1. =2Vv6 © 6Y742V¥7=(642)V7 4 Using property 3. =8v7 d 5V3~- V27 =5v8-voxd Notice how 27 can be =5V8—(Jix V3) << Using property 1. written as a product involving a square =5V5—3V3=2V3 4 Using property 4. Humber! errechtlich geschitztes Material1 Algebra | Example 4 Expand and simplify (v8 - ¥3)(V8 + V3). Solution (va — V8)(V8 + V3) = VB Va + v3) — V3(V8 + V5) = (V8)? + Vav3 - VaV8 - (v3)? = (vi)? - (v3)? =8-3=5 Example 4 demonstrates the algebraic result for difference of two squares: BEBE al=Ya This means ‘power }' can be thought of as a cube root. Investigate powers 1, },and so on in the same way. Notice how the fraction is related to the root, TEBE —Propesty6 © 4 Learn this property.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics Property 6 can also be used to establish a meaning for fractional powers where the numerator isn't 1. For example, a? can be written in other forms, ali = (a)! = (aly? <4 Use property 2, ‘The first version, a} = (a°)}, allows the following interpretation. ai = (a?! = Va? Notice how the fractional power creates a root of a power. BBY etp Property 7 4 Learn this property. ‘These seven properties provide useful techniques for simplifying algebraic expressions. Example 1 Simplify: res axa i 1 cGy 4 Use property 1 on the numerator. <4 Use property 3. py texty’ _ oxty® arty ty =6x?-y8-)) 4 Use property 3 omx and y separately. = oxy" oy" =F << Use property 5. ce (8x8)F = 3? x (x8? = ox? <4 Use property 2. 10 Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material+1 Algebra Example 2 Write the following expressions in index form: aa bs © (t)! a bo Gackt 4 Use property 5. Notice in part b how the variable (x) is put into index form, but the fraction (}) is left as a multiplier. ce (tied 4 Use property 2. =% a -vae = Var =927 «Ye 4. Use surd property 1. =3x Example 3 Without using a calculator, evaluate: a ot b ayy <4 Use property 5. 4 Use property 2 Remove the mixed number. “a 4. Use property 5. Remember that division 4 Use property 6. bya a invert the fraction (and multiply). Urheberrechtlich geschitztes MerialComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics ‘The properties, or rules, of indices can also be used in equation solving. Example 4 Find the value of x when: a 2125 b a4 Solution a 5% 5125 ‘This type of problem can sometimes be solved using a trial and improvement approach, as follows, although this may be time consuming for very large numbers, and for non-integer solutions. sims Seon 25 S)=5x5x5=125 Sox=3 bo oxtsa <4 Use property 7. Ve aa ae x= 64 x= tVveE x=48 Urheberrechtlich geschdtztes Material1 Algebra! 1.2 Indices Exercise Technique 1 | simplity the following expressions: a d b € c f 2.| Simplify the following expressions: a yt dai’)? box)? 2 xt} ce 2(x*)? f (3x7)8 3) Write the following expressions in index form: 3 SB x5 aa a 4 qaxéy* bo ° cary? aa . oy a oye [4] weite the folowing expressions in their simplest form: wt a tt at # ae S i ' 5 | Evaluate the following expressions without using a calculator: a 16 e (yt b oat r go e (-27yi 2 (3p a (-27)) ho (2h G | Using trial and improvement, or otherwise, solve (find the value of x for) these equations: a b a=9 c Fak do 12821 e £ x%=p g xtel ho e=343Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 4 1.3 Polynomials ‘An expression is a combination of numbers, variables (usually represented by the letters x and y) and mathematical operations (+, -, x, +). Some examples of expressions are 3x +2, 7x? + 3y, and x* — 5x +6. When two expressions are linked by the symbol of equality an equation is formed. Robert Recorde (1510-1558) For example, the following are all equations: Ox+255 Tx? + 3y =x+2 x -5x+6=0 ‘The general form of a simple equation can be written in various ways. yoax¢d, y=mete and y=a,x+ay are all forms of linear equations. Why are these equations linear? ‘Try drawing their graphs for some values ofa and b, mand ¢, or a, and ay. Notice how the graph is always a straight line. For example, y = 2x + 1 is one version ofy =ax +b, witha =2and b= 1. It is illustrated here. ‘An equation of the form y = x", where 1 is a positive integer, is known as a polynomial. The general form of this type is written y=a,x" +a, 4x" 4... +a, +0,x +a, where a, £0. This is called 4 polynomial equation of degree n. yox'43x-1 is a polynomial of degree 2, because its highest power is 2. x’+/e-Jisnota polynomial. This is yo2t 470 -Ox44 betaine fz =a and) isn't a positive intege is a polynomial of degroe 5, because its highest power is 5. What about the numbers in the polynomials? Notice how each term of the equation is distinct, separated by the operators + and ~. The number in front of each variable (letter) is called a coefficient.1 Algebra! Consider the polynomial y = 2x° + 7x" — Gx +4. This is a quintic equation (order 5, because the highest power of x is 5). The numbers 2,7 and —8 are coefficients: 2 is the coefficient of the x° term; 7 is the coefficient of the x* term; and ~8 is the coefficient of the x term. The final term, +4, is called a constant because il remains the same {its value is constant), whatever the value of x. Addition and subtraction In order to simplify polynomials, like terms are collected together. Like terms can then be added or subtracted algebraically. Notice the distinction between like and unlike terms. @ Examples of like terms x*, 3x7, and 2x" aro like terms, bocause thoy all have the samo variable, x7 xvand 3yxcare like terms, because they both have the same variable, xy © Examples of unlike terms x and xy are unlike terms, because they contain different variables x“y and y’x are unlike terms, because they contain different variables Example 1 Simplify: a (3x? + 8x 2) + (Sx? + 3x +8) Bb (6x? + 8x ~ 2) — (5x? + 2x7) Solution a (3x7 + Bx ~ 2) + (5x7 + 3x + 8) = Bx" + BK— 24 x7 43x48 = 3x? +5x7 4 Ox+3N-248 = 8x 4 11N4+ 6 Bb (Gx? + ax — 2) — (5x7 + 2x—7) = Ox? + 8x —2- 5x? -2x+7 = GN" — Sx” + 8x — 2-247 =x 46x45 term inside the bracket, and collect together like Multiplication terms, Multiplication of polynomials is achieved by applying the distributive Jaw. In algebra this law can be stated, B= Verily this law for and yourself using numbers.