Fault analysis

Subject lecturer: Dr. XU Zhao

Department of Electrical Engineering
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Email: [email protected]
Room: CF632
Tel: 27666160

outline

Symmetric fault analysis

Fault current limiting concept
Symmetric components and sequence networks
Unbalanced fault calculation(1 phL-G,L-L,
phL G L L double L
L-G)
G)

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Fault Types
zThere are two main types of faults
Symmetric/balanced faults: system remains balanced; these
faults are relatively rare, but are the easiest to analyze so
well
ll consider
id them
h
fi
first.
Unsymmetric/unbalanced faults: system is no longer
balanced; very common, but more difficult to analyze

zThe most common type of fault on a three phase system

by far is the single line-to-ground (SLG), followed by the
line-to-line
line
to line faults (LL), double line
line-to-ground
to ground (DLG) faults,
and balanced three phase faults

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Circuit representation of power system

faults

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Fault causes
Line short circuit by small animals,
animals and vegetations due to e.g.
e g sag by
overloading: North America Mega blackout
Lightening event sequence
1.
Lighting hits line, setting up an ionized path to ground
z
30 million lightning strikes per year in US!
z
a single typical stroke might have 25,000
25 000 amps,
amps with a rise time
of 10 s, dissipated in 200 s.
z
multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the lightning
to appear to flicker, with the total event lasting up to a second.
2.

Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after lightning stroke

energy has dissipated, resulting in high fault currents (often > 25,000
amps!)

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Lightning Strike Sequence, contd

3.

Within one to two cycles (16 ms) relays at both ends of line detect
high currents, signaling circuit breakers to open the line
z
nearby locations see decreased voltages

4.

Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an additional one to two

cycles
z
breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is no small
feat!
z
with line removed voltages usually return to near normal

5.

Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds, trying to restore

faulted line to service

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Fault Analysis
zFault
zF
lt currents
t cause equipment
i
t damage
d
due
d
to
t
both thermal and mechanical processes
zGoal of fault analysis is to determine the
magnitudes of the currents present during the
fault
need to determine the maximum current to insure
devices can survive the fault
need to determine the maximum current the circuit
breakers (CBs) need to interrupt to correctly size the
CBs
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Transients in RL circuit
CB rating selection should account for not only steady
state current but also momentarily high current during
fault events
1 Steady-state
1.
Stead state current
c rrent component (from standard
phasor analysis)
i ac ( t ) =
where Z =
I ac =

2 V cos((t + )
Z
R 2 + ( L ) 2 =

R2 + X 2

V
Z
DC
component

AC
component
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

2 Exponentially decaying dc current component

2.
i dc (t ) = C1e

where T is the time constant, T = L R

The value of C1 is determined from the initial
conditions:
t
2V
i (0) = 0 = iac (t ) + i dc (t ) =
cos(t + Z ) + C1e T
Z
2V
C1 =
cos( Z ) which depends on
Z

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Hence i(t) is a sinusoidal superimposed on a decaying

dc current. The magnitude of idc (0) depends on when
th switch
the
it h is
i closed.
l d For
F fault
f lt analysis
l i we're
' jjustt
2V
concerned with the worst case: C1 =
Z
i (t ) = i ac (t ) + idc (t )
i (t )

=
=

10

2V
2V t T
cos(t ) +
e
Z
Z
t
2V
(cos(t ) + e T )
Z

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

t
2V
The function i(t) =
(cos(t ) + e T ) is not periodic,
Z
so we can't't formally
f
ll define
d fi an RMS value.
l
H
However,
as an approximation define

I RMS (t ) =
=

2
2
iac
(t ) + idc
(t )
2
I ac

2t
2 T
+ 2 I ac e

This function has a maximum value of 3 I ac

Therefore the dc component is included simply by
multiplying the ac fault currents by 3
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator model
Assumed
A
d knowledge
k
l d
about
b t basic
b i generator
t
modeling
Fault current contribution from energy
generation and storage devices like generators
Models of generators important for fault analysis
Thevenin equivalent model for generator/motor;
a constant voltage source plus a time varying
Xd
reactance
+
Ea

2 Ea' sin(t + )

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VT
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

The time varying reactance is typically approximated

using three different values, each valid for a different
time period:

13

X"d

= direct-axis subtransient reactance

X d'

= direct-axis transient reactance

Xd

= direct-axis synchronous reactance

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~2 cycles

~30 cycles

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Modeling, contd

For a balanced three

three-phase
phase fault on the generator
terminal the ac fault current is (see
(sinepage
source)
245)

iac (t ) =

1 1
1
+ '

e
X
Xd Xd
' d
2Ea
t "
1
1
Td

e
X " X '
d
d

Td'

sin( t + )

where
Td" = direct-axis subtransient time constant ( 0.035sec)
14

Td' = direct-axis transient time constant ( 1sec)

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Modeling, cont'd

The phasor current is then

I ac

1 1
1
+ '

e
X
Xd Xd
' d
= Ea
t "
1
1
Td

e
X " X '
d
d

Td'

The maximum DC offset is

2 Ea'
e
I DC (t ) =
"
Xd

TA

where TA is the armature time constant ( 0.2 seconds)

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Short Circuit Currents

16

Balanced iA+iB+iC=0
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Short Circuit Currents

17

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Short Circuit Example

zA 500 MVA
MVA, 20 kV,
kV 3 generator is operated with an internal
voltage of 1.05 pu. Assume a solid 3 fault occurs on the
generator's terminal and that the circuit breaker operates
after three cycles(60Hz system).
system) Determine the fault
current. Assume

X d" = 0.15,

X d' = 0.24,

Td" = 0.035
0 035 seconds,
d Td'

X d = 1.1 (all per unit)

= 2.0
2 0 seconds
d

TA = 0.2 seconds

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Substituting in the values
1 t 2.0
1 1
+
1.1 + 0.24 1.1 e
I ac (t ) = 1.05

t
1 1 e 0.035

0.15

0 15 0.24
0 24
I ac (0) = 1.05
= 7 p.u.
0.15
I base

500 106
= 14,433 A I ac (0) = 101,000 A
3
3 20 10

I DC (0) = 101 kA 2 e
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0.2

= 143 k A I RMS (0) = 175 kA

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Evaluating at t = 0.05 seconds for breaker opening
1 0.05 2.0
1 1
+
1.1 + 0.24 1.1 e
I ac (0.05) = 1.05

0.05
1 1 e

0.035

0.15 0.24

I ac (0.05) = 70.8 kA
I DC (0.05) = 143 e

0.05

0.2

kA = 111 k A

I RMS (0.05
(
) = 70.82 + 1112 = 132 kkA

20

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Network Fault Analysis Simplifications

z

To simplify
T
i
lif analysis
l i off ffault
lt currents
t in
i
networks we'll make several simplifications:
1 Transmission lines are represented by their series
1.
reactance, shunt reactance omitted
2. Transformers are represented by their leakage
reactance, mutuall reactance omitted
d
3. Synchronous machines are modeled as a constant
voltage behind direct
direct-axis
axis subtransient reactance
4. Induction motors are ignored or treated as
synchronous machines
5 Other
5.
O h (nonspinning)
(
i i ) lloads
d are iignored
d

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Network Fault Example

For the following network assume a fault on the
terminal of the generator; all data is per unit
except for the transmission line reactance

generator has 1.05

terminal voltage &
supplies 100 MVA
with 0.95 lag pf

Convert to pper unit: X line

22

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19.5
=
= 0.1 per
p unit
2
138
100
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Network Fault Example, cont'd

Faulted network per unit diagram

To determine the fault current we need to first estimate

the internal voltages for the generator and motor
For the generator VT = 1.05, SG = 1.018.2
*

I Gen
23

1.018.2

=
= 0.952 18.2
1 05
1.05

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E 'a = 1.1037.1
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Network Fault Example, cont'd

The motor
motor'ss terminal voltage is then
1.050 - (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.3 = 1.00 15.8
The motor's internal voltage is
1.00 15.8 ((0.9044 - j 0.2973)) j 0.2
= 1.008 26.6
W can then
We
th solve
l as a linear
li
circuit:
i it
1.1037.1 1.008 26.6
If =
+
j 0.15
j 0.5
= 7.353 82.9 + 2.016 116.6 = j 9.09
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Fault Analysis Solution Techniques

z
z

Circuit models used during the fault allow the network to

be represented as a linear circuit
There are 3 main methods for solving for fault currents:
1 Simple method: use equivalent voltage source(assume
1.
rated operation conditions) at fault location, use
simplified network model (loads are not considered for
+/- networks),
networks)
(IEC60909/VDE0102)
2. Complete/Superposition: Fault is represented by two
opposing voltage sources; solve system by
superposition
first voltage just represents the pre-fault operating
point
second system only has a single voltage source

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Superposition Approach

Faulted Condition

Exact Equivalent to Faulted Condition

Fault is represented
by two equal and
opposite voltage
sources, each
h with
ith
a magnitude equal
to the pre-fault voltage

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Superposition Approach, contd

Since this is now a linear network
network, the faulted voltages
and currents are just the sum of the pre-fault conditions
[the (1) component] and the conditions with just a single
voltage
oltage source
so ce at the fault
fa lt location [the (2) component]

Pre-fault
P
f lt (1) componentt equall to
t the
th pre-fault
f lt
power flow solution
Obvious the
pre-fault
f lt current
fault
t
is zero!

27

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Superposition Approach, contd

Fault (2) component due to a single voltage source
at the fault location, with a magnitude equal to the
negative of the pre-fault voltage at the fault location.

I g = I (1) + I g(2)
g

28

I m = I m(1) + I m(2)

( )
(2)
( )
((2))
I f = I (1)
+
I
=
0
+
I
f
f
f

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Two Bus Superposition Solution

Before the fault we had E f = 11.05

050,
I (1) = 0.952 18.2 and I m(1) = 0.952 18.2
g

Solving for the (2) network we get

I g(2)
I m(2)
I (2)
f

Ef
1 050
1.05
=
=
= j7
j0.15
j0.15
E f 1.05
1 050
=
=
= j 2.1
j0.5
j0.5
= j 7 j 2.1 = j 9.1

I g = 0.952
0 952 18.2
18 2 j 7 = 77.35
35 82.9
82 9
29

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This matches
what we calculated
earlier
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Extension to Larger Systems

The superposition approach can be easily extended

to larger systems. Using the Ybus we have
Ybus V = I
For the second (2) system there is only one voltage
source so I is all zeros except at the fault location
#
0

I = I f

0
#
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However to use this

pp
we need to
approach
first determine If

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Determination of Fault Current

D fi the
Define
th bus
b impedance
i
d
matrix
t i Z bus as
1
Z bus =
 Ybus

Z11
Then #

Z n1

V = Z busI

(2)

V
#
1
(2)

" Z1n 0
V

2
% # I f = #

(2)
" Z nn 0 V
n 1
# (2)
Vn

For a fault a bus i we g

get -If Zii = V f = Vi(1)
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Determination of Fault Current

Hence
Vi(1)
If =
Zii
Where
Zii

 driving point impedance

Zij (i j )

 transfer point imepdance

Voltages during the fault are also found by superposition

Vi = Vi(1) + Vi(2)
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Vi(1) are prefault values

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Three Gen System Fault Example

For simplicity assume the system is unloaded

before the fault with
E g1 = Eg 2 = Eg 3 = 1.050
Hence all the prefault currents are zero.
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Three Gen Example, contd

Ybus

0
15 10
= j 10 20 5

5 9
0
1

Zbus

34

0
15 10
= j 10 20 5

5 9
0
0 1088 00.0632
0632 0.0351
0 0351
0.1088
= j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526

0.0351 0.0526 0.1409

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Three Gen Example, contd

1.05
1 05
For a fault at bus 1 we get I1 =
= j 9.6 = I f
j 0.1088
V

35

(2)

0 1088 0.0632
0 0632 0.0351
0 0351 j 99.6
6
0.1088
= j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526 0

0.0351 0.0526 0.1409 0

1 050
1.05
= 0.600

0.3370

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Three Gen Example, contd

1.050 1.050 00
V = 1.050 + 0.6060 = 0.4440

1.050 0.3370 0.7130

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Analysis of Unsymmetric Systems

zExcept for the balanced three
three-phase
phase fault,
fault faults result in an
unbalanced system.
zThe most common types of faults are single line-ground
(SLG) and
d li
line-line
li
(LL)
(LL). O
Other
h types are d
double
bl li
line-ground
d
(DLG), open conductor, and balanced three phase.
zSystem
y
is only
y unbalanced at point
p
of fault!
zThe easiest method to analyze unbalanced system operation
due to faults is through the use of symmetrical components

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Symmetric Components
zMethod of symmetric components by C.
C F.
F Fortescue in 1918: an
unbalanced of n related phasor can be resolved into n systems of
balanced phasors called symmetric components of the original
phasors.
phasors
zThe key idea of symmetrical component analysis is to decompose
the system into three balanced (therefore per phase analysis can
still used as for symmetric analysis)sequence networks for
analysis . The networks are then coupled only at the point of the
unbalance (i.e., the fault)
zThe three sequence networks are known as the
positive sequence (this is the one weve been using)
negative sequence
zero sequence

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Representation of symmetric components

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e.g.

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Sequence Impedances
The impedance offered to the flow of a sequence current creating
sequence voltages
positive, negative, and zero sequence impedances
Augmented network models
wye-connected balanced loads
transmission line
3-phase transformers
generators

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Balanced load

48

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Balanced load contd

49

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Transmission line

50

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Transmission line contd

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Sequence diagrams for generators

Ia0

Ia1

+
+

+
Ia2

52

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

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Grounded generator

54

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Zn depends on Actual grounding conditions: solid grounding Zn=0

55

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

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Transformer

58

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Transformer contd

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Zero sequence network

Dependent on the winding connection on each side
wye or delta
Dependent on the ground connection
ungrounded or grounded
Types of connections
wye-grounded to wye-grounded
wye-grounded
d d tto wye
wye-grounded to delta
wye to wye
wye to delta
d l
delta to delta

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Zero sequence network

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Unbalanced fault analysis

Single-line-to-ground
Single line to ground faults
Double-line-to-ground faults
Line-to-line faults

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Single line to ground

Unloaded generator

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Va_abc=Eabc-Zabc*Iabc
AVa012=A*Ea012-A*Z012Ia012
AVa012=A
Ea012-A Z012Ia012
and Ea012=[0;Ea;0]
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Double line to ground

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Line to line fault

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Vabc A*Va0123
Vabc=A*Va0123

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Bolted fault Zf=0

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Fault analysis with fault impedance

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+
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0
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Z matrix for fault analysis

Form
F
the
th Positive
P iti
Sequence
S
and
d the
th Zero
Z
Sequence bus impedance matrices
The Negative Sequence matrix is the same as the
Positive sequence matrix

Use the diagonal

g
element of the faulted
bus with the following modified fault
equations

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Z matrix for fault analysis

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Z matrix for fault analysis

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Unbalanced Fault Summary

z SLG: Sequence networks are connected in series, parallel to three times
the fault impedance
z LL: Positive and negative sequence networks are connected in parallel; zero
sequence network is not included since there is no path to ground
z DLG: Positive, negative and zero sequence networks are connected in
parallel, with the zero sequence network including three times the fault
impedance

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu