Mathematical Induction

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Helen Bush
Reflections, August 1992

Mathematical Induction

I NTRODUCTION : S TORY TIME

A budgie flew in the window of the classroom and landed on Grants shoulder, turned to the class and
said: If Im blue, then the next budgie that flies in the window is blue.
Another budgie flew in the window of the classroom and landed on Rachels shoulder, turned to the
class and said: If Im blue, then the next budgie that flies in the window is blue.
Another budgie flew in the window of the classroom and landed on Matthews shoulder, turned to the
class and said: If Im blue, then the next budgie that flies in the window is blue.
And this continued.
(All these budgies have been trained to talk and they all tell the truth.)
Discussion: Are all the budgies blue ?
Demonstration: The domino effect

Examples
1.

Sum of a series (HSC 1991)

Use mathematical induction to prove that, for all positive integers n,
1 + 2 + 4 + + 2n 1 = 2n 1.

2.

Divisibility (HSC 1985)

Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove that 5n + 2(11n) is a multiple of 3 for all
positive integers n.

3.

Inequality (Franklin, Preece & Grunseit)

Prove by the Principle of Mathematical Induction that 2n > n2 for all n > 4.

4.

Formula for nCr (Standard bookwork for the

3 Unit course)
Prove by the Principle of Mathematical Induction that:
n (n 1)(n 2). . . ( n r + 1)
nC =
r
1 2 3 . .. r
for 1 <r <n (proof of binomial coefficients). It can be assumed that you have already proved
that

5.

nC
r

n1C
r1

n1C
r

for 1 < r <(n 1).

Factorisation formula
Prove by the Principle of Mathematical Induction that:
x n cn
= (x c)(x n1 + x n2c + + xcn2 + cn1)
for all positive integers n.

6.

Harder 3 Unit topics in the 4 Unit course

(4 Unit Syllabus)
(a) Prove that the angle sum of an nsided figure is equal to (2n 4) right angles.
(b) A sequence {un} is such that
un+3 = 6un+2 5un+1, and u1 = 2, u2 = 6.
Prove that un = 5n1 + 1.

Mathematical Induction

(c) Question 8 in 4 Unit HSC 1985

Show that for k 0,

(i)

2k + 3 > 2 {( k + 1)( k + 2 )}.

Hence prove that for n 1,

(ii)

1+

++

1
n

>2

[ (n + 1) 1 ].
N

(iii)

Is it a true statement that, for all positive integers N,

k =1

< 1010 ?

Give reasons for your answer.

(d) Question 8 in 4 Unit HSC 1981
Using induction, show that for each positive integer n there are unique positive integers pn
and qn, such that

( + )n
1

Show also that

7.

2
pn

2
2q n

= pn + qn.

= (1)n.

4 Unit applications
Prove De Moivres theorem
( cos

+ i sin ) = cos n + i sin n

for positive integers n, and for negative integers n.

8.

Just for fun (3 Unit HSC 1972, Question 9)

(a) Write down an expression for cos (a + b) and hence prove that cos (2q) = 1 2sin2 q.
(b) Prove the identity
cos y cos ( y + 2q )
2 sin q

= sin (y + q).

(c) Use mathematical induction and the result of part (b) to prove the identity:
sin q + sin 3q + sin 5q + + sin (2n 1)q
1 cos 2 nq
=
.
2 sin q

9.

More fun (3 Unit HSC 1984, Question 7)

It is given that A > 0, B > 0 and n is a positive integer.
(a) Divide A n+1 A nB + B n+1 B nA
by A B, and deduce that
A n+1 + B n+1 > A nB + B nA .
(b) Using (a), show by mathematical induction that
n
An + Bn
A +B

2
2
.

Mathematical Induction

Solutions
Example 1
1 + 2 + 4 + + 2n 1 = 2n 1
for all positive integers n.
()

Prove true for n = 1.

LHS = 1
RHS = 21 1 = 1 = LHS.
True for n = 1.

()

Assume true for n = k, that is,

1 + 2 + 4 + + 2k 1 = 2k 1,
then prove true for n = k + 1, that is, prove
1 + 2 + 4 + + 2k 1 + 2k = 2k + 1 1.
Proof: LHS

= 1 + 2 + 4 + + 2k 1 + 2k

= 2 k 1 + 2k
= 2.2k 1
= 2k + 1 1
= RHS.
()

If the statement is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1. Since the statement is true
for n = 1, it follows that it must also be true for n = 2; and since it is true for n = 2, it must
also be true for n = 3; and so on. Therefore the statement is true for all positive integers n.