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics For example, 23 « 17 can be written (20+ 3) x (10 +7) = 20(10 +7) +3(10 +7) = 200 + 140+ 30 +21 =391 ‘What is the effect of this law? Notice that every term in the second bracket has been multiplied by each of the terms in the first bracket. This is the principle used in polynomial multiplication, Example 2 Expand and simplify: a (2x-+3)(4x" +3x? = 2x +5) Bb (3x” x7 + 7)(2x" + 2x? — ax +2) ce (x42) Solution a Recall the structure of the distributive law, Each term in the second bracket must be multiplied by each term in the first bracket. (2x + 3)(4x7 + 3x? — 2x +5) = 2x(ax" + 3x? — 2v +5) + 3(4x? + 3x? — 2x +5) = Bx" 4 6x" — ax? + 10x + 12x" + Ox? — Bx +15 = Ox 4 6x? + 120? — 4x? 4 ON? + LON — G4 15 = BN 4 18x? 45x? 4 an 4 15, b Recall the structure of the distributive law. (ax? — x7 + 7)(2x" + 2x? — 3x +2) = 3x¥(ax" + 2x? — 3x + 2) — x7 (2x? + 2x7 — 3x +2) + 7(2x3 + 2x7 - 3x +2) = 6x" + 6x9 — 9x! + 6x? — 2x9 — 2x4 + 3x? — 2n* + 14x" 4 14x? —21N4 14 = Gx" 4 Gx? = 2x* — ox* = 2x + Gx? + 3x" + 14x" = 2x7 + 14x? ~2ix+14 = 6x" + ax? — dix! + 23x" 4 12x" — 24x + 14 © (+2) = (x +2)(a+2)(6 +2) 4 Using the distributive law (x + 2)In(x +2)42(x42)) onthe second pair of ickets. = (x +2)" + 2x + 2N4- 4] = (x + 2)(x7 + ax #4) = x(x? + dx $4) + 20x? + ax +4) Notice how the faint crossing out can help collect and combine Ii terms quickly. =x) + 4x7 + 4y + dx? + Ox +8 =x) 6x7 +4 12x +8 Irheberrechtlich ges41 Algebra Division Before attempting division of polynomials think back to division with integers (whole numbers). Numerical division can be represented by fractions. Fractions in the form 3, 44, 3. $are known as proper fractions. Hera the numerator (Lop number) is less than the denominator (bottom number). How are improper fractions written? Here the reverse is true. The numerator is greater than the denominator. Some examples are 3, and #2. How else could these be written? Improper fractions can also be written as mixed numbers, that is a mixture of an integer (whole number) and a propor fraction. f=13, a1, Hath: Fa3} ond os Similarly algebraic fractions (fractions involving polynomials) can be both proper and improper. 3 2 x44 _ et n 5 SET SOE PH Meal! proper algebraic fractions X42 x8413 x*45N+6 x45) N-4) PP 7KF12 are all impropor algebraic fractions. What's the difference between proper and improper algebraic fractions? Look at the degree, or order, of the polynomials in the numerator and denominator. For an algebraic fraction to be proper the order of the numerator must be less than the order of the denominator. If not, the fraction is improper. Example 3 Make the expression + 3 a proper algebraic fraction, Solution Notice that “+3 is improper (the numerator and denominator are both Here the x's cannot be order't,orlinen].‘Therw are two techaiqués hat could be used tomicke © (egameneeeestn! this a proper algebraic fraction, ste nek ta rty SE aot numerator and denominator. Method 1: The division algorithm Write ay asa division problem, and try a division by x. theberrechilich geschiitztesq gpuerial‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics a X45)x$3 1 x+5)XE3 xt =2 So ‘Notice the positions of the remainder and the divisor in the result, Method 2: Algebraic manipulation In this technique the numerator is written as a multiple of the denominator and a remainder. x+3_ (x+5)-2 X45 X45 Then the numerator is split into two distinct parts. E+3_x4+5 2 2 x+8 x+8 +5) x48 Notice how both techniques give the same result, The fraction in the answer is proper. Example 4 ‘Write as proper fractions: 3x+6 1-x x+3 Solution a Using the division algorithm, 3x46 _ 3(x+3)=3 x+3 xX+3 = Met) 3 x+3 xX+3 3 “8-33 18 Because x in (x +5) v divide into the x in {x +3) once, Subtract 1 x (x++ 5) from (x +3). The remainder is 3-5=-2, eS Ps Finally, 0 ~(—4) =4. ‘The coefficient of x in the numerator is 3, so (x+ 3) is multiplied | 3. Multiplying out the bracket, the constant term in the numerator 9, We require it to be +6, s0 we subtract 3,1 Algebra! 1.3 Polynomials Exercise Technique For each of the following polynomials write down (i) the order (degree) and (ii) the coefficient of x*: a ax? 42x? -2 do axt-7 b sxt-ax? +x e 3x -6x4+9 c 7x8 =3x'- 7x +9 £ ax -2x43 [2] ada: 3x74 7x = Sand Sx? = 2x48 6x? 4 Gx 4 9 and Gx? + 9x — 2 4x34 ax? 434 Gand 3x? + 7x —3 1x8 + 7x7 — ax + 9 and —an¥ + 2x8 + 7x7 + 7x [3] rinay, —y, when: a oy; =5x* +12x4 Sandy, = 3x7 +7x=4 boy, = 7x? + 12K — Zand y, = 2x* — 5x47 cy; =5xt 43x" — 2x7 + Ox and yy = 7x4 — 2x) — 2x? 42x —5, doy) =x" — 2x7 + 7x + 13 and y = Sx? — an? + Gx +12 ao oe [4] Muttipty and simplify the following: a (2x+1) and (3x+2) d= (3x -1) and (x? - 2x +1) b (2x43) and (2x7 +1) e@ (3 —x)and (x? + 3x —2) «= © (2x—1) and (x* + 3x +4) £ (4—x)and (2x* 5x +7) Expand and simplify the following: (2x + 8)(3x? — 2x + 8) + (x + 1)(x? + Bx 42) (5x — 1)(2x? + 3x + 2) + (x + 3)(2a7 + 4x — 3) (ax — 2)(3 + 2x —x*) + (x — 5)(x - 2x + 1) (4x = 3)(2x +7 — 2x?) + (x = 1)(a? + Sx = 1) (Sx + 1)(x? + 2x + 2) = (x + 1)(x? + 3x 41) (3x — 2)(2x* + 7x — 5) — (x — 1)(x" - 3x42) mene ee | Expand and simplify the following: a (2x+3)(2x+3) bb (2x+3)(2x4+3)? © (ax+3)* d= (1+2x)* e (x+1)' f (x-1)* [7] ‘Write the following as proper fractions: a #42 bt? eto x45 x+5 x1 6x47 ae 2 2x43 4 yea ° xre 0 et heberre es INPorialComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 20 1.4 Factorisation ‘The distributive law a(b + c) =ab-+ ac has been used to demonstrate multiplication of polynomials, The same law can be used in reverse, soa sum of terms can be written as a product. Doing this often introduces brackets into the algebra. The process is called factorisation, Factorisation can be shown with natural numbers. The integers that divide exactly into @ are 1, 2, 4 and 6. These are called the factors of 6. Notice that 6 can be written as a product of some of these factors. =1xB B=2K4 Polynomials too can sometimes be factorised. Consider first polynomials of degree 2. These are more commonly known as quadratics. One such quadratic expression is x? + 3x — 18, It can be factorised as follows. x" 4 3x — 18 = (x +6)(x — 3) Chock this by multiplying out the brackets. We call (x + 6) and (x — 3) the factors of the quadratic x? + 3x — 18. Quadratics can be factorised using one of three basic techniques: @ extracting a common factor @ trial and improvement @ standard results ~ difference of two squares. Extracting a common factor Example 1 Factorise 4x"y* = 8x7y", Solution Here it is possible to extract common factors, 4-and 8 have the common factor 4 (4 is the largest factor of both numbers). x and x? have the common factor x? (x* is the largest factor of both terms). y? and y* have the common factor y* (v* is the largest factor of both terms). So 4x*y* = ax?y* = 4x¢y* x (some other term). Notice how the common factors are extracted from both terms in the expression and appear outside the bracket, These form one part of the product. The bracket must contain the terms necessary to combine with the common factor to create the original expression. axly? — arty? = axty* (x — ay) Check that 4x@y* = x = 4x9y? and that 4x*y? x (27) = —Bx¢y".1 Algebra! In order to factorise quadratics, first check the coefficients in the expression. Consider again the quadratic expression, x* + 3x — 18. The coefficient of x* is 1, the coefficient of x is 3 and the constant term is ~18, So the three distinct numbers in this expression are 1, 3 and —18, Now look at the factors. of that expression, (x + 6) and (x ~ 3). These contain the two distinct numbers 6 and —3. How are these two sets of numbers connected? Notice that adding the numbers in the factors and multiplying the numbers in the factors creates the two larger numbers given by the coefficients. 