System

y
protection
p
and circuit
breaker
Subject lecturer: Dr. XU Zhao
Department of Electrical Engineering
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Email: [email protected]
Room: CF632
Tel: 27666160

Switching
S it hi
d
devices
i
and
d mechanism
h i
and
d selection
l ti
Arc extinction and recovery voltage
AC/DC
AC/DC currentt interruption
i t
ti
chopping
h
i
Protection system
Protection zones and
d coordination
d
h
hand
d selection
l
of protection
Over
O
currentt relay
l
and
d differential
diff
ti l and
d distance
di t
protection

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

The selection of circuit breaker

Fault
F lt currentt tto size
i the
th circuit
i
it breaker
b
k
Customer sizing CB, normally short circuit
MVA is g
given by
y system
y
operator
p
in MVA
at the point of connection, equivalent to
specify
p
y
- SC current
- Reciprocal of Thevenin impedance of the
system at the point of connection

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Short circuit MVA(fault level)

Isc 3 phase short circuit fault at point of connection

If Base kV = nominal kV

Because at point connection, the system has a nominal voltage

10 with
ith its
it Thevinin
Th i i equivalent
i l t iimpedance
d

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

CB sizing
The current is the key
The maximum instantaneous current the break must carry:
For AC circuit fault maximum fault current should include both
DC +AC
AC components (DC+
(DC subtransient
b
i
+transient
i
+steady
d
state)
Total current the breaker contact part to interrupt the circuit

5kV CB, subtransient current +DC component ~ 1.6*

subtransient current the momentary current
The interrupting current is smaller than the momentary
current due to delays in CB operation, e.g. 8,5,3, or 2
cycles
The interrupting rating of CB in KVA/MVA

3 bus kV the current capable of int erupting

5

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

CB sizing
CB breaking process
CB has different speeds and also
classified into rated interrupting times:
time from energizing of trip circuit to the
arc extinction
Tripping delay usually cycle : between
fault occurrence and energizing of
tripping circuit
Often unsymmetrical fault current
remains at point of interruption
But the CB is normally rated according
to only symmetric current
(subtraseint/transient)
6

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

CB rating
Voltage class
Rated continuous current
Rated maximum voltage:
highest RMS voltage which
the CB is designed for
Voltage range factor K: the
ratio of rated max voltage
over th
the llower li
limit
it off
range of operating voltage
Rated SC current at rated
maximum kv
Maximum symmetric
interrupting
capability=k*rated SC
current

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

Power system analysis John &William

page 405

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Power system protection

CB, transducer, RELAY

What is a Protective Relay?

Protective relay is a relay whose function is to detect
defective lines or apparatus or other power system
conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to
initiate appropriate control circuit action (IEEE).
The purpose of protective relays and protective
relaying system mostly is to operate the correct circuit
breakers to disconnect the faulty element.
Continously monitoring abnormities (faults)
Enable continuous services of network
Safety of electrical equipments and personnel

Modern power system is very complex and protective

relays are very important for good quality of reliable
power supply.
p
pp y
It would be ideal if protection system can anticipate
and prevent faults. Only Buchholz relay is of this type.

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Main Features of Protective Relays

RELIABILITY: Relay should operate when it is required. To

improve the reliability, it should noted.

Most
M t off the
th time,
ti
protective
t ti
system
t
idle
idl and
d thus
th
proper
maintenance is required.
From design base, it can be achieved by having simple, robust
and
d good
d construction, h
high
h contact pressure, dust
d
free
f
enclosures, good contact material, etc

SENSITIVITY: A relayy should be sufficientlyy sensitive so that

it can operate reliably. It is expressed in terms of min. VA
requirement.

SPEED: Relay should operate at required speed

speed. Very fast and
very slow relays are not good. Fault clearing time varies for
different types of faults (LLL, LG etc)
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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Main Features of Protective Relays

SELECTIVITY : Relay should select the faulty part from the system
and isolate from healthy one. It can be achieved by
Unit protection system and non-unit protection system.
Unit system protection system means relay to response to the fault in
its own zone and doesnt react to other conditions (Differential
protection).
In non
non-unit
unit protection scheme, selectivity is obtained by grading of
time or current setting.

COST: The cost of the protective scheme is to be as minimum

possible.

Fig. 1 Diagram of protection principles

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Classification of Relays

Based on apparatus

System protection

12

Line protection
Transformer protection
p
Generator protection
Others equipments, such as capacity
b k etc
banks,
t
Out-of-Step protection
Under/Over frequency relays
System islanding
df/dt relay
l

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Typical Protection System

A protection
t ti
system
t
consists
i t off sett off devices
d i
(relays,
( l
circuit breakers, etc) to prevent the elements from
damage due to fault and/or mall operation.
Current and potential transformer
Protective relay
Circuit breaker
A switch which can handle large voltage and currents, opens on relay command.

Communication channels - local, remote

Coordination with other devices

Fig. 3 Diagram of a protection system

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

S
Some
Definitions
fi i i

Pickup level

Reset level

The time elapses between the instants when the actuating

quantity becomes less than the reset value to the instant
when the relay contact returns to its normal position.

Open & close

14

The time elapses between the instants when the actuating

quantity exceeds the pick up vlaue and the contact operation.

Reset time

The values below which the relay comes to the original

position.

Operating time

The value
Th
l
off actuating
t ti
quantities
titi
on the
th threshold
th
h ld above
b
which the relay operates.

The contact of a relay

y is closed under the completely
p
y deenergized condition is called a closed contact.
The contact is opened is called a open contact.

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Evolution of Protective Relays

Electromagnetic relay
First generation of relays
Uses the principle of electromechanical energy conversion
Immune to electromagnetic interference and rugged

Solid State Relays

Developed with the advent of transistors, operational amplifiers etc, not have any
moving components as electromagnetic relay. Their functionality is through various
operations
ti
lik
like comparators
t
etc.
t
More flexible.
Improved dynamic performance characteristics.
space
Reduced panel space.

Digital or Numeric Relay

Operation of a numerical relay involves analog to digital conversion of voltage and
currents obtained from VT and CTs. These samples are fed to the microprocessor or
DSP where the protection algorithms process these signals and necessary decisions
are taken.
Maximum flexibility, multiple functionality, communication facility, can be made
p
adaptive.

15

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

16

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Basic relay
y operating
p
g
pricinples

Basically two different operating principles

Electromagnetic-attraction type
Plunger being drawn into a solenoid or an armature
b i
being
attracted
d to the
h poles
l
off an electromanget
l
Can be actuated by AC or DC quantities
g q
y or directional types
yp
Single-quantity

Electromagnetic-induction type
Use the principle of the induction motor whereby
torque is developed by induction in a rotor.
rotor
Only actuated by AC quantities due to the principle
Single-quantity or directional types

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EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Electromagnetic--attraction type
Electromagnetic
For single quantity relay, electromangetic force exerted on the moving
element is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap. The net
actuating force is
K1 = Force-conversion constant
I = The RMS magnitude of the current in the actuating coil
K2 = The restraining force (including friction)

For directional relays

relays, it is actuated by DC or rectified AC quantities and
normally used for protection of DC circuits where the actuating quantity if
obtained from a shunt or from the circuit.
The force to move the armature is

(2)
K1 = Force-conversion constant
IP = The magnitude of the current in the polarizing coil
Ia = The magnitude of the current in the armature coil
K2 = The restraining force (including friction)

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

Fig. 4 Directional relay of the electromagneticattraction type

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Electromagnetic--Induction Type Relays

Electromagnetic
Most widely used involving AC quantities
Actuating force is developed by the electromagnetic fluxes
with eddy currents that induced in the rotor by these fluxes
Movabel
M
b l element
l
t may b
be a disc
di
or ther
th
form
f
off rotor
t
off nonmagnetic current-conducting material
The current produced by one flux reacts with the other flux
and
d vice
i
versa, to produce
d
forces
f
that
h act on the
h rotor

Shaded pole
structure
t
t
19

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

Watthour-meter structure

Induction-cup
structure
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Electromagnetic--Induction Type
Electromagnetic
From Fig. 4, The quantities in Fig. 5 can be expressed, where is the phase angle by
which
leads
,

