Basics of computer

CONTENTS
1. Definition of Computer
2. Important Functions Performed by Computer
3. Characteristics of Computer
• Uses of Computer
• Five elements of computing process
4. Generations of Computer
• 1st generation
• 2nd generation
• 3rd generation
• 4th generation
• 5th generation
5. Classification of Computer
• Digital Computers
• Analog Computers
6. Input /output devices
• Input devices
• Output devices
7. Auxiliary Devices
8. Parts of Computer
9. Operating System Functions

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10. What is a computer virus?

11. File Functions

CONCEPTS OF COMPUTER

1. Definition of Computer
 A computer is an electronic device that performs arithmetic
operations at high speed .It is also called data processor because it
can store, process, retrieve data when ever required or we can say
that it accepts raw data and manipulates it to convert it into some
meaning information.

In above context:-
Data :- Data means some unorganized material that can be entered
into the

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computer. Data is represented with the help of characters like

Alphabet Z),digits (0-9)or special characters(+,-,/.*.<,>,etc)
Information:- A data that has been made meaningful and useful.

2. Important operations performed by computer

includes:-
 Input – A computer accepts data that is provided by
means of an input device, such as keyboard, mouse etc.
 Processing- A computer performs operations on the
data to transform it in some way.
 Output –A computer produces output on a device, such as
a printer or a monitor that shows the results of processing
operations.
 Storage -A computer stores the results of processing
operations for future use

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

This is often referred as the IPOS cycle

3. Characteristics of Computer
a. Speed:-Computer are very fast, they can perform hundred of
millions of processing operations in one second, usually measured in
microsecond (10-6),nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds ( 10-12).
b. Automatic:- Given a job, computer can work on it automatically
without human intervention and with desired efficiency.
c. Accuracy:- Information, if it is to be a value, should be accurate
and should truly reflect the situation or behaviour of an event as it really
is because the computer’ physical processing circuits rarely makes any
error. Computer makes error of course, but they are almost always due
to faulty programs or incorrect data input.
d. Completeness:-Information is considered as complete if it tell
its user all what he wishes to know about a particular situation/problem.
The more is the completeness of a information, the higher its value.
e. Mobility:- Computer can move information very quickly from one
place to another. Using all experimental connection that may soon play
role in the Information Superhighways, one Computer can send the

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entire text of the encyclopedia Britannica to another linked computer in

less than one second.

Uses of Computer:-
1. Accounting Department:-This department creates,
maintains, processes and retrieves data related to the profit, cash flow,
payroll, inventory and expense classification with the help of Computers
2. Weather Forecasting:- Super Computers are used in
weather forecasting and seismic analysis, scientific research or
application that are mathematically intensive.
3. E- Banking:-Access bank accounts sitting in some remote area
where there is access of Internate.
4. Sorting:-Sorting is the arrangement of data in ascending or
descending sequential manner. Computers can sort the data according to
the given data within seconds according to the given criteria.
5. Market Research:- The market research department gathers
information pertaining to the firm market potential customer behaviour
and competitive circumstance. Management must be furnished with
information pertinent to market strategy and trends.

Five elements of the computing process

1. Hardware:- The term hardware refers to the parts of computer
itself including the central processing and related microchips and micro-
circuitry, keyboards monitors, case and drives (floppy, hard, CD, DVD,
optical, tape) etc Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel,
is the most common CPU though there are many other companies that
produce processors for personal computers. Examples are the CPU made
by Motorola and AMD.

2. Software:-Software is the set of instructions (also called

program) that guides the hardware through its job. There are two types
of Software:-

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I. System Software:- Computer needs system software to function

.System Software integrates the computer’s hardware components and
provides tools for day to day maintenance task, such as displaying a list
of the files contained on the disk .MS-DOS ,UNIX ,Microsoft Windows
98,andSystem 7 are well-known examples of system software. System
Software are further divided as:-
(a) System Development
(b) System Control

II. Application Software:- Application Software turns the computer

into a tool for a specific task, such as writing. Application Software are
further divided as:-
(c) Special Purpose:-Some application
programs are special purpose programs
which performs a specific task for single
profession. For example-safety manager
use a program that prints record of
occupation related to injuries and illness
in a format required by the government
health bureau. If you are not a safety
manager, you would not find this
application program useful.
(d) General Purpose: - This type of
program can be used by anybody
because they are designed for general
need. Commonly used general purpose
program include Word processing,
Desktop Publishing, Electronic
spreadsheet, Database, Graphic
software etc.

2. Data:-Computer transforms data into information. System Model is

used to describe the relationship between data and information. Data
must be accurate but does not need to be relevant timely ,concise but
information need to have all this attributes.
3. People:- People are part of computing of computing process
because. Computers are designed by people and require maintenance by

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people who are called users. Some users progress beyond the basics of
computer literacy and this knowledgeable people are called power users.
4. Procedures:-Procedures are the steps that you must follow to
accomplish a specific computer related task.

4. Generation of Computers
 First Generation Computers:- (1951 - 1956):
( Vacuum Tubes ),first computers used vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive
to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations,
and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on
punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC(Universal Accounting Company) and ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator And Calculator) computers are examples of first-
generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial
computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau 1951.

 Second Generation Computers :-( 1959 - 1963):

(Transistor): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and
ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread
use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far
superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become

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smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more

reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the
transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected
the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the
vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output. Second-
generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this
time, such as early versions of COBOL (Common
Business – Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (FORmula
TRANslation). These were also the first computers that stored
their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first
computers of this generation were developed for the atomic
energy industry.

 Third Generation Computers – (1963-1975):

Integrated Circuits The development of the integrated
circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips,
called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed
and efficiency of computers Instead of punched cards and
printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and interface with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became
accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

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Integrated circuit technology is responsible for the computer industry’s

technical progress. By second generation scientist knew that more
powerful computers can be created by building more complex circuits.
But circuits is to be wired by hand, these computers were to complex
and expensive to build. Integrated circuit technology removed this
barrier. The result was that a computer that cost no more than first
generation but offered more memory and faster processing.

 Fourth Generation Computers – (975-

Present): Microprocessors: The microprocessor brought the fourth
generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built
onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire
room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip,
developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from
the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a
single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user,
and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also
moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of
life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of
the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development
of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. Most of the new languages
are based on a concept known as object oriented programming (oop),
which encourages programmers to reuse code by maintaining libraries of
code segment. Another fourth generation development is the spread of
high speed computers networking, which enables computer to
communicate and share data. Within organization, Local Area Network
(LAN) connect several dozens or even several hundred computers
within a limited geographical area. Wide Area Network (WAN)
provide global connections for today’s computer

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 Fifth Generation Computers : (Present and

Beyond): Artificial Intelligence: Fifth generation
computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as
voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecule and nanotechnology will radically change
the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-
generation computing is to develop devices that respond
to natural language input and are capable of learning and
self-organization. Computer that use artificial intelligence will
have attributes associated with human intelligence, such as
the capabilities to decode and respond to natural language,
to reason and draw inferences and to recognize patterns in
sensory input.

5. Classification of Computer
Computer on behalf of there qualities can be classified in to the following
categories:
1. Digital Computer
2. Analog Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

1. Digital Computer: - The computers , that can accept

digits and Alphabets as input are called digital computers. These

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computers work upon discrete data. They recognize only two types of
digits 0s and 1s called binary digits and carry out all the operations
depending upon these two binary digits by converting the data into them
and vice-versa at the fast speed. Digital computers are further divided
into the following categories:-

 Super Computers:-These are the largest, fastest,

most powerful, and most expensive computer made but is
not used for commercial data processing. They are used to
solve complex scientific and statistical application like
weather forecasting , airflow, simulations, missiles, and
satellite etc. these may solve billions of typical calculations
with in sec. NEC 500, PARAM and ANURAG are the examples
of super computer in which PARAM and ANURAG are the
indigenous super computer.
Predicting the weather involves analyzing thousands of
variables gathered by satellite, aircrafts and other meteorological
stations on the ground. This analysis has to be done in a very short time.
A super computer can handle such situations efficiently. In the medical
field, super computers are used to study the structure of viruses, such as
those causing AIDS. Designing an aircraft involves simulating and
analyzing the airflow around the aircraft. This is again requires a super
computer.
The speed of modern Super computer is measured in
nanoseconds and gigaflops. A nanosecond is one billionth of a second. A
gigaflop is one billion floating- point arithmetic operations per second.
Super computers can perform at up to 128 gigaflops, and use bus widths
of 32 or 64 bits They can support up to 10,000 terminals at a time.

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 Mainframe Computers:-Mainframes are less

powerful and cheaper than Super Computers. However, they
are big general-purpose computers capable of handling all
kinds of scientific and business applications. The other
characteristics of Mainframe computers are:-
 Can accept and transfer data from I/O devices at the rate
of millions bytes per second
 Can accept all types of high level language.
 Can support a large number of terminals say up to 100 or
more
 They have multiprocessing capabilities, generally limited
to 8 or fewer processors.
 They have large online secondary storage capacities and
can support a large number and variety of peripheral
devices like magnetic tape drives, hard disk drives.VDU,
Printers and telecommunication terminals.
 They have high speed cache memory, enables them to
process applications faster than mini or micro computers.
Medium scale Mainframe computers are usually used in
large business environments. For Example:-
 In railways and Airlines reservation
 Banking applications
 Commercial applications
 Some of the Examples of Mainframe computers are:-
IBM3090,IBM4381,IBM4300 and IBM ES-9000

 Minicomputers: - Minicomputers are multi-user

systems that can handle the computing needs of a smaller

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corporation or organization. Many people use them

simultaneously by means of remote terminals or personal
computers. The other characteristics of Minicomputers are:-
• Can support up to a maximum of 20 terminals
• They usually employ microprocessors in the CPU, both
for data storage as well as data manipulation.
• Minicomputers can perform the same type of task as
Mainframes, but Minicomputers are little slower.
• Such system are characterized by their main memory
size which may be
IBM-20MB and world length of 16 or 32 bits.

 Examples of Minicomputers are:- WIPRO S-68033V,IBM

AS/400/B60 AND DEC’s VAX 8842.