6 + (~3) =3,which is the coefficient of x 6 x (—3) = -18, which is the constant term. ‘The general rule, for a quadratic expression where the coefficient of x? is 4, is that the expression can be factorised if two numbers can be found that add to give the coefficient of x and multiply to give the constant term. Trial and improvement Example 2 Factorise: a 4 7e +12 bo Bx +15 Solution a The coefficient of x* is 1, so we know that we need to find two numbers that add to make 7 and multiply to make 12. Notice that 4 and 3 work. xP 47x 412 = (x +4)(x +3) b The coefficient of x" is 1, so we need to find two numbers that add to —8 and multiply to 15. We find that —5 and —3 work -5+(-3)=-8 (5) x (-3) = 15 Sox? = Bx +15 = (x 5)(x-3). By finding the factors of the constant term first, much of the trial and improvement in these examples can be dane quickly. What happens when the coefficient of x* is greater than 1? This trial and improvement technique can then be modified, The method, or proces: sometimes known as 'PAFF’, the letters P, A, F and F representing the four stages of the process: Product, Addition, Factors and Factorise. The idea is to change the algebra into smaller numerical problems leading to soma less complicated factorisation. Follow each stage of the technique in Example 3, 221Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics Example 3 Factorise 12x* 4 17x = 14, Solution Notice that the coefficient of x* is 12 so the technique used in Example 2 won't work. Try PAFF, the stages of which are as follows. 1, P— Product Multiply the coefficient of x* by the constant term. Here P= 12 x (-14) P=-168 2, A- Addition ‘This is the coefficient of x, something that factors need to add to. Here, A =17 3. -F- Factors Using the same technique as boforo, but this timo find two numbers that multiply to give P and add to give A. In this example ~7 and 24 work. (-7) x 24= -168 —7424=17 4, F—Factorise Use the factors identified in Step 3 to help factorise the expression. ‘These allow the coefficient of x to be split. 12x? + 17x — 14 = 12x? — 7x4 24 14 ‘This new expression can now be factorised by extracting common factors. Imagine factorising the first pair of terms and the second pair of terms separately. 12x? — 7x + 24x — 14 = x(12x — 7) + 2(12x —7) Notice that (12x — 7) is a new common factor, 12x? — 7x4 24x = 14 = (12x —7)(x + 2) Check by multiplying So 12x? +. 17K — 14 = (12x —7)(x +2) out the factors. This process looks complicated and time consuming, but with practice can be a very effective algorithm for factorising quadratics where the coofficient of x* is groater than 1. 221 Algebra Example 4 Factorise 4x? = 2x ~ 30. Analternative method here would be to extract Solution adi the common factor first ‘The coefficient o! is 4, so use PAFF, and we PARFona P: 4x (-30) =-120 simpler equation, At the coefficient of x is —2 F: the factors need to multiply to 120, and add to ~2. Check that —12 and 10 work. Fi 4x* — 2x — 30 = 4x? — 12x + 10x — 30 = 4x(x— 3) + 10(x-9) = (x —8)(4x +10) So 4x* — 2x — 30 = (x — 3)(4x + 10) What do you notice about the second factor? The numbers 4 and 10 have 2 asa common factor, so this bracket can be factorised further. Ax +10 = 2(x+5) So the original quadratic expression has three distinat factors. ax? — 2x — 30 = 2(x + 5)(x — 3) Difference of two squares Sometimes the coefficient of x can be zero, In this case the quadratic will contain an x* term and a constant term only. Factorisation of these expressions can often be achieved by extracting a common factor or using another standard result: the difference of two squares. Example 5 Factorise x’ — 49. Solution Notice that 49 is a square number; that is, 49 = 7*. The expression can therofore be rewritten, xt 49-57 7? ‘The right-hand side is now the difference of two squares. This factorises ina particular way, 7 -49=x-7? = (x+7)(x-7) Urheberrechtlich geschotztesggnierialComplete Advanced Level Mathematies: Pure Mathematics The result demonstrated in Example 5 can be generalised as HEHE h(0-» This result can be used as an aid to computation, Some “difficult” problems can be done quickly without using a calculator. Example 6 a Factorise 12x*— 3, b Factorise 5 tan’ @— 5. ¢ Evaluate 1017 — 100°. Sofution a 12x7-3=3(4x? -1) = a(x = 14} = 3(2x + 1)(2x — 1) b Stan?0~5 = 5(tan?@—1) = 5(tan?@— 17) = 5(tan 0 + 1)(tan 0 — 1) c 1017 = 100" = (101 + 100)(101 — 100) =201«1 =201 24 Urheberrechtlich1 Algebra | 1.4 Factorisation Technique Factorise the following quadratic expressions: a x4ox42 e xt4ax—18 bo oxt+7x+10 £ x 4+x-12 c -x-20 g x +6x-16 dx 7x18 ho x +x-6 Factorise the following quadratic expressions using the difference of two squares: a x -16 e@ cost —1 b y-a9 fo sin?O-1 © ont 1 g 4x? —25y7 d 167-1 ho Bix? = 36) Factorise the following expressions completely: a 27-32 d 50y* — 200 bo ay*7—27 e 2 — 4501 © 20x75 £ 2e08*0-2 [4] Factorise the following expressions: a axt4x-2 e 10x" ~4Ix—45 bo oat-5x+3 £ 8x’ -21x-9 © 7x? 422x4+3 g 8x -17N49 do 4x? 12x +5 ho 6x? 7x-3 [5 | Factorise the following expressions: a 4x? 10x 46 e 36x? 33x46 box? + 2xy -@y* £ 16x? — 100x + 150 c x7 + 5xy —36)7 g axty— 7M +3 dd 10x7 — 18x —4 bh G0x*y ~ S5xy — 25y Utheberrechilich geschtitztes MalComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1.5 Solving Quadratic : Equations ‘Gitniton algebraic ‘As in a quadratic expression, a quadratic equation in one unknown has ete the variable occurring at least once raised to the second power. The ‘ole al quate variable doesn't occur to any higher powers, Some examples of quadratic “equations that had re equations arex* — 4 = 0," + 4a— 5 = 0, 27 — 16+ 36=0,p? +p=2. frumber solutions. See Book X of the ‘Element Quadratic equations often occur in the solution of real-life problems, such as in echo sounding, calculating depths of wells and hardness testing, Can all quadratic equations be solved? The main techniques used to solve quadratic equations are: @ [actorising @ completing the square @ using the quadratic formula @ graphical methods. Factorising quadratic equations Example 1 Solve (x ~5)(x +2) = 0. Solution Notice that the left-hand side of this equation is a product of two factors, The result of multiplying these factors is zero. If two quantities multiply to zero then one of them rust be zero. Since (x — 5)(x +2) = 0, then (x —5) = 0 or (x +2) =0. These linear equations can now be solved. x-5=0 > x=5 andx+2=0 + x=-2 Check that these are solutions by substituting them back into the original equation. Notice that both of these values of x are solutions; there are two. solutions. Example 2 Solve: a x -av-5=0 b 2’ -32=0 e x -av=01 Algebra Solution ‘The coefficient of x’ is 1. a First factorise the quadratic expression. (+1) +(-5)=—4, (41) (-5)=-5 a ax=5=0 (x+1)@=5) =0 Sa (x+1)=0ar(x—5)=0 x=-lorx=5 b 2x? 3250 2x? — 32 = 2(x7 — 16) x? — 4?) = 2(x + 4)(x —4) (x + 4)(x 4) = 0 So 2x” — 32 = Now there aro three factors multiplying to give a zero result, Since 2 4 0,(x+4)=0 or (x—4)=0 Sox=-4orx=4 © x?—3x=x(x-3)=0 Sox =0 or (x—3)=0 x=Oorx=3 Example 3 Solve the quadratic equation 12x* + 17x — 14 =0. Solution Iax? + 17K-14=0 ‘This particular quadratic expression was factorised in Example 3 of Section 1.4. Tax? + 17K — 14 = (12x —7)(x +2) =0 So (12x —7)=Oor(x+2)=0 x=Bore=-2 Completing the square representation is Sometimes the quadratic expression cannot be factorised easily. The recurring. Check this equation may then be solved using a technique called completing the using a calculator. square, ‘To complete the square we need to write the quadratic in the form (x +a)? = b, where a and 6 are real numbers. Then the value of x can be found by taking the square root of both sides of the equation. Writing the quadratic in this form requires some skill in algebraic manipulation. e PF aierial Urheberrechttich geschittComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics Example 4 Solve the equation x* — 6x —5 = 0. Solution ‘Try factorisation, What happens? Notice that no pair of integers add to We need the LHS to b give —6 and multiply to give —5. Don't despair: complete the square. First rewrite the equation, separating the variables from the constant term, x —6x-5=0 So. 3 -6x=5 x» -6x+9=5+9=14 So (x-3)(x-3)=14 Thatis, (x3)? =24 x-3=4V4 The solutions are therefore x = 3 4 V/14. Notice that the steps in the process of completing the square are: Stop @ Separate the constant term from the variable terms, Stop @ Adda value to cach side of the equation to force one side to be a perfect square. How did you know what value to add? There is a simple rule. Provided the coefficient of x* is 1, simply halve the coefficient of x and then square this value, Example 5 Solve x? —3x-—5 = 0. Solution x? —3x—5=0 + x°-3x=5 4 @ Separate the terms. ‘The coefficient of x is ~3. Half this is —3. Squaring that, we have §. So add ¥ to both sides of the equation. x -3x+]=54] 2 Force one side to be a perfect square, ‘The left-hand side is now a perfeet square, so we ean factorise it, oe a+y=9 ‘Take the square root of both sides. Urhaberrechilich geschtitztes Material1 Algebra! Recall the properties of surds. Notice that written in this form (a surd), we have exact solutions and not docimal approximations. The solutions have also been written concisoly with a common denominator. Remember that this technique only works when the coefficient of x” is 1. ‘When it isn't, divide each term in the equation by the coefficient of x7. ‘This often creates equations with fractions as coefficients. Example 6 Solve 3x? + 4x —5 =0. Solution ‘The coefficient of x? is 3, so divide each term by 3. ax? +4x-5=0 > x +4x-$=0 Now the algorithm can be used as before. xt44x=8 4 @ Separate the terms. Add 4 to both sides of the equation (recall that this number is reached by halving the coefficient of x, and then squaring the result). 4 Force one side to be a perfect square. Somotimes the quadratic equation doesn’t have to be solved. It may be sufficient to write it in the form of a perfect square. Suppose that y= ax? +5x-+ccan be written in the form y = a(x + p)* +g, where a, b, ,p and qare all real numbers, ‘Then ax + bx +c =a(x +p) +q = a(x" + 2px +p") +4 ax* + bx +6 = ax" + 2apx + ap?+qComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics: By comparing coefficients you should see a relationship between a, b, ¢ and p,q. Compare the coefficients of x: that is, see how many ‘x’s there are on each side af the equation. b= 2ap Comparing the constant terms in the same way, cap +q Since a, b and care already known (directly from the quadratic) these two results can sometimes be used to establish p and g quickly. Example 7 Express the following in the form a(x + p)* + q: a x -ax-5 bo -Sx7- 2x49 Solution a Notice that a= 1,b =—3 and c= -5, We require x” — 3x = 5 = a(x +p)? +q. ‘Since a = 1, this can be simplified to xt -an-5 = (x+p)'+q = (x74 2pxtp)+q =ext+aptpitg Now comparing coefficients of.x and constant terms, -3=2p and -—5=pt+q ‘Then p=~3 and q=-5—p So x?-ae—5=(e-pt-2 has a least value of —: b Let —5x*—2x4+3=a(x +p +q =a(x* + 2px +p*)+q Sax" +2apx+ap*+q Comparing coefficients of x*, x and the constant terms, .-2=20p and 3=ap'+q 30 theberrechtlich geschiitztes Material1 Algebral Since a = 5, -2 = 2ap becomes ~2 = 2 x (~5) x p= —10p Sop= bx? 2x43 = -5(e+ fh +q Now 3 = ap’ +q So3=-5(2) +q q=3+g=ati=# So —5x* ~2n+3 5 —5(n +H) +8 ‘The quadratic formula By completing the square on the general quadratic expression ax’ +bx +c, we can create a formula that can be used to solve quadratic equations simply by substituting values for a, b and c. Suppose ax” + by +6 = 0 for some real values of a,b and ¢. thens? + 48-0, asa Now complete the square on this expression in the same way as before. c 4.0 Separate the terms, wy a ‘The value to add to both sides of the equation is found, as before, by halving the coefficient of the x term, and then squaring the result. 2, bx (2) -(#)-2 4 @ Force one side to be a perfect 2a/ a square. ety a (2 2a 2a bY b-4ac ( +z) Gat b ‘b? — 4a Mg ta 4ac 4 Learn this result. Onee a, b and ¢ have been identified, this formula can be used to solve quadratic equations. Urheberrechtich geschotztes MaterialComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 32 Example 8 Solvex-7=4, x Solution This may not at first appear to be a quadratic equation, but multiplying both sides by x gives x(x — 7) = 4. Notice how the denominator has multiplied the whole of the left-hand side of the equation, Now multiply x(x = 7) out to give x” — 7x = 4, Moving the constant term, the original ‘equation has been rearranged to the form for which the formula works. 7x40 Now, a=1,b=—7ande ~b+ VbF = 4ac 2a a9 axIx 2x1 _7 + ya9— (716) _ 7+ vos, — ee 4) So the equation x ~ 7 = $ has two distinct solutions, PAVE gay fa, 2 2 Evaluate these results using a calculator. What do you notice? Both answers are irrational so the calculator screen should give decimal expansions that do not recur. The numerical values correct to two decimal places are 7,53 and -0.53, Example 9 It is proposed that a new tunnel be built under the English Channel. This tunnel will be for cars to drive through. The road will be built ona ad concrete base inside the circular tunnel. concrete base If the radius of the tunnel is 5.2m and the width of the road surface is to be 9.2m, what dopth of concrete should be used?oO = (32-¢) A 46 TD: Lot d metres be the depth of concrete. From the diagram identify the right-angled triangle with the road surface as base. Using Pythagoras’ theorem, OA? = AD* + OD* 5.2? = 4.67 + (5.2 —d)* 5.2% = 4.67 + (5.2* — 10.4d 4 d*) So 0 = 4.6? — 10.4d +d* ‘That is, d? — 10.4d + 21.16 =0, ‘This isa quadratic equation in d where a = 1, b = ~10.4 and ¢ = 21.16. Now use the formula, b+ VBP aac 2a 0.4)°—4x 1x 21.16 =5.242.425 (3 dp) Notice that there are two solutions, The first, 2.78m, has the road in the Jower half of the tunnel. The second, 7.63 m, has the road in the upper half of the tunnel. one use of the quadratic formula in a problem solving context. Urheberrechttich‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics Remember that although in many applications both solutions can be interpreted in the context of the problem, one solution will usually be preferable, Notice also that this quadratic equation had decimals as coefficients. The quadratic formula has given solutions that have been rounded, to give answers correct to three significant figures. Graphical methods A graphical calculator can be used to solve quadratic equations. This is also a good method to use if you simply want to check solutions from factorisation, completing the square or the quadratic formula, Example 10 Using a graphical calculator, or graph plotting software on a computer, draw the graphs of the fotlowing. a y=x?-4x-5 b y=x?-3x G y=xt-6x—5 do y=3x? +4x-5 Using the trace facility, find the coordinates of the points of intersection with the x axis. Now compare these results with the results from Examples 2a, 2e, 4 and 6. What do you notice? You should find that the calculator gives either an exact answer or a decimal approximation to the solutions calculated by other methods. Remember that the accuracy of these solutions will depend upon your calculator. Many will not state irrational results exactly; instead a decimal is given to 8, 10 or 12 places. Notice that the graphs of these quadratic equations all have the same basic shape, This curve is known as a parabola, but can be transformed by changing the values of the coefficients a, b and cin the expression ax’ +bx+e. Notice also that all the graphs are symmetrical. Is this line of symmetry ‘The equation related to the coefficients a, b and c? Think back to the quadratic formula. y= ax* + bx + ccross ‘This gives the solutions to the equation ax” + bx +¢ = 0 ina form that the x-axis at yy = 0. helps answer this question. ‘The points of intersection with the x-axis are written as (2+ a square-root term, 0). This suggests that the line of symmetry for the quadratic is x = —£. What about the square-root term? What does Vb? = 4ac represent? The expression b* — 4ac is known as the discriminant. It can be used to give an indication of how many times the graph will cross the x-axis, as follows.@ If b" —4ac > 0, it has two real square roots and ax” + bx +c =0 has two distinct solutions: the graph will cross the x-axis twice ~ at CS 10). @ = If b? — 4ac = 0, ax* + bx += 0 has one (repeated) solution: the graph will touch the x-axis at (— 44,0). @ fb? — 4ac < 0, ax® + bx +¢ =O has no (real) solutions: the graph will not cross the x-axis, Example 11 ‘Write down the equation of the line of symmetry of the graphs of the following quadratics, and predict the number of times the graph will cross the x-axis. a yax*4xt3 bo ysx?+5x+6 GC pox*+2xd1 Solution a yar 4xd3 When y = 0 (on the x-axis), x* +x +3=0,anda=1,b=1ande=3 in the quadratic formula. ‘The line of symmetry,x =~ isx=—}. To check to see if (and how many times) the graph crosses the x-axis, check the discriminant, BY — 4ac = 17 — (4x 1x 3) = 1-12 = -11 < 0, so the graph doesn't cross the x-axis. Urhe paptora‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics b y=x45r+6 ‘When y =0,a=1,b =5 and c= 6 in the quadratic formula. ‘The line of symmetry, x = — &, is x = — 3. The discriminant b* — 4ac = 5? — (4 x 1 x 6) = 25—24=1>0,s0 the graph will cross the x-axis at two places. yas or+6 © yoxt+axrt1 ‘Here a = 1, b= Zand c= 1. The line of symmetry, x = — 4. is x= —}.Thatis,x=—1. ‘The discriminant b* — 4ac = 2* — (4 x 1 x 1) =4—4=0, so the graph will touch the x-axis at one point. Check that x? + 2x +1=0 wh 1 by factorisation (so the graph touches at (—1,0)). Urheberrechilich1.5 Solving Quadratic Equations Exercise Technique [1] sotve the fotlowing: (x= 3)(x+2)=0 (x-3)(x-4)=0 (x-1)(x+3) =0 a b © ds (x+5)(x+1)=0 ao x45e44=0 bo oxt+2x-4i © -Gx+5=0 a 6x16 = bo xt+2x-8=0 © x -2x-3=0 a ax? 2x-8=0 b o3x*+10x-8=0 © wt+x-4=0 quadratic and the x-axis: a ax? 24x +6=0 b ax(y—a)+5 © 3{x? — 2) = 2(ax - 2) a Y-2x43 bo ox 44axdl © -x8 4 2e42 e © 8 h d e r d e iE d e f d e if d e £ (2x +5)(2x+5)=0 x(x+2)=0 12(x +3)(2x+1) =0 3(x —7)(3x +4) =0 2_| Solve, by factorising, the following equations: x-x-6=0 ax? — 198 +12 =0 9x’ + 24N+16=0 3) solve, by completing the square, the following equations: xt 6x +4 ax’ —2x-1=0 —ax*+8x+7=0 4 | Solve, using the quadratic formula, the following equations: xt-12x-5=0 2x + 15N+6=0 3x* — 18 + 10= 0 5 | Solve the following equations. In each case check the solutions by using a graphical calculator to find the points of intersection between the x e6xt4=0 ax? +6x+2=0 x43 wt 6 | Write the following expressions in the form a(x + p)' + q: =x" + Gx -19 =2x" + 5x -3 ax —3x-2 1 Algebra | Urheberrechtlich gesch 37,Complete Advanced Level Mathematies: Pure Mathematics Contextual [11] othe tormuta h = ut ~ 4gr gives the height h a body will reach after tin hon itis thrown vertically upwards with velocity u, where g is a constant, Calculate t when g = 9.8, u = 16 and h = 6. Why are thore two answers? [2] What is the shaded area ofthe washer || 42em illustrated here, where the diameter of — ' 1 ' the washer is 4.2 cm and the diameter ' —- of the hole is 1.8cm? i u [3B] rhe sum of the first n natural numbers (1-+2.43-+...-+) is given by the formula S = 4n(n-+ 1). If the sum of the numbers is 78, how many numbers have been added? [4] tthe formuta }n(n~ 3) defines the umber of diagonals in a polygon where n is the number of sides. A chef cuts a cake along its 65 diagonals. ‘How many sides does the cake have? [5] by completing the square, find the minimum value of 3a? — 12x +13. [6] How deop isthe water in this oil drum, given that the radius is 30cm and ACis 20cm? X B Urheberrechilich geschiitztes >1 Algebra 1.6 Simultaneous Equations Polynomial equations can be graphed. If two or more polynomials are graphed on the same axes then the graphs may crass. The coordinates of the point (or points) where the graphs cross satisfy both polynomial equations at the same time; that is, simultaneously. Simultaneous linear equations: Linear equations may be put in the form y = a,x +09 where a, and ay are real numbers, The highest power of the variable x is 1, so they are of degree 1. When graphed, these equations produce straight lines, which is why they are called linear. A system of two linear equations can sometimes be solved simultaneously, using: @ substitution @ climination @ graphical methods. Example 1 Solve the equations x + 2y = 7 and 2x + 3y = 10 simullaneausly, Solution 1. Using the substitution technique gives a solution as follows. xtays7 call this equation [1] 2x +3y = 10 call this equation [2] Make x the subject of equation [1]. © Make a oeeeecee| x=7-y ies — Substitute forx in equation [2], 4) Substitute. 