Sensitivity Analysis of Concrete Performance Using Finite Element Approach Y. H. Parjoko

Civil Engineering Forum
Volume XXI/1 - January 2012
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE PERFORMANCE USING FINITE ELEMENT

APPROACH
Y. H. Parjoko
Directorate General of Highway Construction, Minsitry of Public Works, Republic of Indonesia
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study aims to understand the effect of applying several parameters: different axle load configuration, concrete
properties, subgrade properties, slab thickness, joint characteristics, shoulder construction, bounded HMA overlay on
concrete pavement, and bounded and unbounded CTB foundation over subgrade on the fatigue and erosion related
distresses in concrete pavements. KENSLAB, an elaborate finite element program is used to determine the concrete
pavement responses: stresses and deflection under the defined parameters. The results obtained using this software is
relatively close to known theoretical Westergaard solutions. Several other findings related to pavement performance and
behavior are made through this study. Multiple axle configurations is less damaging than single axle configuration in terms
of fatigue life. Increasing the thickness is very effective in reducing the edge stress. Using concrete with higher modulus of
elasticity brings only a small increase to the edge stress. Increasing the slab thickness is the most effective way to increase
the fatigue life. Increasing subgrade modulus is more effective in reducing corner deflection than decreasing edge stress.
The availability of tied shoulder construction gives significant impact in both reducing edge stress and corner deflection.
The debonding condition between layers has a significant effect on pavement responses.
Keywords: Concrete pavement, fatigue failure, erosion failure, finite element, KENSLAB.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The most common failure modes that occur on
concrete pavements are fatigue cracking at concrete
slab and or erosion of materials in sub-layers. Both are
related to excessive stresses and deflections on
concrete pavement.
Many analytical models and solutions are provided by
a large number of researchers to determine the
mechanistic properties that occur on concrete
pavement --- stresses and deflections. However, it is
hardly possible to make analytical solutions for every
boundary condition. Numerical models, such as finite
element method offer the advantage of studying the
effects of different parameters with minimal cost
increase.
Huang in 1993 (which was then revised in 2004)
developed KENSLAB, a simple and powerful finite
element program which is made based on thin plate
finite element resting on foundation. The program was
made to address the responses of concrete pavement
under several conditions. With this program, several
loading conditions such as single axle load, tandem
axle load and tridem axle load, or other design
parameters that have been widely applied in concrete
pavement construction, such as various concrete and
subgrade properties, joint characteristics, slab
thickness, application of shoulder construction, or

application of additional material to concrete
pavement construction, can be more accurately
analyzed.
Although structural models can be modeled by several
finite element programs, distress models of concrete
pavement are mostly given in regression equations
derived empirically with a large scatter data (Huang,
2004). One of the available models is the one given by
Portland Cement Association (PCA) that provides
distress models for both fatigue and erosion failure.
Using both structural model and distress model, the
effect of applying different design parameters on
concrete pavement behavior will be investigated
within the study presented in this thesis.
1.2 Problem Statement
Research presented in this thesis aims to understand
the effect of applying several parameters: different
axle load configuration, concrete properties, subgrade
properties, slab thickness, joint characteristics,
shoulder construction, bonded Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA) overlay on concrete pavement, and bounded
and unbounded Cement treated Base (CTB)
foundation over subgrade on concrete pavement
performance. The pavement behaviors that may lead
to increase both fatigue and erosion failure as the
1171
effect of applying each parameter will be computed

and investigated.
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:
a) To understand the mechanistic response of
concrete pavement using finite element
formulations;
b) To study and investigate the effect of different
loading characteristics, material parameters, or
other construction characteristics on concrete
pavement structural responses related to fatigue
and erosion failure;
c) To study and investigate the allowable load
repetitions of concrete pavement under different
loading characteristics, different application of
material, or other construction characteristics.
1.4 Scope of Study and Limitations
Finite element formulations are computed using a
computer program i.e. KENSLAB and allowable load
repetitions are computed using empirical equations
recommended by PCA. Sensitivity analysis is
performed to analyze the structural performance of
concrete pavement under different design parameters,
as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Loading: single, tandem, tridem axle load

Concrete modulus of elasticity
Modulus of subgrade reaction
Slab thickness
Dowel characteristic
Shoulder availability
HMA overlay over concrete pavement construction
Additional CTB Foundation
However, on account of time and resources

constraints, this study is subjected to the following
limitations:
a) The analysis only considers the effect of axle
loading on concrete pavement. Thermal cracking is
not accounted.
b) The type of concrete pavement to be analyzed is
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).
c) The loadings are assumed to be static.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Analytical Solution: Westergaard Formula
Westergaard (1947) proposed the first complete
theory of structural behavior of concrete pavement.
The analytical equations by Westergaard for corner
loading and edge loading are given by:
1172
Corner loading:
.
3
2
1

(1)
2

1.1 0.88
(2)
Edge loading:

0.803
4

0.431

0.666 0.034" (3)

#1 0.82 $ %&
(4)
where is tensile stress, is deflection, is

concentrated load, is the relative stiffness.
It has been virtually impossible to obtain analytical
(closed-form) solutions for many pavement structures
because of complexities associated with geometry,
boundary conditions, and material properties. Since
the existing analytical solutions are based on infinitely
large slab with no discontinuities, they cannot in
principle be applied to analysis of jointed or cracked
slabs of finite dimensions, with or without load
transfer systems at the joints and cracks (Darestani,
2007; Minnesota, 2003; Zhang et al, 2004).
2.2 Concrete Pavement Distresses
2.2.1 Fatigue damage of concrete slab
As the main reason behind deterioration processes,
cracks can be considered as a tensile failure in
concrete pavements. Cracks can occur at any location
within the pavement where tensile stresses exceed the
concrete flexural strength. Since the applied loads are
repeatable in nature, concrete pavements fail under
fatigue phenomenon rather than direct failure under
maximum induced tensile stress. The fatigue of
concrete can cause both transverse cracking, which
initiates at the pavement edge midway between
transverse joints, and longitudinal cracking, which
initiates in the wheel path nearest the slab centerline
(Huang, 2004). Figure 1 shows the most critical
loading locations to be considered for fatigue analysis.
Because the loading is placed considerably far away
from joints, the presence of dowel bar inside the
transverse joint has practically no effect on pavement
responses. Consequently, in the pavement modeling
and analysis conducted particularly for this case, the
presence of transverse joint at JPCP is neglected.
For 0.45 3
2.2.2 Erosion of subbase and subgrade materials

Pumping and erosion of material beneath and beside
the slab is another main distress occurring at concrete
pavement that needs to be counted in addition to
fatigue cracking. Such distresses are related more to
pavement deflection than flexural stress, which is the
main issue contributing in fatigue distresses. Huang
(2004) concluded that the most critical pavement
deflection occurs at slab corner when axle load is
placed at the joint near the corner, as shown in Figure
2.
2.2.3 Allowable load repetitions
The structural models for concrete pavement are more
advanced than the distress models. Mechanistic
analysis such as finite element methods can be used to
build an appropriate structural model, but most of
distress models are regression equations derived
empirically with a large scatter of data (Huang, 2004).
According to Barenberg (2005), fatigue failure of
concrete pavement is related to the ratios of applied
stress to the concrete strength. Many distress models
take the stress-strength ratio into consideration.
Portland Cement Association (PCA) recommended
the following equations for predicting the allowable
number of load repetitions for fatigue failure on
concrete pavement:
For

- 0.55: 01 11.737 12.707 (5)
+,
+,
For

4.2577
3 0.55: 01 4
5
+,

0.4325
+,

6 0.45: 01 unlimited
+,
(6)
(7)
where 01 is the allowable number of load repetitions

for fatigue failure, is flexural stress in concrete slab,
and +, is modulus of rupture of concrete.
For erosion analysis, PCA recommended the equation

below to determine the allowable load repetitions:
0? 14.524 6.777@AB 9.0D.BE
(8)
where 0? is the allowable load repetitions for erosion

failure, CB is an adjustment factor (1 for untreated
subbases and 0.9 for stabilized subbases), and is the
rate of power, defined by:
268.7
G
.HE
(9)
where G is the pressure on the foundation under the

slab corner in psi, which is equal to I for liquid
foundation, where I is the maximum deflection, is
the thickness in inches, and is the modulus of
subgrade reaction in pci.
Slab centerline
transverse
joints
axle load
traffic
lane
Free edge or
longitudinal joint
concrete shoulder, if used
Figure 1
Figure 1. Most critical loading position for fatigue failure (Huang, 2004)
axle load
traffic
lane
transverse
joints
Free edge or
longitudinal joint
concrete shoulder, if used
Figure 2. Most critical loading position for erosion failure (Huang, 2004)
1173
3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
3.1 Finite Element Analysis
The finite element method enables the most accurate
modeling of the real situation with respect to the
external loadings, the geometry of the discontinuous
concrete pavement, the material characteristics, and
the interaction between the various layers of the
pavement structure (Houben, 2006). So from finite
element calculations, one can expect more detailed
and more realistic data about stresses and deflections
within a concrete pavement structure that can be
obtained by means of the analytical methods. Several
assumptions and considerations taken in finite element
analysis using KENSLAB is discussed below.
3.2 Liquid Foundation
The liquid foundation is also known as Winkler
foundation. It shows the force-deflection relationship
which is characterized by an elastic spring. The
stiffness of a liquid foundation is defined by:

J
K
(10)
where: is modulus of subgrade reaction; G is

pressure or force per unit area; I is vertical
deflection.
2a
j
2b
k
x
I@MK D
UR pMPR q
2b
UQ @MPQ D
Figure 4. Rectangular finite element (Huang, 2004)
For each element, the forces and displacements are

related by:
bN
MN
a e
MX
? bX
W [ \]J ^
MY
`bY d
MZ
_ bZ c
(12)
where \]J ^ = element stiffness matrix of a plate, MN ;

MX ; MY ; MZ = forces at node i, j, k, and l, and bN ; bX ; bY ;
bZ = displacement at node i, j, k, and l.
?
At any given node,

MKN
M
MN f PQN g
MPRN
IN
U
bN h QN i
URN
(13)
By combining the stiffness matrixes of slab

foundation and joint, and replacing the fictitious nodal
forces with the statical equivalent of the externally
applied wheel loads, a set of simultaneous equations is
obtained for solving the unknown nodal
displacements:
Figure 3. Liquid foundation under a plate element

(Huang, 2004)
A large number of springs under a rectangular plate

element, with a length of 2a and a width of 2b, are
replaced by four identical springs at the corners. The
force on each spring is equal to: the unit pressure G
multiplied by the area a x b, From Equation 10,
G I, so:
MKN OIN
the three displacements consist of the vertical

deflection in the S direction I, rotation about the T
axis UQ , and rotation about the V axis UR .
(11)
where Fwi = force at node i, wi = deflection at node i.
j]klbm lMm
(14)
where j]k is the overall stiffness matrix, lbm are the

nodal displacements, and lMm are the externally
applied nodal forces.
3.4 Two Layers of Slab
KENSLABS can have two layers of slab, either

bonded or unbonded.
3.4.1 Bonded slabs
3.3 Stiffness Matrix of Slab

Figure 4 shows a rectangular finite element with
nodes i, j, k, and l. There are three fictitious forces and
three corresponding displacements at each node.
Vertical force MK , moment about the x axis MPQ , and
moment about the y axis MPR are the three forces while
1174
2a
Figure 5 shows a composite pavement system, with

the top layer having a thickness of h1, an elastic
modulus nB , and a Poisson ratio oB that has been
placed on a slab with a thickness h2, an elastic
modulus n , and a Poisson ratio o . The left figure is
the original section with a unit width, and the right
figure is the equivalent section in which the width of

hot mix asphalt is reduced to nB / n .
If the moment is taken at the bottom surface, the

distance d from the neutral axis to the bottom of the
slab is:
@nB /n DB @0.5B D 0.5
s
@nB /n DB
(15)
The composite moment of inertia Ic about the neutral

axis is:
t,
nB 1 E

n 12 B
B @0.5B
sD "
@s 0.5 D
1 E

12 (16)
Given the moment u, the flexural stress v at the

bottom of concrete slab is:
v
us
t,
(17)
3.4.2 Unbonded slabs

If there is no bond between the two layers, each layer
is considered an independent slab with the same
displacements at the nodes. Therefore, the stiffness
matrix of the slabs is the sum of the stiffness matrices
of the two layers. After the displacements are
determined, the moments at each node in each layer
can be computed. After the moment u in each slab is
found, the flexural stress v can be determined by.
3.4.3 Stiffness of joint
The stiffness of joint is represented by a shear spring

constant AK ,
AK
+wx vxyw Gwx z{|} w{} v ~|{}

(18)
wvwy}|{ s|vvwxw{yw Ow}Iww{ }I O
E1
Original
B
MK AK I
(19)
Fw is the nodal force applied to both slabs through the

springs and L is the average nodal spacing at joint.
The forces MK can then be substituted into Equation 13
to solve the nodal displacements.
When dowel bars are used to transmit shear, it is
assumed that they are concentrated at the nodes. If the
dowel spacing is , the number of dowels at each
node is / The force MK is divided by the number of
dowels needed to obtain the force on each dowel:

MK
(20)
The difference in deflection I is caused by the shear

deformation of the dowel + and the deformation of
concrete under the dowel V :
I
2 S

2 E n t
(21)
in which is the shear force on one dowel bar, S is

the joint width, is the area of the dowel, and is the
shear modulus of the dowel, is the relative stiffness
of dowel.
Shear spring constant AK for doweled joint is:
AK
S

1
2 S

2E n t
(22)
nB
n
E2
In the finite element method, the shear forces are

concentrated at the nodes along the joint. From
Equation 18,
Neutral axis

0.5h1+ h2
0.5h2
Equivalent
Figure 5. Original versus equivalent section of composite pavement (Huang, 2004)
1175
geometry, only one half slab, l=250 cm needs to be

considered. Only half part of the axle set that is placed
in one part of half slab is applied, as shown in Figures
8 to 9.
y0
y0
53
53
24.5
24.5
36.5
36.5
Figure 6. Shear transfer through joint by dowel bar

(Huang, 2004)
Width = 350 cm
wd
Width = 350 cm
wr
wl
53
36.5
36.5
53
24.5
24.5
4 METHODOLOGY
24.5
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
30
30
36.5
Half Slab Lenght = 250 cm
4.2 Axle Configuration

General configuration for single, tandem, and tridem
axle load is used in this research. The single axle is a
standard 80 kN axle with dual tires spacing of 35 cm.
Each of the tandem and tridem axles is the same as the
single axle, so in the end, the total load on tandem
axles is 160 kN, and on tridem axles is 240 kN. The
spacing between the two axles is 120 cm and the
distance between centers of dual tires is 195 cm.
36.5
53
36.5
24.5
53
24.5
24.5
24.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
36.5
24.5
24.5
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
30
30
Figure 8. Mesh generation of edge loading analysis for

single, tandem, and tridem axle configuration
53
53
24.5
24.5
36.5
S LAB 2
Width = 350 cm
4.3 Contact Area
36.5
36.5
24.5
JO INT 1,
Longitudinal Joint
24.5
50
SLAB 1
50
0.6L
Area = 289.85 cm2
14.13 14cm
50
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
20.52 21cm
Figure 7. Tire Contact Area
The contact area is converted to a rectangular load

with 21 cm in length and 14 cm in width.
4.4 Edge Loading Modeling
For edge loading modelling, slab with 500 cm long
and 350 cm wide is used. Because of symmetrical
30
Widht = 150 cm
A 80 kN axle has two sets of dual tires where each

dual tires has a load of 20 kN and contact pressure of
690 kPa.
0.8712L
30
36.5
Area = 0.5227L2
30
Width = 350 cm
Sensitivity analysis to investigate the effect of

different parameters on concrete pavement
performance was conducted using the computer
program KENSLAB. Two different verifications,
namely comparisons with Westergaard solutions and
investigation of results obtained under different mesh
size were performed to check the reliability of the
finite element analysis using KENSLAB. Critical
Allowable Load Repetitions were computed to
determine the most critical failure possible to occur.
36.5
Width
Width==350
350 cm
cm
4.1 General
Width = 150 cm
30
Figure 9. Mesh generation of edge loading analysis for

singe axle configuration on concrete pavement with tied
shoulder system
4.5 Corner Loading Modeling

For corner loading modelling, two slabs with 500 cm
long and 350 cm wide each are used. These two slab
constructions are tied with transversal joint. The front
Width
= =350
Width
350 cm
cm
24.5
axle loading is located at the corner of slab, near the

transversal and longitudinal joint.
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Comparison with Westergaard Solution
Joint 1, Transversal joint
Joint 1, Transversal Joint
53
Width =
= 350
Width
350cmcm
53
24.5
24.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
An evaluation was performed to verify the results

obtained using KENSLAB and Westergaard formulas,
which have been theoretically accepted. Two loading
conditions, edge loading and corner loading were
chosen, and the maximum tensile stresses and
deflections obtained under those conditions were
compared.
24.5
24.5
50
50
50
50
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
100
100
SLAB 1, Length = 500 cm
100
100
Westergaard presented generalized solutions for

maximum stress and deflection that occurred on
concrete slab with infinite length. In the finite element
analysis, represented by KENSLAB, the conditions
are approximated by a large slab, 10 m long by 10 m
wide. Parameters used in this verification are:
100
53
Width== 350
350 cm
Width
cm
53
24.5
24.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
24.5
24.5
50
50
50
50
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
100
100
100
100
100
Figure 10. Mesh generation of corner loading analysis for

single and axle configuration
Slab dimension:
Length x width = 1,000 cm x 1,000 cm
Slab thickness
: 25 cm
Modulus of Elasticity
: E = 2.5 x 107 kPa
Poissons Ratio
: = 0.15
:
k = 27.1 MN/m3 (CBR = 3)
Both results obtained from different methods are
checked very closely. The discrepancy of maximum
stresses and maximum deflection are 3% or less and
6% or less, respectively.
53
Width
350 cm
Width
= =350
cm
53
24.5
24.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
24.5
24.5
50
50
50
50
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
100
100
100
100
100
SLAB 4
SLAB 2
53
Width = 350 cm
Width
= 350 cm
53
24.5
24.5
36.5
36.5
36.5
5.2 Effect of Element Size

An analysis was performed on different mesh size to
investigate the effect of element or mesh size on the
concrete pavement responses obtained by using the
finite element analysis. Three different models with
different characteristics are used in this analysis, as
follows:
a. High density mesh; consists of 13 nodes in x
direction and 15 nodes in y direction
b. Medium density mesh; consists of 8 nodes in x
c. Low density mesh; consists of 5 nodes in x
36.5
24.5
Joint 4, Longitudinal Joint
Joint 3, Longitudinal Joint
50
50
50
50
50
50
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Length = 500 cm
SLAB 1
100
100
100
100
Width = 150 cm
24.5
50
Width =
150 cm
The slab is subjected to 20 kN single wheel load

loading, with tire pressure of 690 kPa. Other
parameters used are similar to those stated in the
previous section.
100
Length = 500 cm
SLAB 3
Figure 11. Mesh generation of corner loading analysis for

tridem axle configuration and singe axle configuration on
concrete pavement with tied shoulder system
5.3 Edge Loading Analysis

Edge loading analysis is related to fatigue failure of
concrete pavement. Therefore, the response that needs
to be considered is the maximum tensile stress.
Table 1. Comparison of maximum stress and deflection computed using KENSLAB and Westergaard Equations
Wheel
Load
Tire
Pressure
Maximum Tensile Stress (kPa)
Maximum Deflection (mm)
(kN)
(kPa)
Westergaard
EDGE LOADING
20
690
40
690
2 x 20 690
2 x 40 690
CORNER LOADING
20
690
40
690
2 x 20 690
2 x 40 690
KENSLAB
Discrepancy
Westergaard
KENSLAB
Discrepancy
1,075.5
1,854.4
1,088.0
2,831.0
1,106.9
1,884.8
1,101.6
2,801.9
-3%
-2%
-1%
1%
0.265
0.513
0.491
0.942
0.263
0.506
0.460
0.885
1%
1%
6%
6%
678.9
1,227.9
1,088.0
1,942.4
662.1
1,198.7
1,101.6
1,999.8
2%
2%
-1%
-3%
0.656
1.250
1.173
2.204
0.689
1.304
1.239
2.342
-5%
-4%
-6%
-6%
Table 2. Effect of mesh density on responses under edge

loading
Maximum
Stress
(kPa)
1,106.9
1,045.7
900.6
Mesh
Density
High
Medium
Low
Maximum
Deflection
(mm)
0.263
0.255
0.217
Discrepancy
0%
5%
18%
110
Discrepancy
0%
3%
18%
: k = 27.1 MN/m3
(CBR = 3)
Both results obtained from different methods are
checked very closely. The discrepancy of maximum
stresses and maximum deflection are 3% or less and
6% or less, respectively.
161
120
161
120
161
161
Width = =
1000
cm cm
Width
1000
120
Width = =
1000
cm cm
Width
1000
120
110
161
100
100
161
75
25
55
80
80
80
90
Half Slab Length = 500 cm
90
Figure 13. Stresses contour of slab under the base case
33
25
33
148
160
160
Half Slab Length = 500 cm
Figure 12. High, medium, and low density meshes
5.4 Base Case

The base case of edge loading analysis was used for
analyzing the pavement performance subjected to
single axle 80 kN load. The parameters used in the
base case were:
Slab dimension:
Length x width = 1,000 cm x 1,000 cm
Slab thickness
: 25 cm
Modulus of Elasticity
: E = 2.5 x 107 kPa
Poissons Ratio
: = 0.15
Figure 13 shows the contour of stress occurring when

pavement is subjected to single axle load
configuration. The maximum stress is 1757.191 kPa,
and it occurs at the edge of the half slab, or at the
center of concrete slab. In addition to this base case,
another seven more cases as mentioned in the
parametric study, each representing a different
parameter from the base case, were also analyzed.
Unless mentioned in certain cases below, the other
parameters used in those cases were similar to the
base case. Among the parametric studies are:
a) Loading: Tandem, Tridem axles load
b) Elastic modulus of concrete ( ): 3.0 E+7 kPa, 3.5
E+7 kPa
Below is the result of investigation of the effect of

different axle configuration on concrete pavement
edge stresses. Other parametric studies are shown in
Table 3.
1.4
Tridem Axles
Deflection (mm)
1.2
dowel support (k)

Modulus of steel
Joint width
Dowel diameter
Dowel spacing
In addition to this base case, another eight more cases,

each representing a different parameter from the base
case, were also analyzed.
0.85
0.7971
0.75
0.65
0.55
0.45
0.35
0.25
Tandem Axles
0
0.8
: 200 GPa
: 5mm
: 32 mm
: 30 cm
Figure 15 shows the deflection at the pavement when

it was subjected to loading and parameters used in the
base case. The maximum deflection was 0.7971 mm
and it occurred at the slab corner. The deflection
decreased along with the distance away from the
corner.
Deflection (mm)
c) Modulus of subgrade reaction (k): 40.7 MN/m3;

54.3 MN/m3
d) Slab thickness: 27.5 cm; 30 cm
e) Shoulder availability: 1.5 m
modulus of dowel support=407 GPa; modulus of
steel=200 GPa; joint width=5mm; tie bar
diameter=16 mm; and tie bar spacing=75 cm
f) HMA overlay on PCC
E, v HMA
: 3.0 E+6 kPa; 0.35
Thickness
: 10 cm
Debonding Condition : bonded
g) Additional CTB foundation
E, v CTB
: 1.0 E+7 kPa; 0.15
Thickness
: 10 cm
Debonding Condition: bonded and unbounded
Single Axle
100
200
300
400
Distance from slab corner (cm)
0.6
Figure 15. Deflection occurs at pavement subjected to

single axle load due to corner loading
0.4
0.2
100
200
300
400
Distance in y-direction (cm)
Figure 14. Effect of axle configuration on pavement

stresses
5.5 Corner Loading Analysis

Corner loading analysis is related to erosion failure of
concrete pavement. Maximum deflection was the
main response that needs to be considered.
5.6 Base Case
The parameters used in the base case are:
Load
Slab thickness
Layers (from top to
bottom )
Slab dimension
Modulus of Elasticity of
concrete
Poissons Ratio
Modulus of
subgrade reaction
Modulus of
: single axle load

: 25 cm
: Concrete slab;
subgrade
: 500 cm x 350 cm
: E = 2.5 x 107 kPa
: = 0.15
: k = 27.1 MN/m3
(CBR = 3)
: 407 GPa
The parameter of each case is similar to the parameter

of edge loading analysis. One more case is also
included in the corner analysis: the effect of dowel
characteristics. It is conducted by applying different
parameters than that which has been analyzed in the
base case: changing dowel spacing to 15 cm and
installing 48 mm diameter dowel bar.
Below is the result of investigation of the effect of
different axle configuration on concrete pavement
deflections. Other parametric studies are shown in
Table 3.
1.4
Tridem Axles
1.2
Deflection (mm)
Tandem Axles
1
Single Axle
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
100
200
300
Distance in y-direction (cm)
400
Figure 16. Effect of axle configuration on pavement

deflections
1179
5.7 Summary of Parametric Studies

The sensitiveness of different parameters on concrete
pavement responses, as the result of investigation
conducted for both fatigue and erosion analysis, are
shown in Table 3. Unless mentioned in certain cases
below, in consequence of investigating the effect of
application of certain parameter on concrete pavement
performance, the other parameters used in those cases
were similar to the base case.
e)
5.8 Allowable Load Repetitions

This analysis is performed to study the most critical
type of failure, due to different design parameters. The
allowable load repetitions were computed based on
PCA method for both fatigue analysis and erosion
analysis. For the value of ratio of maximum stress and
modulus of rupture (/Sc) 0.45, PCA assumes that
the allowable number of load repetitions is unlimited.
Predicted allowable load repetition was determined by
the most critical value obtained from fatigue and
erosion analysis. If both the allowable number of load
repetitions for both fatigue and erosion failure were
considered to be unlimited, then the most critical
value for the particular parametric studies could not be
defined. As shown in Table 4, the most critical failure
in each case was fatigue failure. The erosion failure
happened when pavement was subjected to multiple
axles loading
f)
6 CONCLUSIONS
a) KENSLAB software, which is based on finite
element method, is theoretically correct. The
results obtained using this software is relatively
close to known theoretical Westeergaard solutions.
b) The size of finite element mesh has a significant
effect on the results obtained. Finer mesh will lead
to more critical results. Selection of an appropriate
mesh therefore requires careful consideration.
c) Multiple axle configuration is less damaging than
single axle configuration in terms of fatigue life of
concrete pavement, considering that it makes a
lower edge stress compared to single axle loading.
In contrast, multiple axle configuration contributes
more in increasing corner deflection, which
consequently increases the probability of erosion
failure. Compared to the application of 80 kN
single axle load, the use of tandem axle load and
tridem axle load decreases the edge stress by 5%
and 19%, but increases the corner deflection by
37% and 49%, respectively.
d) Using concrete with higher modulus of elasticity
brings only a small increase to the edge stress, but
on the contrary, it reduces the corner deflection.
Increasing modulus of elasticity of concrete by
1180
g)
h)
i)
j)
20% and 40% increases the edge stress by 3% and

5%, but decreases the corner deflection by 5% and
9%.
Increasing the slab thickness is the most effective
way to increase fatigue life. Conclusion can be
made by investigation conducted of the effect of
applying different parameters to reduce the edge
stress, as follows:
Increasing slab thickness from 25 cm to 27. 5
cm and 30 cm decreases the edge stress by
14% and 25% respectively
Increasing modulus of subgrade reaction by
50% and 100%, from 27.1 MN/m3 (equal to
CRW value = 3) to 40.7 MN/m3 (CBR = 5.5)
and 54.3 MN/m3 (CBR = 10) only decreases
edge stress by 7% and 11%.
Applying 10 cm CTB as unbounded layer
which represents the function of CTB as an
additional base course, only decreases the
edge stress by 2%.
Applying 150 cm shoulder decreases the edge
stress by 13%. The decrease of the stress to
that level can be achieved by simply
increasing the slab thickness by 2.5 cm, which
efficiently saves the amount of concrete
needed by 76%.
Applying 10 cm HMA overlay decreases the
edge stress by 12%
Increasing modulus of subgrade reaction is more
effective in reducing corner deflection than in
decreasing edge stress. Increasing modulus of
subgrade reaction by 50% and 100%, from 27.1
MN/m3 (equal to CBR value = 3) to 40.7 MN/m3
(CBR = 5.5) and 54.3 MN/m3 (CBR = 10)
decreases the corner deflection by 23% and 36%,
but only decreases edge stress by 7% and 11%.
Increasing slab thickness is not as effective in
reducing the corner deflection as it is in reducing
the edge stress. Increasing slab thickness from 25
cm to 27. 5 cm and 30 cm decreases the edge stress
by 14% and 25% respectively, but only decreases
the corner deflection by 8% and 14%.
Increasing dowel spacing and dowel diameter does
not give significant impact in reducing corner
deflection.
In multilayer concrete pavement, the debonding
conditions between layers have a significant effect
on pavement responses. Unbonded 10 cm CTB
layer decreases the edge stress by only 2%, while
bonded 10 cm CTB layer decreases the edge stress
by 52%.
The availability of tied shoulder construction gives
a significant impact in both reducing edge stress
and corner deflection. 150 cm tied shoulder
construction can reduce the edge stress and corner
deflection by 14% and 20% respectively.
Table 3. Sensitivity analysis of concrete pavement responses under several parameters

FATIGUE ANALYSIS
Parameter
Ratio
No
Case
Base Case
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS:
Loading
Tandem Axle Loads
Tridem Axle Loads
Concrete Modulus:
E = 3,000 MPa
E = 3,500 MPa
Subgrade Modulus:
k = 40.7
k = 54.3
Slab Thickness:
t = 27.5 cm
t = 30 cm
Joint Construction
dowel spacing = 15 cm
dowel diameter =48 mm
with shoulder
HMA+PCC
HMA 10cm
PCC+CTB 10 cm
unbonded CTB
bonded CTB
6
7
8
EROSION ANALYSIS
Maximum
difference
Deflection (I )
(cm)
0.7971
0%
Maximum Stress
difference
(kPa)
1,757,191
0%
2.0
3.0
1,676,294
1,428,306
-5%
-19%
1.0914
1,1893
37%
49%
1.2
1.4
1,809,284
1,852,367
3%
5%
0.7566
0.7245
-5%
-9%
1.5
2.0
1,639,587
1,556,837
-7%
-11%
0.6107
0.5070
-23%
-36%
1.1
1.2
1,519,098
1,325,328
-14%
-25%
0.7351
0.6844
-8%
-14%
1,757,191
1,757,191
1,522,195
0%
0%
-13%
0.7782
0.7775
0.6341
-2%
-2%
-20%
1,545,556
-12%
0.7423
-7%
1,720,154
845,754
-2%
-52%
0.7910
0.6733
-1%
-16%
Table 4. Allowable load repetitions for different parameters

Allowable Load Repetitions
No
Case
Base Case
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS:
Loading
Tandem Axle Loads
Tridem Axle Loads
Concrete Modulus:
E = 3,000 MPa
E = 3,500 MPa
Subgrade Modulus:
k = 40.7 kN/m3
k = 54.3 kN/m3
Slab Thickness:
t = 27.5 cm
t = 30 cm
Joint Construction
dowel spacing = 15 cm
dowel diameter =48 mm
with shoulder
HMA+PCC
HMA 5cm
HMA 10cm
PCC+CTB 10 cm
unbonded CTB
bonded CTB
6
7
Critical Allowable Load

Repetitions
Type of
Load (N)
failure
Fatigue failure
(01 )
7.33E+05
Erosion failure
(0? )
3.54E+08
7.33E+05
Fatigue
2.82E+06
unlimited
1.21E+06
6.22E+05
1.21E+06
6.22E+05
Erosion
Erosion
unlimited
unlimited
unlimited
unlimited
6.65E+06
2.70E+08
1.13E+09
3.03E+09
6.65E+06
2.70E+08
Fatigue
Fatigue
1.04E+13
unlimited
unlimited
unlimited
1.04E+13
-
Fatigue
-
7.33E+05
7.33E+05
2.88E+11
unlimited
unlimited
unlimited
7.33E+05
7.33E+05
2.88E+11
Fatigue
Fatigue
Fatigue
2.80E+06
8.16E+08
unlimited
unlimited
2.80E+06
8.16E+08
Fatigue
Fatigue
1.27E+06
unlimited
8.72E+08
unlimited
1.27E+06
-
Fatigue
-
1181
k) As indicated in the allowable load repetitions

computations using PCA method, single axle load
configuration is more critical in fatigue analysis,
while multiple axles configuration is more critical
in erosion analysis.
7 RECOMMENDATIONS
a) The loads are assumed to be static, although they
are acting dynamically in the nature. It is
recommended to further analyze the behavior of
concrete pavement by also considering the vehicle
speed.
b) The result of finite element analysis should also be
countered with the actual field investigation.
Further calibration with actual field observation
will give a significant development of finite
element analysis of concrete pavement.
c) The effect of thermal condition on concrete
pavement is also one of the major factors
contributing to pavement failure. Taking this
variable into account will simulate the actual
condition of concrete pavement more precisely.
d) The fully bonded and unbonded conditions give a
very different response of concrete pavement. In
reality, the actual debonding conditions between
concrete slab and concrete subbase (such as CTB)
can be partially bonded. It is recommended to
study this behavior in the future.
REFERENCES
Barenberg, E. (2005). Factors Affecting Fatigue
Failure of Concrete. Proceeding on Workshop
on Fracture Mechanics for Concrete
Pavements: Theory to Practice. Colorado,
USA.
Darestani, M.Y. (2007). Response of Concrete
Pavements Under Moving Vehicular Loads and
Environmental Effects. Quensland University of
Technology, Australia.
Houben, L.J.M. (2006). Structural Design of
Pavements, Part IV: Design of Concrete
Pavements, Lecture Notes. Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Geosciences, TU-Delft The
Netherlands.
Huang, Y. H. (1993). Pavement Analysis and Design.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Huang, Y.H. (2004). Pavement Analysis and Design,
Second Edition. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
1182
Minnesota, (2002). Load Testing of Instrumented

Pavement Sections. University of Minnesota,
USA.
Westergaard, H. M., (1947). New Formulas for
Stresses in Concrete Runways of Airports.
ASCE Proceedings 113, ASCE
Zhang, Z., Kawa, I., Hudson, W.R. (2004). Impact of
Changing
Traffic
Characteristics
and
Environmental Conditions on Performance of
Pavements. Center for Transportation
Research Report, The University of Texas at
Austin, USA.

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Civil Engineering Forum

Volume XXI/1 - January 2012