The document discusses research on pushing the limits of integrated electronics. It describes current semiconductor technology including energy bands and the ideal diode. It then covers emerging research areas like tunnel diodes, which use quantum tunneling, and spin filters to improve device performance. Research on more efficient solar cells is also discussed.
The document discusses research on pushing the limits of integrated electronics. It describes current semiconductor technology including energy bands and the ideal diode. It then covers emerging research areas like tunnel diodes, which use quantum tunneling, and spin filters to improve device performance. Research on more efficient solar cells is also discussed.
Original Description:
In exploring the topic of the Ultimate Limits of Integrated Electronics (ULIE), I first briefly address what the current level of technology is for p-n junction semiconductors based on my studies in X32 as a foundation. Next I cover areas of cutting edge research that shows promise in future production to push ULIE. This includes the Tunneling Diode (TD), that utilizes properties of quantum mechanics. TD is presented and developed along with an expression for the I-V characteristics. To demonstrate a semi- classical expression for current produced by the TD device, a solution to the Schodinger wave equation is presented utilizing the Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) approximation. Further, research conducted at the University of Tsukuba, Suemasu Laboratory is presented involving Spin Filters (SF), wherein electron particles with specific spin are selected in order to improve performance of semiconductor devices. Lastly I present current work on production of more efficient solar cells.
The document discusses research on pushing the limits of integrated electronics. It describes current semiconductor technology including energy bands and the ideal diode. It then covers emerging research areas like tunnel diodes, which use quantum tunneling, and spin filters to improve device performance. Research on more efficient solar cells is also discussed.
The document discusses research on pushing the limits of integrated electronics. It describes current semiconductor technology including energy bands and the ideal diode. It then covers emerging research areas like tunnel diodes, which use quantum tunneling, and spin filters to improve device performance. Research on more efficient solar cells is also discussed.
Josquin S. Corrales Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductors Devices (X32) Professor Vincent Chang UC Berkeley Extension
Ultimate Limits of Integrated Electronics
executive summary In exploring the topic of the Ultimate Limits of Integrated Electronics (ULIE), I first briefly address what the current level of technology is for p-n junction semiconductors based on my studies in X32 as a foundation. Next I cover areas of cutting edge research that shows promise in future production to push ULIE. This includes the Tunneling Diode (TD), that utilizes properties of quantum mechanics. TD is presented and developed along with an expression for the I-V characteristics. To demonstrate a semiclassical expression for current produced by the TD device, a solution to the Schodinger wave equation is presented utilizing the Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) approximation. Further, research conducted at the University of Tsukuba, Suemasu Laboratory is presented involving Spin Filters (SF), wherein electron particles with specific spin are selected in order to improve performance of semiconductor devices. Lastly I present current work on production of more efficient solar cells.
introduction To begin my discussion of the foundation in current techology of semiconductors, I present the energy band concept, where the division of energy levels exists and is mapped into principle regions. I follow this by showing several expressions for the ideal diode device, and how it reveals its fundumental device behavior for an input-output relationship. An explaination of the crystal structure for silicon is presented, when doped with phosphorus and boron atoms. Lastly I briefly discuss the p-n junction forces that exist in order to provide a jumping point into the Tunneling Diode discussion and further advances of integrated electroncs.
current technology energy band For an intrinsic semiconductor, the schematic band diagram (Figure 1), shows an energy level representation of hole, electron states, and the separation by an energy gap region. EV is maximum of valence band. EC is conduction band. Eg is the band gap energy. The basic operating principle is that at room temperature, thermal agitation results in excitation of electrons from the valence to the conduction band, allowing the device to conduct current.1 At a finite temperature, the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band, and is equal to the intrinsic carrier concentration (ICC).2 In a pure semiconductor, the intrinsic carrier concentration equals the electron or hole concentration.3
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Figure 1: Schematic energy band representation.4
ideal diode expression
For a p-n junction diode, an expression relating the intrinsic carrier concentration (ICC) temperature to energy gap shows that as temperature increases, the ICC will increase exponentially (Fig 2).
Figure 2: Expression for intrinsic carrier concentration.5
For semiconductors, different materials have different band gap, and this has a direct effect on the device activation level. This is considered as an important parameters for a semiconductor. If the material energy band gap increases, ICC will decrease exponentially (Fig 3).
Figure 3: Relationship between material energy gap and intrinsic carrier concentration.6 This expression presented in Fig 2 and 3 is captured in the ideal diode equation, and can be plotted as in Fig 4. Here, the operating principle of p-n junctions is that they rectify, allowing current to flow easily in only one direction. When forward bias condition occurs in the junction, the current increases rapidly as the voltage increases.7 Printed by Wolfram Mathematica Student Edition
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This expression presented in Fig 2 and 3 is captured in the ideal diode equation, and can be plotted as in Fig 4. Here, the operating principle of p-n junctions is that they rectify, allowing current to flow easily in only one direction. When forward bias condition occurs in the junction, the current increases rapidly as the voltage increases.7
150
100
50
0.1
0.2
0.5
Figure 4: The ideal diode activation graph, where x-axis represents voltage, and y-axis is current. For the material dependence (Table 1), different materials have different band gap, and similarily different materials have different ICC.
Table 1: Materials, energy gap, and ICC values.8
doped atom crystal structure
The atomic crystal structure for a phosphorus doped silicon is the central atom surrounded by four equidistant nearest neighbors, creating a diamond structure (Fig 5). With four blue bonds connected between central atoms and the nearest neighbor. Atomic number is 14 for silicon, where electrons occupy first three energy levels shells, and outer most shell level filled by four electrons, with positive 4q charge valence eletron and 8 electrons occupying the covalent bond. At room temperature, lattice vibration from thermal energy will be imparted to the valence electrons causing it to become a mobile conduction electron, leaving an hole / positive charge in the covalent bond that also moves around the crystal due to thermal generation. With ion implantation, introduction of charged particles occurs in the silicon crystal.9 This system will create a mobile conduction electron, along with a immobile positively charged donor ion N+D .10 The result is the conduction concentration is increased.
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Figure 5: Donor atom ionization for phosphorus doped silicon crystal.11
In the atomic structure of silicon doped with boron elements, the immobile acceptor ion creates a positively charged mobile hole (Fig 6).12
Figure 6: Acceptor atom ionization for boron doped silicon crystal.
A compensated semiconductor is doped with both donors and acceptors.13 The Mass-action law and charge neutrality expression are used to determine the carrier concentrations.14 Thermal equilibrium occurs when the physical system silicon crystal is in steady-state.14 Mass action law, was derived from the field of chemistry.15 In any silicon crystal, donor ion and hole concentration equals acceptor ion and electron concentration.16 If temperature is high, there is complete ionization condition, and the positive donor ion concentration should be equal to the neutral donor atom concentration. The charge neutrality becomes the following simplified expression (Fig 7).17
Diffusion net transport of the hole group will be from high concentration of the hole region to the low concentration on the electron side, and similarily for the high electron concentration in the electron Printed by Wolfram Mathematica Edition side.18 The built-in electric field lines are created in theStudent depletion layer.19
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Diffusion net transport of the hole group will be from high concentration of the hole region to the low concentration on the electron side, and similarily for the high electron concentration in the electron side.18 The built-in electric field lines are created in the depletion layer.19
Figure 8: p-n junction drift and diffusion fields.
There a exists a potential difference between the junction, called the built-in potential, which is present at a zero-bias level.20
Figure 9: Built-in voltage potential of a p-n junction.
If the doping concentration increase, the depletion layer width decreases.21 For the case of forward bias, as the voltage is increased, the depletion layer width will decrease Fig 10.
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Figure 10: p-n junction forward bias.
In the case of reverse bias, the depletion layer, electro-static difference increase, causing a wider depletion layer width Fig 11.22
Figure 11: p-n junction reverse bias.
tunnel diode A tunnel diode (TD) is a type of semiconductor utilizing a quantum mechanical effect of tunneling to achieve very fast operation, well into the microwave frequency region (between 300 MHz and 300 GHz).23 This effect is achieved when a particle tunnels through the built-in voltage barrier, that in classical models would not be possible. In 1958, Leo Esaki discovered the TD, but today, more traditional three terminal devices offer better level of performance,24 as well as a new class of devices known as super-steep slope tunneling field effect transistor (TFET) Fig 12.25
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Figure 12: Advancements of state of the art of electroncs by an area of active research TFET.26 TD types of diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions, with depletion area width 10 nm wide.27,28 When a small forward bias is applied, a forward bias conduction current will flow due to electrons in the conduction band of the n-region tunnelling to the empty states of the valence band in the p-region Fig 13.
Figure 13: Direct tunneling current starts growing with forward bias of a TD.28 As voltage increases, the energy of the majority carrier becomes equal producing a maximum tunneling current.29 As forward bias continues increasing, the number of electrons in the n-side directly opposite to the empty states in the valence band decreases causing a new decrease in tunneling curent. The TD device that exhibits negative resistance, meaning when the voltage is increased the current through it decreases.30 As more forward voltage is applied, the tunnel current drops to zero, but regular diode current increases due to lower potential barrier. Following increased forward voltages, the TD I-V characteristic is similar to that of a regular p-n diode Fig 14.31
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Figure 14: I-V characteristics of a TD.
The TD IV characteristics varies for the voltages depending upon the diode material and individual characteristics (Table 2).
Table 2: TD properties for different materials.
wkb approximation To understand how an electron particle tunnels through the barrier (E < U(x)) by quantum tunneling, we can apply the Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) approximation, which is a mathematical technique to solve one-dimensional (1D) differential equations, and plane-wave ray equations.32 It is a semiclassical calculation in quantum mechanics, where it is relatively computationally inexpensive and accounts for quantum effects. Here, the wave function is assumed an exponential with amplitude and phase that slowly varies compared to the de Broglie wavelength and then is semiclassically expanded.33 The WKB approximation shows that with a constant potential, the wavefunction solutions of the Schrodinger equation are of the form of simple plane waves Fig 15. Where is called a modified Plancks constant.34
Figure 15: Expression for the wave function.
If the potential U=U(x) changes slowly with x, the solution of the Schrodinger equation can also be written of the general form (Fig 16).
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Figure 16: Solution of the Schrodinger equation.
Where k(x) is defined as follows (Fig 17).
Figure 17: Expression for k(x).
The derivation starts with the 1D Schrodinger equation in the form (Fig 18), and substituting the general solution for slow-varing potentials, one derives the following diff-eq (Fig 19). Finally the 0th order approximation assumes (Fig 20).
Figure 18: 1D Schrodinger Equation.
Figure 19: Differential equation for slow-varing potentials.
Figure 20: WKB approximation solution.
Using this approximation, one can derive an expression for the tunneling current as follows (Fig 21).
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Figure 21: Expression for TD current.
areas of active research
Suemasu Laboratory (SL) at the University of Tsukuba is conducting research on devices that utilize semiconductor and magnetic materials involving Spin Filters (SF). SF, a form of spintronics technology, which many research groups are working on, uses a property of electrons called spin. To improve the performance of devices, it is very important to obtain electrons with their spin in either the up or down state. There exist materials called half-metals, which have lots of spins in one state or the other. But the problem is that their crystal structures are complicated, so there are limitations on these materials. By contrast, SL is fabricating structures called resonance tunnel diodes (Fig 22). In principle, by using these devices, it is possible to produce filters that can obtain electrons with one spin state, not only from ferromagnetic materials, but also from semiconductors. SF can select electrons with one state or another among electrons with random spin.35
Figure 22: Suemasu Laboratory
SL is using the resonance tunnel diode phenomena lab at room temperature with the aim of achieving a magnetic resistance ratio of 100%. If this research progresses, it will also enable the development of devices for reading information from magnetic memory. The Lab is researching materials for solar cells. Currently, about 95% of the electricity produced worldwide from solar cells comes from silicon. Because silicon is an abundant element in the Earths crust, and silicon technology is highly advanced, silicon is a very superior material. But during the last few years, the amount of silicon material science interest Printed by Wolframresearch Mathematica Student Edition has increased enormously. Researchers worldwide are studying how to make efficient solar cells using thin films. SL is working on a material called barium silicide. Its light-absorbing performance, as expressed by the light absorption coefficient, is hunderds of times that of silicon. With this material, solar cells can then be made hundreds to times
SL is using the resonance tunnel diode phenomena lab at room temperature with the aim of achieving a magnetic resistance ratio of 100%. If this research progresses, it will also enable the development of corralesj_x32_paper_web2.nb 11 devices for reading information from magnetic memory. The Lab is researching materials for solar cells. Currently, about 95% of the electricity produced worldwide from solar cells comes from silicon. Because silicon is an abundant element in the Earths crust, and silicon technology is highly advanced, silicon is a very superior material. But during the last few years, the amount of silicon material science research interest has increased enormously. Researchers worldwide are studying how to make efficient solar cells using thin films. SL is working on a material called barium silicide. Its light-absorbing performance, as expressed by the light absorption coefficient, is hunderds of times that of silicon. With this material, solar cells can then be made hundreds to times thinner and still maintain the same current producing performance. The SL group has confirmed that a current actually flows under light sources, and they have reached the stage where it can function as a solar cell (Fig 23). From this achievement, they aim to improve the efficiency of the solar cells.
Figure 23: Barium silicide solar cell.35
conclusion The tunneling diode, although discovered in the 1950s, represents an active area of research that has the potential to advance the state of electronics. New mathematical models are being developed based on the Schodingers wave equations and quantum mechanical effects. As our knowledge of these subjects increase, there could in fact be no limit to the application and expansion of the field of advanced integrated electronics.