 Micro-computers: - These are also called personal

computer system. A micro computer is the smallest category
of the digital computer in which a microprocessor handles the
functions of ALU and CU .These computers include a monitor,
keyboard, mouse, floppy and hard disk drive and are
supported by single user operation systems. The other
characteristics of Minicomputers are:-
• Such systems are characterized by their main memory
size which may be 256KB-8MB and word length of 8 or
16 bits.
• They use very little power and hence remain cool. They
need very little air conditioning.
• They are stable and reliable. Once tested and proved,
they can go on working for years.

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• They are generally single user. We can make them

multi-user also. They can support up to a maximum of
2-3 terminals
• Maximum speed of microcomputers is up to 1 million
bytes per second.

 Examples of micro computers are; -IBM PCs and Apple’s

Macintosh.

2. Analog Computer:-Analog computers are the computers that

can accept only signals. These computers work upon only continuous
data. They are used to compute with physical quantities such as
voltage, length, current, air pressure and temperature etc.The devices
that are used to measure or compute such quantities called
analog devices, such as thermometer and speedometer.
Analog computers are mostly used in scientific and engineering
applications.
Voltmeter and thermometer are the examples of analog computers.
3. Hybrid Computers:- Hybrid computer are the combined for
of both the analog computer . These computer use signals, digits and
alphabets as input and provide the better output.
Hybrid computer are mostly used in hospitals to
measure the patients heart beat, blood pressure, temperature,
etc. in analog form and carry out the result of operation in digital
form. They are also used in other areas such as weather
forecasting, business, engineering and scientific applications.

6. Input/output Devices
Before a computer can process data, you need some method
to input the data into the machine and this task is performed by an Input
device. An input device is a machine that feeds data in to the computer.

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Similarly, after the computer has processed your data, you often
need to produce output of the results. This output could be a display on
the computer screen, on printed pages, etc.
Below we discuss the variety of peripheral devices used for computer
input and output.
Input Devices
 Keyboard: - The computer keyboard is used to enter
text into the computer, as when you type the contents of a
report. It have 101 keys. The keys on the Computer
Keyboard are classified as follows:-
• Alphanumeric keys  letters and Numbers
• Punctuation keys  comma, period, semicolon , etc.
• Special keys  function keys, control keys, arrow keys,
Caps Lock, so on.

 Mouse: - It is a pointing device that controls the

movement of cursor on a display screen it frees the user
from using the keyboard to the large extent and is
particularly important for GUI because you can simply point
to the option and click a mouse. Different types of mouse
are:-
• Mechanical Mouse - It has a ball in the bottom of the
mouse which rolls on the surface as you move the
mouse, and internal rollers sense the ball movement and
transmit the information to the computer via the cord of
the mouse

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•
Optomechanical Mouse:- It is same as Mechanical
Mouse but uses Optical sensors to detect the motion of
the ball
• Optical Mouse:- The optical mouse does not use a
rolling ball, but instead uses a light and a small optical
sensor to detect the motion of the mouse by tracking a
tiny image of the desk surface. Optical mice avoid the
problem of dirty mouse ball, which causes regular mice
to roll unsmooth if the mouse ball and internal rollers are
not cleaned frequently A cordless or wireless
mouse communicates with the computer via radio waves
(often using BlueTooth hardware and protocol) so that
a cord is not needed
A mouse also includes one or more buttons (and possibly
a scroll wheel) to allow users to interact with the GUI. The traditional PC
mouse has two buttons, while the traditional Macintosh mouse has one
button. On either type of computer you can also use mice with three or
more buttons and a small scroll wheel (which can also usually be clicked
like a button)

 Touch pad:- Most laptop computers today have a touch

pad pointing device. You move the on-screen cursor by
sliding your finger along the surface of the touch pad. The
buttons are located below the pad, but most touch pads allow
you to perform “mouse click” by tapping on the pad itself.
Touch pads have the advantage over mice that they take up
much less room to use. They have the advantage over
trackballs (which were used on early laptops) that there are
no moving parts to get dirty and result in jumpy cursor
control

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 Track point: - Some sub-notebook computers (such as

the IBM ThinkPad), which lack room for even a touch pad,
incorporate a track point, a small rubber projection
embedded between the keys of the keyboard. The track point
acts like a little joystick that can be used to control the
position of the on-screen cursor.

 Trackball:- The trackball is sort of like an upside-down

mouse, with the ball located on top You use your fingers to
roll the trackball, and internal rollers (similar to what’s inside
a mouse) sense the motion which is transmitted to the
computer Trackballs have the advantage over mice in that
the body of the trackball remains stationary on your desk, so
you don’t need as much room to use the trackball Early
laptop computers often used trackballs (before superior
touch pads came along)
Trackballs have traditionally had the same problem as mice dirty
rollers can make their cursor control jumpy and unsmooth. But there are
modern optical trackballs that don’t have this problem because their
designs eliminate the rollers.

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 Joysticks:- Joysticks and other game controllers can

also be connected to a computer as pointing devices. They
are generally used for playing games, and not for controlling
the on screen cursor in productivity software.

 Touch screen:- Some computers, especially small

hand-held PDAs, have touch sensitive display screens. The
user can make choices and press button images on the
screen. You often use a stylus, which you hold like a pen, to
“write” on the surface of a small touch screen.

 Graphics tablet:- A graphics tablet consists of an

electronic writing area and a special “pen” that works with it.
Graphics tablets allows artists to create graphical images
with motions and actions similar to using more traditional
drawing tools. The pen of the graphics tablet is pressure
sensitive, so pressing harder or softer can result in brush
strokes of different width (in an appropriate graphics
program.

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 Scanners:- A scanner is a device that images a printed

page or graphic by digitizing it, producing an image made of
tiny pixels of different brightness and color values which are
represented numerically and sent to the computer. Scanners
scan graphics, but they can also scan pages of text which are
then run through OCR(Optical Character Recognition)
software that identifies the individual letter shapes and
creates a text file of the page's contents.

 Microphone:- A microphone can be attached to a

computer to record sound (usually through a sound card
input or circuitry built into the motherboard). The sound is
digitized—turned into numbers that represent the original
analog sound waves—and stored in the computer to later
processing and playback.

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 Digital Camera:-Images can be input into a computer

using digital camera. These images can be manipulated in
many was using the various imaging tools available
The digital camera takes a still photograph, stores
it, and then sends it as digital input into the computer. The images are
than stored as digital files.
• Used to take electronic pictures of an object
• The pictures taken by a digital camera can be used directly by a
computer

 MIDI Devices: - MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital

Interface) is a system designed to transmit information between
electronic musical instruments. A MIDI musical keyboard can be
attached to a computer and allow a performer to play music that is
captured by the computer system as a sequence of notes with the
associated timing (instead of recording digitized sound waves).

 CD-ROM/DVD-ROM:-
• Can be used to put both sound and images into a
computer
• Use a laser to read a Compact Disk (CD) or a DVD disk

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 Video Capture Card:-

• Usually place inside the computer's case
• Use to put video into a computer
• Need a video source, either a video camera or video
recorder

 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR):-Also called

mark sensing is a technology where an OMR device senses
the presence or absence of a mark, such as a pencil mark.
OMR is used in tests such as aptitude tests.OMR can also be
used for such applications as order writing, payroll, inventory
control, etc.

Output Devices:-
 CRT Monitor:- The traditional output device of a person
computer has been the CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitor.
Just like a television set (an older one, anyway) the CRT
monitor contains a large cathode ray tube that uses an
electron beam of varying strength to “paint” a picture onto
the color phosphorescent dots on the inside of the screen.
CRT monitors are heavy and use more electrical power than
flat panel displays, but they are preferred by some graphic
artists for their accurate color rendition, and preferred by
some gamers for faster response to rapidly changing
graphics
. Monitor screen size is measured diagonally across the
screen, in inches. Not all of the screen area may be usable for image
display, so the viewable area is also specified. The resolution of the
monitor is the maximum number of pixels it can display horizontally and
vertically (such as 800 x 600, or 1024 x 768, or 1600 x 1200). Most
monitors can display several resolutions below its maximum
setting. Pixels (short for picture elements) are the small dots that make
of the image displayed on the screen. The spacing of the screen’s tiny

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phosphor dots is called the dot pitch (dp), typically .28 or .26 (measured
in millimeters). A screen with a smaller dot pitch produces sharper
images.

 Flat Panel Monitor:- A flat panel display usually

uses an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen display output
from the computer. The LCD consists of several thin layers
that polarize the light passing through them. The polarization
of one layer, containing long thin molecules called liquid
crystals, can be controlled electronically at each pixel,
blocking varying amounts of the light to make a pixel lighter
or darker. Other types of flat panel technology exist (such
as plasma displays) but LCDs are most commonly used in
computers, especially laptops.
Flat panel displays are much lighter and less
bulky than CRT monitors, and they consume much less power. They have
been more expensive than CRTs in the past, but the price gap is
narrowing. You will see many more flat panels in the future.

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 Printers:-Printer is one of the most common output

device. It provides the user with a permanent visual record
of the data output from the computer. Printers can broadly
be divided in two categories:-
I. Impact Printers:- They can be described as printer which
utilize some form of striking device to transfer ink from an inked ribbon
onto the paper being printed to form images. They are further divided
into:-
i. Character Printers:-They print one character at a time,
usually from left to right. In most of business organizations two type of
character printer is used:

• Dot-Matrix Printer:- Dot matrix printers use

small electromagnetically activated pins in the print
head, and an inked ribbon, to produce images by impact.
These printers are slow and noisy, and are not
commonly used for personal computers anymore (but
they can print multi-layer forms, which neither ink jet or
laser printers can).In sort we can say:-
o Uses metal pins to strike an inked ribbon to make
dots on a piece of paper.
o Can see the dots that make up the letters or
images.
o Lowest print quality of all of the printers.
o Very low in cost per page to use.
o Rarely used today because of the poor print quality,
but still used in business to print multi-part forms.

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• Daisywheel printers:-They work in a similar

manner to an electronic typewriter. The major difference
is that they use a new type of printing element called a
“daisywheel”-hence the name. It is about 65 m.m.in
diameter and has a number of petals which radiate from
a central core. On the end of each stalk is a type
character set in a similar manner to the keys on a
typewriter. Some of its characteristics are:-
o Slow in speed upto10 to 50 character per second.
o Good quality printing
o Used for word-processing
o Fonts of character can easily be changed
o More reliable than DMPs

Major manufactures of the daisywheel printers

include:Brother,Data point,Diablo.

i. Line printers:-They print a full line at a time.

Line printers are only used where high speed and
volume is necessary and where quality is the lesser
requirement. Two types of Line printers are discussed
below:-
• Chain Printer:-It has a chain that revolves at a
constant speed in a horizontal plane. The complete
chain has a complement of 48 numbers, alphabets and
special symbols cast on five times over.

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• Drum printer:-These printers use a solid cylinder.

There are as many bands on it as the number of print
position. Each band has cast on it the complement of 48
numbers, alphabets and special symbols .

I. Non Impact Printers:-A non-impact printer forms characters

by chemical or electronic means. The non-impact printer is, however
not commonly used for the following reasons:-
o Special and more expensive paper is required.
o Only one copy can be printed at a time.
o Prints are not clear
o Output is difficult to copy on office machines.

Non-impact printers are further divided as:-

• Thermal Printers:- These printers use thermal

printing facilities i.e. the printer forms each character on
the matrix printing head in the normal way but, instead
of the printing head being impacted physically against
an inked ribbon to print the character , the pins are
heated by electrical element and then pressed against

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the paper. When the pins touch the paper, the area
heated by the pins change colour, usually to black or
brown to form the character.

• Ink-jet Printers:- For hardcopy (printed) output,

you need some kind of printer attached to your
computer (or available over a network). The most
common type of printer for home systems is the
color ink jet printer. These printers form the image on
the page by spraying tiny droplets of ink from the print
head. The printer needs several colors of ink (cyan,
yellow, magenta, and black) to make color images Some
photo-quality ink jet printers have more colors of ink.
Ink-jet printers are inexpensive, but the cost of
consumables (ink cartridges and special paper) make them costly to
operate in the long run for many purposes.There two types of Ink-jet
printers as:-

o Liquid Ink- jet printers

o Solid Ink- jet printers

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• Laser Printers:- A laser printer produces good

quality images by the same technology that photocopiers
use. A drum coated with photosensitive material is
charged, then an image is written onto it by a laser (or
LEDs) which makes those areas lose the charge. The
drum then rolls through toners (tiny plastic particles of
pigment) that are attracted to the charged areas of the
drum. The toner is then deposited onto the paper, and
then fused into the paper with heat.
Most laser printers are monochrome (one color
only, usually black), but more expensive laser printers with multiple color
toner cartridges can produce color output.
Laser printers are faster than ink jet printers.
Their speed is rated in pages per minute (ppm). Laser printers are more
expensive than ink jets, but they are cheaper to run in the long term if
you just need good quality black & white pages.

 Plotters:-Plotter is a device that draws picture on papers

based on commands from a computer. Plotters are
considerably different from printers as they draw lines using
a pen. As a result, they can produce continues line, where
printer can only stimulate lines by different colored pens to
draw different colours
In general, plotters are considered more expensive than
printers .They are used in engineering applications where precision is
mandatory.

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 Sound Cards and Speakers:- Sound Output

Computers also produce sound output, ranging from simple
beeps alerting the user, to impressive game sound effects, to
concert quality music. The circuitry to produce sound may be
included on the motherboard, but high quality audio output
from a PC usually requires a sound card in one of the
expansion slots, connected to a set of good quality external
speakers or headphones.

Multimedia is a term describing computer output that includes sound,

text, graphics, movies, and animation. A sound card is an example of
a multimedia output device (as is a monitor that can display graphics).

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 3D-Audio: - 3D-Audio is a technique for giving more

depth to traditional stereo sound. Typically, 3D sound, or 3d
audio is produced by placing a device in a room with stereo
speaker. The device dynamically analyzes the sound coming
from speaker and sends feedback to the sound system so
that it can readjust the sound to give the impression that the
speaker are further apart.

7. Auxiliary Storage devices: - Auxiliary Storage is also

known Auxiliary memory or secondary storage devices. This is a long
term, non- volatile memory.

How a computer stores information

1. The computer stores information as a string of zeros (0) and

ones
 The standard string length is eight 0's or 1's in a row
 This standard length is called a byte
 A byte equals one character
 A character is a letter, number, or symbol - it is about
any thing that can be typed on a keyboard
 There are 256 standard characters used by almost all
computers
2. Information size measurements :
 8 Bits – 1Byte
 1Byte - 1 character
 1024 Bytes – 1 KB
 1024 KBs – 1 MB
 1024 MBs - 1 GB
 1024 –GBs - 1 TB

Some of the Storage devices are explained as follows:-

 Magnetic Tape:-It is a magnetically coated strip of

plastic on which data can be encoded. Tapes of computer are
similar to the tapes used to store music. Some computers, in
fact, enable you to use normal cassette tapes. Tapes are
sometimes called steamers or steaming tapes.

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 Hard Disk: - The hard disk is the primary device that

a computer uses to store information. The hard disk stores
programs, data files, saves files, and organizes files. The
hard drive is located inside the computer case. Hard disks
are usually permanently installed in a computer. The hard
drive, magnetically stores data on stacks of rotating disks
called platters. A typical 84 megabyte hard disk for PC might
have two platters (4 sides) and 1,053 cylinders.

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 CD -ROM Drive:- CD-ROM is a device that reads

information stored on a compact disc. CD-ROM stands for
Compact Disc Read Only Memory. One CD is equal to
the space in over 40 floppy disc. Used to provide
permanant storage of data but this type of drive is used to
bring information into the computer more commonly than it
is used to store information from the computer.

 Zip Disk:- A zip disk is a removable disk that holds a

large amount of information. A zip disk can be used to
achieve, protect and transfer large amounts of data. zip disk
are slightly larger than the conventional floppy disks, and are
about twice as thick They can hold 200 - 250 MB of data .
Because they are relatively inexpensive and durable, they
have become a popular madia for backing up hard disks and
for transporting large files.

 Floppy Drive: A low capacity storage device which can be

written to as easily as it is read. The floppy disk may be easily
removed from the computer. It is called a floppy because the part of
the media that holds the data is on a material that is not rigid but it is
enclosed in a more rigid case to give it durability.

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8. Parts of Computer:-
 Central Processing Unit

Does all of the work for the computer

1. Does all of the mathematics, mainly addition

2. Does all the logical comparisons of values
3. Directs the flow of data in a computer
4. Controls the operation of the parts of the computer

Today, all CPUs are microprocessors

5. A microprocessor is a complete computer on a silicon chip

6. A microprocessor does all of the functions of a computer
 stores data and instructions waiting to be used
 follows changeable instructions
 does input, processing, and output

CPUs have three basic parts

7. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 does all of the mathematics in a computer
 does all of the logic comparisons of values
 some common logic comparison symbols
 = equal to
 < less than
 > greater than
 <= less than or equal to
 >= greater than or equal to
 <> not equal

8. The Control Unit

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 directs the flow of information into the CPU and/or

memory or storage
 controls which instructions the CPU will do next

9. Registers
 Used to store data and instructions inside the processor
 Size of the registers can affect the speed and
performance of the processor

Speed of CPUs

10. The speed of CPUs is measured in hertzs.

 A hertz is on cycle per second.
 Need to measure time to determine cycles per second
 All computers have a clock built into them for
timing the cycles
 The clock is usually located in a small metal box
on the motherboard.
 Today, many CPUs can complete over six (6)
instructions per second.

11. Speeds of modern CPUs

 Most computers have a CPU that can do more than 400
MHz.
 MHz stands for megahertzs
 A MHz is 1,000,000 cycles per second.
 Computers will soon be at speeds of over a gigahertz,
1,000,000,000 Hertzs.
 Memory
Primary memory can be used directly by the CPU

1. Consists of silicon chips, usually either VLS or VLSI technology is

used to create the chips

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2. Two forms of Primary Memory

o Read Only Memory (ROM)
o Random Access Memory (RAM)
3. Primary memory is also called primary storage
o Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is "built-in" computer memory containing data that normally can

only be read, not written to. ROM contains the programming that allows
your computer to be "booted up" or regenerated each time you turn it
on. Unlike a computer's random access memory (RAM), the data in ROM
is not lost when the computer power is turned off. The ROM is sustained
by a small long-life battery in your computer.

If you ever do the hardware setup procedure with your computer, you
effectively will be writing to ROM.

1. Stores instructions that are used by the CPU

o Tells the CPU how to be the kind of computer it is, for
example a Windows, Macintosh, or Play Station computers.
o Tells the CPU how to work with the different parts of the
computer
o ROM can also hold programs that are directly accessed by
the CPU. One such program is the self-test when the
computer is first turned on. The self-test tests to seem if all
the parts on the main circuit board (mother board) are
working correctly.
2. The instructions in ROM can not usually be changed
o The instructions are built into the electronic circuits of the
chips
o These instructions in ROM are called firmware
o To change the instructions in ROM you need to usually
change the chips or do some other special process that is
normally not available to an average user.

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3. The instructions in ROM are nonvolatile. They stay in ROM even

when the computer is turned off.
4. Access to information is random access.
o Random access means that any piece of information in ROM
can be accessed at any given time without access other
information first. It is a lot like the tracks on a music CD.
You can access any track at any time and in any order.
o The other kind of access is sequential access. You must
access the information in the order that they are located.
This is a lot like a music tape. You must play the songs in
order, or you have to fast forward past songs to get to the
one you want.

o Random Access Memory (RAM)

Pronounced ramm, acronym for random access memory, a type

of computer memory that can be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of
memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is
the most common type of memory found in computers and
other devices, such as printers.

1. Store data and instructions that are used by the CPU to perform
some task.
o These instructions are usually loaded into RAM from a
secondary storage device.

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o RAM is also used to store instructions that tell the CPU how
to work with its parts. These instructions are usually called
drivers.
2. The instructions in RAM are constantly changing, depending on the
needs of the CPU.
3. The instructions in RAM are volatile.
o When the computer is turned off the information in RAM
disappears.
o The information in RAM needs to be saved to secondary
storage before the computer is turned off.
4. Access to information is random access.

Cache memory
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built
into a computer’s central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a
separate chip. The CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are
repeatedly required to run programs, improving overall system speed.
The advantage of cache memory is that the CPU does not have to use
the motherboard’s system bus for data transfer. Whenever data must be
passed through the system bus, the data transfer speed slows to the
motherboard’s capability. The CPU can process data much faster by
avoiding the bottleneck created by the system bus.

Flash memory (sometimes called "flash RAM") is a type of constantly-

powered nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in
units of memory called blocks. It is a variation of electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) which, unlike flash memory,
is erased and rewritten at the byte level, which is slower than flash
memory updating. Flash memory is often used to hold control code such
as the basic input/output system (BIOS) in a personal computer. When
BIOS needs to be changed (rewritten), the flash memory can be written
to in block (rather than byte) sizes, making it easy to update. On the
other hand, flash memory is not useful as random access memory (RAM)
because RAM needs to be addressable at the byte (not the block) level.

Flash memory

Flash memory gets its name because the microchip is organized so that a
section of memory cells are erased in a single action or "flash." The
erasure is caused by Fowler-Nordheim tunneling in which electrons pierce
through a thin dielectric material to remove an electronic charge from
a floating gate associated with each memory cell. Intel offers a form of
flash memory that holds two bits (rather than one) in each memory cell,

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thus doubling the capacity of memory without a corresponding increase

in price.

Flash memory is used in digital cellular phones, digital cameras, LAN

switches, PC Cards for notebook computers, digital set-up boxes,
embedded controllers, and other devices.

Virtual memory

An imaginary memory area supported by some operating systems (for

example, Windows but not DOS) in conjunction with the hardware. You
can think of virtual memory as an alternate set of
memory addresses. Programs use these virtual addresses rather than
real addresses
to store instructions and data. When the program is actually executed,
the virtual addresses are converted into real memory addresses.

The purpose of virtual memory is to enlarge the address space, the set of
addresses a program can utilize. For example, virtual memory might
contain twice as many addresses as main. A program using all of virtual
memory, therefore, would not be able to fit in main memory all at once.
Nevertheless, the computer could execute such a program by
copying into main memory those portions of the program needed at any
given point during execution.

 Motherboard - The motherboard is the main circuit board

of a microcomputer. It is also known as the main board or system
board. A motherboard is a multi – layered printed circuit board
.Copper circuit path called traces that resembles a complicated
roadmap carry signals and voltage across the motherboard. Layered
fabrication technique are used so that some layer of a board can
carry data for the BIOS , processor and memory buses while other
layers carry voltage and ground return without the paths short-

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circuiting at intersections. The insulated layer is manufactured into

one complete, complex sandwich. Chips and sockets are soldered
onto the motherboard.

Examples: The MSI 694D Pro AR supports dual Pentium microprocessors,

has five PCI slots and a communication network riser (CNR) slot. The
board supports 133 MHz bus speeds and ultra – direct memory access –
100. There are four USB (Universal service bus ) ports and onboard
audio in the ATX form factor board.

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9. Operating System Functions

What is an Operating System

The operating system is the core software component of your computer.
It performs many functions and is, in very basic terms, an interface
between your computer and the outside world. In the section about
hardware, a computer is described as consisting of several component
parts including your monitor, keyboard, mouse, and other parts. The
operating system provides an interface to these parts using what is
referred to as "drivers". This is why sometimes when you install a new
printer or other piece of hardware, your system will ask you to install
more software called a driver.

What does a driver do?

A driver is a specially written program which understands the operation
of the device it interfaces to, such as a printer, video card, sound card or
CD ROM drive. It translates commands from the operating system or
user into commands understood by the the component computer part it
interfaces with. It also translates responses from the component
computer part back to responses that can be understood by the
operating system, application program, or user. The below diagram gives
a graphical depiction of the interfaces between the operating system and
the computer component
Other Operating System Functions
The operating system provides for several other functions including:

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• System tools (programs) used to monitor computer performance,

debug problems, or maintain parts of the system.
• A set of libraries or functions which programs may use to perform
specific tasks especially relating to interfacing with computer
system components.

The operating system makes these interfacing functions along with its
other functions operate smoothly and these functions are mostly
transparent to the user

Operating System Concerns

As mentioned previously, an operating system is a computer program.
Operating systems are written by human programmers who make
mistakes. Therefore there can be errors in the code even though there
may be some testing before the product is released. Some companies
have better software quality control and testing than others so you may
notice varying levels of quality from operating system to operating
system. Errors in operating systems cause three main types of problems:

• System crashes and instabilities - These can happen due to a

software bug typically in the operating system, although computer
programs being run on the operating system can make the system
more unstable or may even crash the system by themselves. This
varies depending on the type of operating system. A system crash
is the act of a system freezing and becoming unresponsive which
would cause the user to need to reboot.
• Security flaws - Some software errors leave a door open for the
system to be broken into by unauthorized intruders. As these flaws
are discovered, unauthorized intruders may try to use these to gain
illegal access to your system. Patching these flaws often will help
keep your computer system secure. How this is done will be
explained later.
• Sometimes errors in the operating system will cause the computer
not to work correctly with some peripheral devices such as
printers.

Operating System Types:-

There are many types of operating systems. The most common is the
Microsoft suite of operating systems. They include from most recent to
the oldest:

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• Windows XP Professional Edition - A version used by many

businesses on workstations. It has the ability to become a member of a
corporate domain.
• Windows XP Home Edition - A lower cost version of Windows XP
which is for home use only and should not be used at a business.
• Windows 2000 - A better version of the Windows NT operating
system which works well both at home and as a workstation at a
business. It includes technologies which allow hardware to be
automatically detected and other enhancements over Windows NT.
• Windows ME - A upgraded version from windows 98 but it has
been historically plagued with programming errors which may be
frustrating for home users.
• Windows 98 - This was produced in two main versions. The first
Windows 98 version was plagued with programming errors but the
Windows 98 Second Edition which came out later was much better with
many errors resolved.
• Windows NT - A version of Windows made specifically for
businesses offering better control over workstation capabilities to help
network administrators.
• Windows 95 - The first version of Windows after the older
Windows 3.x versions offering a better interface and better library
functions for programs.

There are other worthwhile types of operating systems not made by

Microsoft. The greatest problem with these operating systems lies in the
fact that not as many application programs are written for them.
However if you can get the type of application programs you are looking
for, one of the systems listed below may be a good choice.

• Unix - A system that has been around for many years and it is
very stable. It is primary used to be a server rather than a workstation
and should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system.
It can be difficult to learn. Unix must normally run an a computer made
by the same company that produces the software.
• Linux - Linux is similar to Unix in operation but it is free. It also
should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system and
can be difficult to learn.
• Apple Macintosh - Most recent versions are based on Unix but it
has a good graphical interface so it is both stable (does not crash often
or have as many software problems as other systems may have) and

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easy to learn. One drawback to this system is that it can only be run on
Apple produced hardware.

10. What is a computer virus?

Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to
spread from one computer to another and to interfere with computer
operation.
A virus might corrupt or delete data on your computer, use your e-mail
program to spread itself to other computers, or even erase everything on
your hard disk.
Viruses are most easily spread by attachments in e-mail messages or
instant messaging messages. That is why it is essential that you never
open e-mail attachments unless you know who it's from and you are
expecting it.
Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards,
or audio and video files.
Viruses also spread through download on the Internet. They can be
hidden in illicit software or other files or programs you might download.
To help avoid viruses, it's essential that you keep your computer current
with the latest updates and antivirus tools, stay informed about recent
threats, and that you follow a few basic rules when you surf the Internet,
download files, and open attachments.
Once a virus is on your computer, its type or the method it used to get
there is not as important as removing it and preventing further infection.
Different types of viruses are as follows:-
• File infectors – They are viruses which infect ant
executable programs(.EXE or .COM)
• File system or cluster viruses – They don’t actually
modify files; they modify the directory table entries so
that, you execute the virus along with program.
• Boot sector infectors – They infect executable code in
the boot sector on floppy disk or the Master Boot Record
(MRB)
• Polymorphic viruses – They use encryption or other
method to change their looks.
• Macro viruses – If you open a document infected by a
macro virus, the virus copies its own macros into your
application.

How to avoid computer virus

• Worry about getting a virus before you get one.

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• Before looking for a virus, make sure your system was

booted from a virus – free boot disk.
• Scan all new software media immediately upon receipt,
then copy it and work from the copies.
• Maintain up-to-date virus free backup files, especially
critical ones.
• Use write protection mechanism on disks

11. File Functions

Different files have different purposes. Files are used to do one or more
of the following functions:

• Provide machine executable code which is used to run application

programs and the operating system.
• Store application program or operating system configuration
information.
• Store data used by the user such as Microsoft Word document files.

Therefore there are three types of information that files contain:

• Executable code.
• System or program configuration information.
• User data.

These files are read by an application program or the operating system

File Characteristics

Files have the below characteristics:

• Name
• Optional extension name - Part of the name, it is used by Windows
operating systems to identify an associated program that can be
used to read it
• Size - Shows the space the file requires for storage normally
showed in kilobytes (Kb) which is 1000 bytes
• Type - Indicates the program used to access the file. The next
section will talk more about file types.

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• Date Modified - Shows the last date the file was created or
changed.
• File structure - This characteristic is not viewable by the computer
user but some programs can examine file structure to determine
the type of file it is even when the file extension is changed.

The main items to remember include the facts that all files take a certain
amount of room on their storage media and all files have a type which
indicates whether they can be run by your computer. The file extension
is one indication of the file type but not the only way to determine type.

If you are browsing your files using "My Computer" and click on "View"
and "Details" you will see a window showing the file characteristics like
the one below. Folders only take a little room on the hard drive and do
not normally take as much room as files.

File Types

Because files can have different purposes, they have different types. The
file type is best identified by its file structure. For example a text file
would have a very different structure than a file than can be executed.
An executable file must have a specific structure to be able to be run.
The file structure is used to determine its MIME type. The word MIME
stands for multipurpose internet mail extension and is used as a standard
to identify various file types.

File Extensions

In operating systems such as Microsoft Window systems, Linux, and

UNIX, a file extension is used to help identify the type of file. On
Microsoft Windows systems, many file types are associated with a
particular program which can read the file. For example a file with a .pdf
extension can be read by the Adobe Acrobat application program.

Files are actually identified by what is called a MIME type. This can be
done because files that are executable have a different structure than a
data structure. Therefore file extensions are not the only way to identify
a file type nor are they the most accurate. Apple Macintosh computer
systems do not use a file extension to identify file types.

Executable File Types

The most important file type to be aware of are executable file types.
This is because if you accidentally run an executable file on your system,

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it may install a virus or some other unwanted software program.

Executable file types include:

• .com
• .exe

File Management

File Organization

Files can be placed in folders similar to the way single sheets of paper
can be placed into folders in a file cabinet. Folders can be created on the
hard drive or nested inside each other any way the computer user
desires.

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