2x + ay = 10,s02(7 — 2y) + 3y = 10 call this equation [3] Equation [3] now has only one variable (letter). Solve this (find the variable) by multiplying out the bracket and collecting like terms. 1d-4y+3y=10 4 @ Solve the new equation. 14-y=10 14-10=y 4=y Substitute this value of y back into equation {1}. x=7-2y 4 @ Substitute this value into the first x=7-(2%4)=7-6 equation to find the value of the other xml variable. 39.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 40 ‘The values of x and y that simultaneously satisfy both equations are x= = 5 b Gradient of a line perpendicular to AB is ~ } Urheberrechilich gaschitztesspaterialComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2.1 Coordinate Geometry Exercise Technique 1 | Find the shortest distance between the following pairs of points: a (3,5) and (1, 4) e (-2,-3) and (—7, -1) b (3,5) and (5, 6) f (8, ~4) and (~7, -4) © (1,7) and (—2, 3) 8 (2,1, 5)and (5, 13, 9) d= (1,7) and (0, -1) h (7, -2, 18) and (—3, 3, 6) 2 | Find the length of the straight line joining the following pairs of points: A(?, -1) and B(~2, 5) A(4, ~8) and B (0, 6) A(-1, ~2) and B(—2, -5) A(4, 4) and B (1, 2) A (3, 2) and B (=1, =5) A(6, 11, =3) and B (1, 1,7) A(-2, —1) and B (0, 3) A(2,3, 4) and B (4, 6, 10) maoe sane 3 | Find the gradiont of the straight line formed by joining the following pairs of points: a (3,2) and (5, 12) d= (0,7) and (—2, 9) b (2,1) and (4,9) e (-2,-1) and (6, ~1) « (5,3) and (7,1) f (3,2) and (5, -8) | 4 | For the following pairs of points, A and B, find: i the gradient of the line AB ii the gradient of a line perpendicular to AB. a A(0,6) and B (2,7) d-A(-3,6)and B (~1,-3) b A(5, 2) and B (3, ~3) e A(-3, =2) and B(6, -6) e A(-3, 0) and B(2,—5) f A(-2,0)andB(7, 2) 5 | Rearrange the following equations to make y the subject. State whether the pairs of lines are parallel or perpendicular to each other. Y= W+3and y= y=3ax4+7andy y= 2x—Sandy—2x=3 ay +6x+8=Oandax+y=-7 ax +2y =6and 4y =9 +x 3y = O(x — 1) and 6y +.2x =6 memnoe2 Coordinate Geometry Contextual 1 | Katie moves her position from the point (2, 6) to the point (5, 3) on the park map. The map is drawn toa scale of 1:10 000. Find a__ the shortest distance in centimetres thal Katie covers on the map b the actual distance she moves in km. 2 | Twins Peter and David radio their respective coordinates to each other. Peter is at position (3, 9) and David is at (—2, —3). How far apart are they? 3 | The night before military manoeuvres, an army troop are given starting coordinates, (965, 386), and finishing coordinates, (943, 379). By considering only the final two digits of each coordinate, find the distance on the Ordnance Survey map moved by the troop, in centimetres. If the scale of their map is 1:25 000, find the actual distance covered in kilometres. | According toa garden plan, the cottage (7, 9) is the same distance from the ash tree (5, 2) and the beech tree (9, 2), Investigate this statement. A parallelogram is formed by lines joining the points P, Q, Rand S. Given the coordinates of points P (~2, 3), Q (3, 4) and R (2, —1): a Find the coordinates of S. b Show that PQRS is a rhombus, 6 | The diagram shows a sketch of a cuboid. Given the coordinates of A(1, 2,1) and F (4, 5,5), find the shortest distance between A and F. F(4,5,5) A(t 2.1)‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2.2 The Equation of a Straight Line Linear aaah can be written in many forms. The general form is ‘whore a, b and care real numbers. Example 1 Rearrange the following equations into the general form ax + by + c= 0: a y=-3"-8 b y+2=-1(x-1) Solution a ax+y+8=0 b y4+2=-1(x-1) 3y +6 = -(x-1) 3y +6 =-x41 x+3v+5=0 ‘The general equation can be rearranged to make y the subject. It is then writ ten [ames ¢ When written in this form it instantly highlights two important properties; the gradient of the line and its intercept with the y-axis, Consider the line y = Ly — 3, This is in the form y = mx +c, with m = }andc = —3, Notice that the gradient is } and the y-intercept is (0, —3), ¥ P74 The point where a line | erosses the y-axis is | known as the intercept ‘The equation y = $x ~ 3 can be written in other forms: yokx-3 Multiplying througho Qve=x-6 by 2 removes the x-2y-6=02 Coordinate Geometry In the last version, the equation is in the more general form ax + by +c = 0, with a= 1,b = —2 and c= ~6. Notice that y= 3x —3 and x ~ 2y — 6 = 0 both represent the same straight line. Example 2 Find the gradient and y-intercept of the straight lines represented by the following equations and sketch their graphs: a ox+ay-7=0 b 2x-5y+1=0 Solution a Ox+3y-7=0 + By=-3x47 ~ox 7 z yesptgeety So the gradient is ~1 and the y-intercept is (0. 3). n 4 Check this sketch using a graphical calculator. ax+ay=7=0 bo o2w-sy+1=0 + axd1=5y Reedley So the gradient is ? and the y-intercept is (0, }). ¥ 4 Chock this sketch using a graphical calculator. ‘The equations can be entered into the calculator in the form . ‘The technique of rearranging equations into the form y = mx + cis particularly useful when solving simultaneous equations with a graphical method.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics Example 3 Solve the simultaneous equations x+y =4 and 2y — 3x = 3 usinga graphical method. Solution We could rearrange each equation into the form y = mx +c to identify the gradion! and intercept for each graph. Hawaver, itis often quicker to draw each graph by calculating where they eross the axes. ‘To find where the lines cross the y-axis, put x = 0-into each equation. To find where the lines cross the x-axis, substitute y = 0 instead. Forx+y=4, when x=0,y and when 5 =4 ‘This line crosses the axes at (0, 4) and (4, 0). Foray —ax=3, when x=0, 2y=3 y=t and when y =0,-3x=3 xed ‘This line crosses the axes at (0,3) and (~1,0). ‘The graphical solution of the simultaneous equations is given by the coordinates of the point of intersection of these two lines, You should find that the coordinates of this point are.x = 1 and y = 3. So the point (1, 3) lies on both lines and x = 1,,y = 3 is the solution because it satisfies both equations simultaneously. chilich geschitztes Material2 Coordinate Geometry 2.2 The Equation of a Straight Line Exercise Technique [41] Rearrange the following equations into the form y = mx +e: Bety+7=0 e xtyed=0 b ax+y-a=0 € ax-y-5=0 2 | state the gradient and the y-intercept of the straight-line graphs produced by the following equations: a y=5y-3 b © y=7-2x d For the straight lines produced by following equations, find the gradient and the coordinates of the y-intercept: a wry+a=o do aw-ys7=4 b -2x+ay-2=0 e -3x+7y=14 © 5x+1y—2=8 £ axt+by+e=0 [4] the equation of the line shown is given by 9x +y -6= 0, Find the gradient and the coordinates of A and B. ion 2” [B| Rearrange the equation S$ = 3 the graph of this equation. into the form y= mx +e. Now sketch [6] soive the simultaneous equations x +y = 6 and 4x ~2y +6 = 0 usinga graphical method. Urheberrechtlich geschiitzteComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2.3 More on the Straight Line Think about the information needed to describe a particular straight line. How can we write the equation of a line by looking only at the graph of the line? We find that we can write the equation if we know: @ the gradient of the line and the coordinates of a point on it © | thocoordinates of two points on the line. The equation of a line given its gradient and the coordinates of one point on the line Suppose the gradient m and the coordinates of point P (x,,.¥%) on the line are known. A general point (x,.7) on the line can then be used to find the equation of the line. The known gradient, m, can be expressed by the sides of a right-angled triangle drawn on P and the general point (x, 9). General point wy) gradient yn xox ‘This can be rearranged into the very useful result, GREE x) < Learn this resuit. Example 1 a Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 2 that passes through the point (3, 4). b Find the equation of the straight line with gradient } that passes through the point (—2, —6). Solution a Use yyy = m(x— x4) Substitute the known values of m, x; and 3 ‘Then y — 4 = 2(x—3) yoda dv-62 Coordinate Geometry This equation can now be rearranged into either form of the equation ax + by +¢ =0, or ofa straight line. vemx+c, x-y=2=Oory=2r—2 b Use y=y, =m(x—x,) ‘Take care when manipulating the vtG=hxe1 yodxe1-6=4x-5 So the equation of the line is y = x — 5. The equation of a straight line passing through two known points Suppose that two points P (x,,.¥;) and Q (xs, ys) are known to lie on the straight line, The gradient of this line can be found by drawing in a right-angled triangle. 2M Now that we have the gradient, the problem is simple. We can use the resull y —y, = mw — x4) on either Por Q. Example 2 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points A (2, 3) and B (4, 4). ich ges chitztes torial UrheberrComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics: Solution The gradient of the straight line passing through A (2, 3) and B (4, 4) is Now use y —y, = m(x —;), with m = Sand B (4, 4) as the known point. Vas, =m(x-x,) + y-4= 3-4) yoda dx-2 v= 4xt2 Check that you arrive at the same equation using A (2. 3) instead of B(4, 4). ‘The expression for the gradient, m= *2—**, ean be substituted directly 2 into the equation for a straight line, y — y; = m(x — x,). At first the algebra might appear quite daunting, but it provides a very useful result. iy ae EAMG FVt mom ™) This equation can now be rearranged so that the x terms and y terms are separated, producing the equation of the straight line directly once the valuos of (x;,y;) and (xz,y2) are known, x x 4 Learn this result. Example 3 Find the equation of the straight line joining P (5, ~6) and Q(~3, 2). Solution ‘Using the result yrv v2 ‘Simplify the numeric components. 8 presses) V+6= —(x—5)=-x45 Yo -x+5-6=-x-1 Make y the subject. Check that this equation could also be written x +y-+1=0. Urheberrechtlich geschotztes Material2 Coordinate Geometry Finding the mid-point of a line Given a line joining two known points the mid-point can be established Recall that the mean using the mean of the x and y coordinates. average is the sum of the numbers divided by how many of them there Consider the line joining A (1, 2) and B (7, 10). IfM is the mid-point of this line then M is half-way between A and B, both horizontally and vertically. In this case the coordinates of Mare (4,6). Example 4 ‘The vertices of an isosceles triangle are A (2, 7), B (5, 8) and C (4, 5). a State the coordinates of the mid-point of AC. b Find the equation of the straight line through B and the mid-point c oie equation of the perpendicular bisector of BC. Solution y ol x a Let Mbe the mid-point of AC. Then the coordinates of M are Ce. 7). (3,6). Utheberrechtlich geschitt2 Coordinate Geometry 2.3 More on the Straight Line Exercise Technique [1] Find the equation of the straight line with the givon gradiont passing through the stated point in each of the following: a gradient 3, point (3, 2) d_ gradient —3, point (0, 4) b gradient 6, point (—1, 2) e gradient }, point (2, —3) © gradient 5, point (3, -2) f gradient —4, point (1, 4) [2] Find the equation ofthe straight line joining the following pairs of points: a A(2,4) and B (3, 6) dA (0, -2) and B (3, 4) Bb R(-3,4)and § (1, 2) e P(8,6) and Q(2, 12) ¢ T(-1, 1jand V (0, 6) f R(-1,-1) ands (5, 2) nd the mid-point and the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB in each of the following cases: a A(1,—1and B (3,7) ce A(-2,5)and B (0, 3) b A(4,1)and BIS, 0) ad A(-1,-2)and B (1, 6) Contextual A straight line passing through the points A (—1, 1) and B (p, 13), has gradient 2. Determine the value of p and find the equation of the straight Tine. [2] Consider two points, P (2. 7) and Q (4, 13). Find the mid-point of PQ. Find the gradient of PQ. Write down the gradiont of the line perpendicular to the line PQ. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of PQ. Write it in the formax +by +¢=0. ane [3] Sketch a diagram to show the points A (0, —1), B (4, 3) and C (4, 5). Let M be the mid-point of AB. Find the coordinates of M and write down the ‘equation of the straight line that passes through M and C. [4] Ais the point (6, 6) and B (8, 2) lies on the straight line x — 2y — 4 = 0, a Find the equation of the straight line parallel tox — 2y — 4 = 0 that passes through A. Write it in the form ax + by + b Show that the straight line joining A and B is perpendicular to the linex=2y -4=0. ¢ Find tho perpendicular distance between the two parallel lines.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 70 2.4 Inequalities ‘There are four inequality symbols. > means ‘is greater than’ Learn the mathematic > means ‘is greater than or equal to! meaning of each of < means ‘is less than’ these symbols. <__means tis less than or equal to! Inequalities produce a range of acceptable answers. They can be represented on number lines using arrows. The base of the arrow is circular, and is shaded when the value is to be included in the range, and clear when the value is not to be included in the range. x23 —_—> 2 a 0 t & & 4 © xP oe 2H o ot @ 3 4 6 Inequalities can be categorised into two types; those without variables. (letters) and those with variables. Inequalities without variables are called. propositions. Statements such as 2 < 7,4 > },and —3 < —2 are propositions and are either true or false. Inequalities with variables can be solved using similar techniques to those used when solving equations. However, a solution sot is often produced showing a range of acceptable answers. Example 1 Solve the inequalities: a Ww+1>7 b 1-227 © Sxt2<3x+10 d St¥ eer Solution a WHS? Ww>6 x23 bo 1-2x27 + -236 Notice that the coofficiont of x is —2. To find x we need to divide both Check this result by sides of the inequality by ~2. When dividing by a negative number substituting value o the inequality needs to be reversed. smaller than —3 in th é original inequality. D ntr26 xs the original inequalit work? x<-32 Coordinate Geometry ¢ The process of solving linear inequalities is similar to solving linear equations. Collect the like terms together, with numbers on one side of the inequality and variables on the other. Sx+2 Sx-3x< 10-2 Sede ae sf value of x = Sst smaller than 4 in the => x<4 orig ua Again use a similar process to that used when solving linear equations. Eliminate the fractions (by mulliplying by a common multiple), collect like terms and find a condition on x by using division, Gtx Set? > G4+x23(K+7) = G+x>3x421 = 6-212 9x—x = 15> ax = -BEx ‘That is, x < —48 Notice how the following rules were used: @ Any term can be added to, or subtracted from, both sides of the inequality and the symbol doesn’t change. @ Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied, or divided, by the same positive number and the symbol doesn’t change, @ Whon both sides of an inequality are multiplied, or divided, by the same negative number then the symbol is reversed. Quadratic inequalities One example of a quadratic inequality is x* > 4, Il has two sets of solutions, Consider x” = 4. This has two solutions; x = 2 and.x = —2. Why? Because to solve the equation x? = 4 we take the square root of both sides of the equation. 4 xs4va=42 So what do we know about x when x* > 4? We can see that x > 2 works, Check this result, What is the other solution? Is there a condition involving —2? We find that x < ~2 is also a condition that works. chilich geschitztes MahiaComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics To see why the solutions are x > 2 and x < —2, think about the proposition x* > 4. Draw two graphs; y =x* and y = 4. Where is the parabola above the line y = 4? This is the same as asking for which values ‘of x the graph of y = x“ is above the line y = 4, or for which values x? > 4. ‘The curve is above the line forx > 2 and for x < —2, yea An alternative is to rearrange the original inequality. Then x* > 4 becomes x* — 45 0. This may not look simpler, but the new statement has a quadratic expression and a zero separated by an inequality symbol. A graph of y = x? — 4 can now be drawn, and we are looking for the points ‘where y > 0 (that is, for points of the curve above the x-axis), » Find the points where the curve crosses the x-axis (by solving x? — 4 = 0, or using your graphical calculator), Notice that the curve is above (greater than) the x-axis (y = 0) for x > 2 and x < —2. ‘This technique of sketching the graph is a useful way of checking that no solutions have been lost. Example 2 Solve: a x? 7x <-10 b x*-3x-5>0 ce xtix4+1<0 Solution a This is a quadratic inequality. It can be rewritten as a quadratie expression and a zero separated by an inequality symbol. xt -7e<-10 + x? - 74 10<02 Coordinate Geometry ‘The quadratic expression can be factorised. Recall ‘PAFF’ from Recall that since the Chapter 1. coefficient of x? is 1 the expression can be P: 10 A:-7 F:-2,-5 factorised from this step, ‘Then x” — 7x +10 < 0 becomes (x ~ 2)(x —5) < 0. What does this expression suggest about x? If the inequality symbol was an equality (that is, (x — 2)(x— 5) = 0) then x = 2 or x= 5 would be the solution. Since we have an. inequality, these critical values should be examined more closely. Begin by sketching the curve y = x" — 7x + 10. Notice how it crosses the x-axis atx = 2 and x =5. yt +10 ‘The parabola is below the x-axis for all values of x between x = 2 and x =5. This means x* — 7x + 10 is negative for all these values of x. So. x? —7x +10 < Owhenx > 2andx <5. Another way of writing this set of inequalities is as a ‘sandwich’: 2 0) when x <}(3 = V29) and x > 4(3 + v29). These inequalities are separate and cannot be condensed into a ‘sandwich’. ¢ Remember that the technique has been to identify critical values. By sketching the graph a set of inequalities has been identified where the graph is above or below the axis. Sketch the graph of y = x? + +1. What happens? ‘The graph doesn't cross the axis. The expression has no eritical values. Check this by trying to factorise x* +x +1, or use the quadratic formula, Since the curve is always above the x-axis, xt +x +1 is never negative, and x? +x +1 <0 has no solutions. In summary the technique for solving quadratic inequalities is as follows: ® Establish zero on one side of the inequality symbol. This means the quadratic expression can then be tested for being positive (>0) or nogative (<0). ® Establish the critical values. These are the values of x that make the quadratic expression equal zero. Identify the set of inequality solutions. Often this can be done by sketching a suitable graph. @ Decide which sides of the critical points form the solution set.2 Coordinate Geometry An alternative method is to check the sign of the expression below the smallest critical value, between the critical values and above the largest critical value, Example 3 Solve 2x7 — gx 4.9 > 0. Solution ‘Notice that the first step has been done. This is a quadratic expression that needs to be positive (20). Now use PAFF to factorise the expression 2x? 9x+9, <4 2) Identify the critical values. P:2x9=18 tie) FF: 2x*-9x+9=2x"-6x-3x+9 = 2x(x — 3) - 3(x - 3) = (x —3)(2x — 3) So the critical values are 3, when x — 3 = 0, and 3, when 2x — 3 =0. Notice that the problem has changed from solving 2x* — 9x + 9 > 0 to salving (x ~9)(2v— 3) 20. ‘We will use the method where we check the sign of the expression against the critical values. Look at the sign of (x —3)(2x — 4) by comparing the signs of the separate factors. x<} po (x-3) | H (2-3) - { + ' + (x=3) (2x-3) Ox) Gx Hx) positive negative positive So (x ~ 3)(2v ~ 3) is positive when values of x are smaller than the least critical value, and larger than the highest critical value. ‘The set of solutions for 2x* — 9x + 9 > 0 isx < $and.x > 3. Check this result by sketching the graph of y = 2x*—9x +9. Urheberrechilich gasch 8Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2.4 Inequalities Exercise Technique 1 | Solve these linear inequalities: a x+3>8 b ax+3s7 fa 24x © OxF22x+8 d SFcxte 2| Solve these quadratic inequalities: a x59 b x25 ce x 4950 d xt-64<0 3 | Solve these quadratic inequalities: a eq a x 48x+15>0 b x*+8y-6>0 c¢ x7 +7v4+10<0 do x?-2x-15<0 e x*-Sx+6<0 ff x*+3v-4>0 4| Transform these statements into quadratic inequalities invalving zero. Solve the inequality in each case. a x*—10n> 24 b x+x56 e x? -9 e x <4x+77 { xt+4<4x 5 | Solve these quadratic inequalities: a 3 +ax+2>0 b Ix? +22x+3<0 ¢ ax +5x4+2<0 do axt+1>4x e 2x? > x43 f axt+x>2 Contextual 1 | Solve the inequality x +3 > x*, leaving your answer in the form a+ bVé where a, b and c are rational, 2 | Find an inequality represented ' by the highlighted section of this graph. 3 | Find the set of values of x for which (ax - 1)? < 3x7 +13. 4 | Solve the equation x7 — 5 vZx + 12 = 0, writing your answer using surds. Hence, or otherwise, solve x* — 5V2x + 12 < 0. 76