Assuming the paths rotor currents flow have negligible self inductance, hence the rotor
currents are in phase with the voltage,

Since the forces are opposite each other,

other
the net force is
Then
which can be reduced to
Fig. 5 Torque production
in an induction relay

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Electromagnetic--Induction Type Relay

Electromagnetic
For all single-quantity
g q
y induction relays,
y the developed
p
torque
q
is expressed
p
(1)
X = The RMS magnitude of the current or voltage applied in the actuating coil
The phase angle between the individual currents is a design constant, it does not enter into
the application of these relays

For directional induction relays,

there are three basic types
Current-voltage
Current voltage relays - the actuating quantities are
from current and voltage transformers
(2)
V = the rms magnitude of the voltage applied
to the voltage coil circuit.
I = the rms magnitude of the current-coil current.
= the angle between I and V.
= the angle of maximum torque.

Current-current relays
Voltage-voltage relays
Fig. 6 Vector diagram for maximum torque
in a current-voltage
u
o ag directional
d
o a relay.
ay
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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

The Universal Relay

Relay--Torque Equation
All relays to be considered are merely combination of the
types described.
The universal torque
q
euqtion
q
for all relays
y are as follows
(3)
By assigning plus or minum signs to certain of the
constants and letting others be zero, and sometimes by
adding other similar terms, the operating characteristics of
all
ll types off protective relays
l
can b
be expressed
db
by equation
(3).

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Overhead Line Protections

Base on the line of defense

23

Primary relay
Back-up relay

Based on the zone of protection

Unit system of protection relays
Non-unit type

Based on the connectivity

Primary Relays (directly connected)

Secondary Relays (connected through CT & PT)
Auxiliary Relay ( used to assist another relay)

Based on operating principal

Distance relays
Differential relays
Over-current/voltage relays

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Overcurrent Relays
Indicator solely on the magnitude of current
When the current in a system exceeds a predetermined value, it
indicates the presence of a fault.

Widely used in radial distribution systems

Short circuit current equation is
is the Thevenin equivalent
q
phase
p
voltage
g of source
is the impedance between circuit breaker and source
is the impedance between circuit breaker and fault point

Fig. 7 Single-source short-circuit current distribution versus distance

24

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Several Types of Overcurrent Relay

Instantaneous overcurrent relay

No intentional time delay is provided for the operation. Time of

operation is approximately 0.1sec. It is effective where the impedance
between the source and the relay is small compared with the
impedance of the section to be protected.

Definite time overcurrent relay

Fixed time delay is provided for the operation. It can be used as the
backup relay for instantaneous relay.

Inverse time-current relay

Operating time reduces as the actuating quantity increases in

magnitude.

Inverse definite minimum time current relay

The operating time is approxmiately inversely proportional to the fault

current near pick up value and becomes substantially constant slightly
above the pick up value of the relay.

Very inverse relay

The time-current characteristic is inverse over a greater range and

after saturation tends to definite time

Extremely inverse relay

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Operating Characteristics

(a) definite time; (b) IDMT;

( ) very
(c)
y inverse;
s ; (d) extremely
y inverse
s
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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

Inverse time curves

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Overcurrent Relay Torque Equation

The torque equation of overcurrent relay can be expressed by Eq. (1), where
(where the K2, K3 in Eq. (3) are zero)
On the verge of operating, the net torque is zero, hence we have

For directional overcurrent relay, the torque

d
developed
l
d by
b a directional
di
ti
l unit
it can be
b
(where the K1, K2 in Eq. (3) are zero)
O the
On
h verge off operating,
i
the
h net torque
is zero, hence we have

Fig. 8 Polar characteristic of

directional relay

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Distance Relay
Indicator based on the measured impedance
Most interesting and versatile family of relays
Can be used in various voltage levels
Not impacted by the network configurations
Basic types
Impedance relays
Reactance relyas
mho relays

It is to be noted that in electrical engineering impedance

impedance
can be applied to resistance alone or reactance alone or a
combination of these two. In relays these terms have
different meanings and hence will have different
characteristics

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Impedance Relay Principles

In an impedance relay,
relay the torque produced by a current element is balanced against the
torque of a voltage element. In other words, an impedance relay is a voltage-restrained
overcurrent relay. From the universal torque equation puting K3 = 0 and give negative
sign to voltage term,
(N l
(Neglecting
i
the
h controll spring
i
torque))
On the verge of operating, the net torque is zero, hence we obtain
or

For the operation the relay operating

torque
q
should be g
greater than the
restraining torque, that means the
impedance Z has to be greater
than the design constant. The initial
bend in Fig.
g 10 is due to the p
presence
of spring torque

Fig. 9 Operating characteristic of

an impedance relay on V-I diagram
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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Reactance Relay
y Princples
p
The reactance relay only response to the reactance component of the
impedance. The operating torque is obtained by current (positive)
and the restraining torque due to a current/voltage directional
element (either positive or negative).
The directional element is arranged to develop maximum negative
torque when current lags voltage by 90 degree
degree. The torque equation
is
is defined as positive when I lags V
At the
h balance
b l
point, T = 0, h
hence
From this we can derive

so
Neglecting control spring effect,
Fig. 10 Operating characteristic of
an reactance relay
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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Mho Relay Principles

The torque is obtained by the V-I element and restraining torque
due to the voltage element.
element This means a mho relay is a voltage
restrained directional relay. The torque equation is
For the relay to operate,
operate
So we obtain

Therefore
Fig. 11 Mho characteristics
It is seen from Fig. 11 that
Mho relay is inherently directional.
directional
The impedance angle of the protected line is normally a 60 to 70
degrees.

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

More About Distance Relay

The impedance as seen by the relay can be impacted by
the type of fault.
For instance, if it is a 3-phase fault, the impedance seen by
the relay will correspond to the positive sequence impedance
and if there is a line to ground fault, the impedance will
correspond to the sum of positive, negative and zero
sequence impedances.
i
d

To have the same sensitivity for all types of faults, the

relay
y shall measure the common impedance
p
in all types
yp
of
faults, i.e., the positive sequence impedance.
This can be done by suitable choice of voltage and current coil
connections

32

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Relay applications
Feeder protection
Generator protection
Transformer protection

33

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Feeder protection
3-zone p
protection coordination are widely
y applied
pp
for
overcurrent and distance relays
One primary protection, two backup protections
A certain time delay is applied to backup protections . The
setting of time delay has to consider the relays operation
time, the safety time, etc.

Fig. 13 Inverse overcurrent protection

coordination in radial system
34

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

Fig. 14 3 zone operating characteristics of

a mho type distance relay
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Differential Relays
The differential relay is one that operates when the vector difference
of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined
value.
It takes two or more similar electrical quantities
These quantities should have phase displacement (normally approx. 180
degree)

Most common application is

the current differential type,
where the torque in operating
coil is
and restraining coil is

Fig. 12 Percentage differential

protection
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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Protections
Other than line protection, generator protection concerns against
more possible abnormal operating conditions since it is not
necessarily required to remove the service of a machine from short
circuits that might be left to the control of an attendant.
The automatic protective equipment is necessary to protect the
generator from damage as well as maintain the service when its
removal would be embarrassing, but it might operate incorrectly with
high amount of equipments.
The quality of the generator protection is not necessarily determined
by the size of the generator, but the effect on the rest of the system
of a prolonged fault in the generator.

36

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Stator Windings Protections

Short circuit protections
Differential relays
Most of the generators rated 1MVA or higher,
higher and almost all the
generators above 10MVA use differential relays. Percentagedifferential relaying is the best for the purpose, and being used
where ever it can be justified economically.

Overcurrent relay
Used when installation of differential relays cannot be justified

Open circuit protection

Overheating protection

37

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

C -Stator
CTCT
S
Differential
iff
i l Relay
l
Arrangement
The elements of relay include
CT
Circuit breaker
Relay

Types of connection
Wye-connected
Delta-connected

Fig.1 shows the arrangment of

of CT and relay for a Y-connected
machine.

To achieve the best sensitivity, the

CT primary-current rating should be
equal to the generator rated full-load
current. Since high system current may
flow through the CTs at the breakers,
the CT rating is normally higher than
the generators rated current.
38

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

Fig. 1 Relay arrangement of a

Y connected generator
Y-connected
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Oth Stator
Other
St t
P t ti
Protections
Overcurrent protection
If current transformers are not connected in the neutral ends of Yconnected generator windings, relay can be actuated only by the shortcircuit current supplied by the system.
Cannot provide as good protection as differential relay

Open circuit protection

Most
ost u
unlikely
e y in well-constructed
e co st ucted machines,
ac
es, but d
difficult
cu t to detect be
before
o e itt
causes considerable damage. Negative-phase-sequence relay for
protection against unbalanced phase currents contains a sensitive alarm
unit will be of help to alert the abnormal condition.

Overheating protection
May caused by overloading or by failure of the cooling system. The
practice is to embed resistance temperature-detector coils in the stator
winding
i di
slots
l t tto obtain
bt i the
th temperature
t
t
conditions
diti
th
throughout
h t the
th stator.
t t
Alarm devices are usually involved.

39

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

R t
Rotor
P t ti
Protections
Overheating protection
Unbalanced 3-phase stator currents cause double-system-frequency
currents induced in the rotor iron. These currents will quickly cause rotor
o e heating if the gene
overheating
generator
ato is permitted
pe mitted to continue
contin e operating
ope ating with
ith such
s ch
an unbalance.
Recommended type of relay is an inverse-time overcurrent relay
operating from the output of a negative
negative-phase-sequence-current
phase sequence current filter
that is energized from the generator CT.

Loss-of-excitation protection
Synchronous generator will operates as an induction generator.
generator Instability
problem may be developed quickly since it may draw large amount of
reactive power from the system, unless other generators can
automatically pick up the additional reactive load immediately.

Field protection
Overexcitation protection, vibration protection, etc.

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Transformer Protections
Abnormal circumstances

Winding short circuit

Overheating
Open circuits

Since open circuits are not harmful for a transformer,

transformer no relay is
provided against this. Nor in general practice even for unattended
transformers, is overheating or overload protection provided. There
may be thermal accessories to sound an alarm or to control banks
of fans, but automatic tripping of the transformer breakers is
generally not provded.
Main protections

41

Short circuit protection

Gas protection (oil transformer)

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Short circuit protection

The
ep
primary
a ya
and
d seco
secondary
da y cu
currents
e ts o
of a transformer
t a so e a
are
e normally
o a y
different from each other and are related by their turns ratio. For
example, the currents are displaced in phase from each other by 30
degree
g
if the windings
g are star-dcelta connected.
Protection is considered suitable if it satisfies two conditions,
Must not operate under normal load conditions and for through fault
(external fault) conditions
Must operate for severe enough internal fault conditions.

Normally percentage differential protection is recommended for

transformers rated for more than 1 MVA. For low rating overcurrent
relay is used.
used

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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Transformer Differential Relay

The connection of CTs has to nullify the phase displacement of
the primary and secondary side. A thumb rule is, for Star-Delta
connection, on the star side the CT is connected in Delta, on the
delta side the CT is connected in Star.
For external faults the line currents from the two CTs are equal
in magnitude and in opposite phase so the difference current is
zero.
Fig. 2 shows the complete connections for percentage-differential
relaying for a two-winding transformer.

43

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Fig. 2 Complete connection of the CTs-Differential Relay for a Y-Delta transformer

44

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

B hh l Relay
Buchholz
R l
Buchholz relay is a combination gas-accumulator and pressure relay
named after the inventor. This relay is applicable to the transformer
in which the tank is filled with oil, and a pipe connects to an auxiliary
tank, or conservator, which acts as an expansion chamber.
Whenever
Wh
a fault
f l takes
k place
l
in a transformer, the oil of the
tank gets overheated and
gases are formed.
f
d The
Th generation
ti
of the gases may be slow or
violent depending on whether the
fault is a minor or incipient one
or heavy short circuit. The
generation of gas is used as a
means of fault detection.
detection

Fig 3 Buchholz relay

Fig.
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Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu