Clastic Sediment

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 5

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and

minerals as well as wood and artificial materials


through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota
and waters. Weathering occurs in situ, roughly
translated to: "with no movement", and thus should
not be confused with erosion, which involves the
movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as
water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then
being transported and deposited in other locations.
Two important classifications of weathering
processes exist physical and chemical weathering;
each sometimes involves a biological component.
Mechanical or physical weathering involves the
breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact
with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice
and pressure. The second classification, chemical
weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric
chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also
known as biological weathering in the breakdown of
rocks, soils and minerals.[1] While physical
weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry
environments, chemical reactions are most intense
where the climate is wet and hot. However, both
types of weathering occur together, and each tends
to accelerate the other. For example, physical
abrasion (rubbing together) decreases the size of
particles and therefore increases their surface area,
making them more susceptible to rapid chemical
reactions. The various agents act in concert to
convert primary minerals (feldspars and micas) to
secondary minerals (clays and carbonates) and
release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms.
The materials left over after the rock breaks down
combined with organic material creates soil. The
mineral content of the soil is determined by the
parent material; thus, a soil derived from a single
rock type can often be deficient in one or more
minerals needed for good fertility, while a soil
weathered from a mix of rock types (as in glacial,
aeolian or alluvial sediments) often makes more
fertile soil. In addition, many of Earth's landforms
and landscapes are the result of weathering
processes combined with erosion and re-deposition.

solution. Eroded sediment or solutes may be


transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands
of kilometres.
Natural rates of erosion are controlled by the action
of geomorphic drivers, such as rainfall; bedrock wear
in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea
and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour;
areal
flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes;
and mass movementprocesses in steep landscapes
like landslides and debris flows. The rates at which
such processes act control how fast a surface is
eroded. Typically, physical erosion proceeds fastest
on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also be
sensitive to some climatically-controlled properties
including amounts of water supplied (e.g., by rain),
storminess, wind speed, wave fetch, or atmospheric
temperature (especially for some ice-related
processes). Feedbacks are also possible between
rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material
that is already carried by, for example, a river or
glacier.[2][3] Processes of erosion that produce
sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those
of deposition, which control the arrival and
emplacement of material at a new location.[1]
While erosion is a natural process, human activities
have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which
erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or
accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and "offsite" problems. On-site impacts include decreases
in agricultural productivity and (on natural
landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss
of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases,

In earth science, erosion is the action of surface


processes (such as water flow or wind) that
remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one
location on the Earth's crust, then transport it away
to another location.[1] The particulate breakdown of
rock or soil into clasticsediment is referred to
as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts
with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is
removed from an area by its dissolving into a solvent
(typically water), followed by the flow away of that

the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site


effects include sedimentation of
waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as
well as sediment-related damage to roads and
houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary
causes of land degradation; combined, they are
responsible for about 84% of the global extent of
degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the
most significant environmental problems world-wide.
[4]:2[5]:1

Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads,

Factors that change the potential of mass wasting

anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are

include: change in slope angle, weakening of

amongst the most significant human activities in

material by weathering, increased water content;

regard to their effect on stimulating erosion.

changes in vegetation cover, and overloading.

[6]

However, there are many prevention and

remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion

Volcano flanks can become over-steep resulting in

of vulnerable soils.

instability and mass wasting. It is now a recognised


feature in the growth of all active volcanoes. It is
seen on submarine as well as sub-aerial volcanoes
- Loihi in the Hawaiian volcanic chain, Kick 'em
Jenny in the Caribbean volcanic arc are two

Mass wasting, also known as slope

submarine volcanoes that are known to undergo

movement or mass movement, is

mass wasting. The failure of the northern flank

the geomorphic process by which soil, sand, regolith,

of Mount St Helens in 1980 showed how rapidly the

and rockmove downslope typically as a mass, largely

flank was able to deform and fail.

under the force of gravity, but frequently affected by


water and water content as in submarine
environments and mudflows.[1] Types of mass wasting

What is Weathering?

include creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls, each


with its own characteristic features, and taking place

Weathering is the name given to process by which

over timescales from seconds to years. Mass wasting

rocks are gradually worn away by the action of the

occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and

weather.

has been observed on Earth, Mars, Venus, and


Jupiter's moon Io.

There are three types of weathering.


1.

Physical weathering,

When the gravitational force acting on a slope

2.

Chemical weathering, and

exceeds its resisting force, slope failure (mass

3.

Biological weathering

wasting) occurs. The slope material's strength


and cohesion and the amount of internal

1. Physical Weathering

friction between material help maintain the slope's

In physical weathering the rocks are broken down

stability and are known collectively as the

into smaller pieces, but the chemical composition of

slope's shear strength. The steepest angle that a

the rock remains the same.

cohesionless slope can maintain without losing its

Temperature Change

stability is known as its angle of repose. When a

Hot temperatures can give rise to thermal expansion

slope made of loose material possesses this angle, its

in rocks and cool temperatures can cause rocks to

shear strength perfectly counterbalances the force of


gravity acting upon it.
Mass wasting may occur at a very slow rate,

contract. In areas such as deserts where the


temperature is hot during the day, rocks get hot and
can expand by a small amount. During the night the

particularly in areas that are very dry or those areas

temperature can drop significantly making it very

that receive sufficient rainfall such that vegetation

cold and so the rocks contract. This continuous

has stabilized the surface. It may also occur at very

expansion of the rock during the day and contraction

high speed, such as in rockslides or landslides, with

during the night exerts stress on the rock and cracks

disastrous consequences, both immediate and

form eventually causing pieces of the rock to fall

delayed, e.g., resulting from the formation

away.

of landslide dams.

Freeze-thaw

Water expands when it freezes. So when water enters


caused cavities to form as well wearing away
the definition of the facial features.

the cracks in a rock and freezes it expands and


pushes the cracks further apart. When the water
melts in can travel further into the bigger cracks

Az

making the cracks even bigger when the water

3. Biological Weathering

freezes again. This process occurs continuously until


the crack is big enough to break a piece of the rock
off.
The animation below shows the weathering action of
water freezing and thawing in a rock.
Wind, Rain and Waves
Wind can carry small particles or sand and rocks
such as in sandstorms in deserts. When these
particles collide with rocks they can wear them away.
Rainfall can also wear away at rocks as can the
action of waves over a long period of time.
2. Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering occurs when rocks are broken
down by a chemical change. Rainwater can become
slightly acidic by absorbing carbon dioxide in the

Biological weathering takes place when rocks are


worn away by living organisms. Trees and other
plants can grow within the cracks in a rock
formation. As the roots grow bigger they push open
cracks in the rocks making them wider and deeper.
Over time the growing tree eventually prizes the rock
apart.
Tiny organisms like bacteria, algae and moss can
grow on rocks and produce chemicals which can
break down the surface layer of the rock. Burrowing
animals such as rabbits can accelerate the formation
of cracks.
Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering takes place when rocks are
broken down without any change in the chemical
nature of the rocks. The rocks are essentially torn
apart by physical force, rather than by chemical
breakdown.

atmosphere and this reacts with the mineral grains in


the rock giving rise to new minerals and salts.
The degree of chemical weathering depends on the
type of rock for example limestone is more readily
chemically weathered than granite. Other factors
such as temperature also play a role as the chemical
reactions occur more quickly in areas of high
temperatures.
Acid rain is also a contributor to chemical
weathering. When fossil fuels such as coal, gas and
gasoline are burnt they release oxides sulphur,
carbon and nitrogen into the atmosphere. These
gases combine with moisture in the air to form
sulphuric acid, carbonic acid and nitric acid, making
the resulting rainwater more acidic than normal.

The effects of chemical weathering in particular


acid rain can be seen on this close up of this
statues face. The acid rain has reacted with the
mineral grain of the rock which has over time

The forces that break rocks down can be numerous,


and include such things as pent up energy as the
Earths crust slowly moves. When great amounts of
pressure build up, the resulting mechanical effect
can be that very large joints, or faults are created.
The most common type of mechanical weathering is
the constant freezing, and thawing of water. In liquid
form, water is able to penetrate the many holes,
joints, and fissures within a rock. As the temperature
drops below 32 F, this water freezes. As water
freezes, it expands, becoming about 10% larger than
it was in liquid form. The result is that the holes and
cracks in rocks are pushed outward. Even the
strongest rocks are no match for this force.
As the water thaws, it is then able to penetrate
further into the widened space, where it later freezes
yet again. The expansion of holes and cracks is very
slow. However, water does not mind. It is very
patient. Month after month, year after year, water
freezes and thaws over and over, creating larger and
larger holes and cracks in the rocks.
Another important type of mechanical weathering is
salt wedging. As water enters the holes and cracks in
the surface of rocks, it often carries salt with it. As

the water later evaporates, the salt is left behind.


Over time, these salt deposits build up, creating
pressure that can cause rocks to split and weaken.
Temperature changes also effect mechanical
weathering. As temperatures heat up, the rocks
themselves expand somewhat. As the temperatures
cool down, rocks contract slightly. The effect can be
the weakening of the rock itself.

site" problems. On-site impacts include decreases


in agricultural productivity and (on natural
landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss
of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases,
the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site
effects include sedimentation of
waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as
well as sediment-related damage to roads and

Chemical Weathering

houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary


causes of land degradation; combined, they are

Chemical weathering is caused by rain water


reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new
minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions
occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic.

responsible for about 84% of the global extent of


degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the
most significant environmental problems world-wide.
[1][2]

Where does it occur?


These chemical processes need water, and occur
more rapidly at higher temperature, so warm, damp
climates are best. Chemical weathering (especially
hydrolysis and oxidation) is the first stage in the
production of soils.
How does it occur?
There are different types of chemical weathering, the
most important are:
Solution - removal of rock in solution by acidic
rainwater. In particular, limestone is weathered by
rainwater containing dissolved CO2, (this process is
sometimes called carbonation).
Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to
produce clay and soluble salts.
Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and
water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-coloured
weathered surface.

Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation. Soil


erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land.
The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each
contributing a significant amount of soil loss each
year. Soil erosion may be a slow process that
continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an
alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss
of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced
crop production potential, lower surface water
quality and damaged drainage networks.
While erosion is a natural process, human activities
have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which
erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or
accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and "off-

Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads,


anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are
amongst the most significant human activities in
regard to their effect on stimulating erosion.
[3]

However, there are many prevention and

remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion


of vulnerable soils.

Peer pressure can lead to a loss of individuality. One


tends to blindly imitate the masses; you adopt their
tastes of fashion, clothing, hair, music and general
living. Peer pressure is the human tendency to join
the bandwagon, in which, the person loses his/her
original way of looking at life. One can be forced to
engage in usage of drug, smoking or drinking out of
his will just to stay accepted in the larger group. The
negative pressure is created by insulting, reasoning,
rejecting or laying unspoken pressure.

You might also like