Example 2
Prove that 5n + 2(11n) is a multiple of 3 for all positive integers n.
()

Prove true for n =1.

51 + 2(111) = 27 which is a multiple of 3,
true for n = 1.

()

Assume true for n = k, that is,

5k + 2 (11k ) = 3Q where Q J,
then prove true for n = k + 1, that is, prove
5k + 1 + 2 (11k + 1) = 3Q where Q J.
Proof: 5k + 1 + 2.11k + 1
= 5.5k + 2.11.11k
= 5.5k + 5.2.11k 5.2.11k = 2.11.11k
= 5 (5k + 2.11k ) 10.11k + 22.11k
= 5.3Q + 12.11k
= 3 (5Q + 4.11k )
= 3Q, where Q = 5Q + 4.11k .

Mathematical Induction
Now Q J, since 5, Q, 4, 11 and K J and the set of integers J is closed under addition and
multiplication.
()

Same conclusion as Example 1.

Example 3
Prove 2n > n2 for all integral n > 4.
()

Prove true for n = 5.

LHS = 2 = 32
RHS = 52 = 25
LHS > RHS.
true for n = 5.

()

Assume true for n = k, that is, 2k > k 2, then prove true for n = k + 1, that is, prove 2k + 1 > (k +
1)2.
2k

Proof:

But

> k2

2.2k

> 2k 2

2k + 1

> k 2 + k 2.

k2

> 2k + 1,

for k 3,

(can be demonstrated graphically)

()

2k + 1

> k 2 + 2k + 1, for k 3,

2k + 1

> (k + 1)2,

for k 3.

If the statement is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1.

Since the statement is true for n = 5, it follows that it must also be true for n = 6; and since it is
true for n = 6, it must also be true for n = 7; and so on.
Therefore the statement is true for all positive integral n > 4.

Example 4
Prove

nC
r

n (n 1)(n 2). . . ( n r + 1)
1 2 3 . .. r

for 1 < r < n.

We will assume that
nC
0

= 1,

nC
n

= 1,

nCr = n1 C
n1C
r1 +
r

have been proved (refer to page 84 of the syllabus).

()

Prove true for n = 2.

(1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x + x 2
= 2C0 + 2C1x + 2C2x 2
2C
0

= 1,

2C
1

= = 2,

2C
2

= 1,

the statement is true for n = 2.

Mathematical Induction

()

Assume the statement is true for n = k 1:

k1C = ( k 1) ( k 2 ). .. ( k r ) ,
r
1 2 3 . . . r
then prove true for n = k, that is, prove

2). .. ( k r + 1)
k C = k( k 1)(k
.
r
1 2 3 . .. r
Proof:
k1C
r

k1C
r1

But

( k 1) ( k 2 ). .. ( k r )
1 2 3 . . . r
( k 1) (k 2 ). .. ( k r + 1)
1 2 3 .. . (r 1)

k1C
r1

+ k1Cr = k Cr
( k 1) (k 2 ). .. ( k r + 1)
kC =
r
1 2 3 .. . (r 1)
( k 1) (k 2 ). .. (k r + 1)( k r )
+
1 2 3 .. . ( r 1) r
(
k
1)
(k
(k r )

2 ). .. (k r + 1)
kC =
1+
r

1 2 3 .. . ( r 1)
r
( k 1) (k 2 ). .. ( k r + 1) ( r + k r )

1 2 3 .. . (r 1)
k( k 1)(k 2). .. ( k r + 1)

1 2 3 . .. (r 1) r

= RHS.
(c)

If the statement is true for n = k 1, then it is also true for n = k. Since it is true for n = 2, it
must also be true for n = 3; and so on. Therefore the statement is true for positive integers n.

Special cases:
1C
0

= 1,

nCr =

1C
1

= 1, nC0 = 1,

n!
( n r ) !r !

nC
n

=1

, for 1 r n,

and all positive integers n.

Example 5
Prove that, for all positive integers n,
(x n cn) = (x c) (x n1 + x n2c + ... + xc n2 + cn1).
()

Prove true for n = 1.

LHS = x c
RHS = x c, since x c cannot be factorised.
Prove true for n = 2.
LHS = x 2 c2
RHS = (x c) (x + c)
= x 2 c2 = RHS.
True for n = 2.

()

Assume true for n = k,

Mathematical Induction

that is, (x k ck )
= (x c) (x k1 + x k2 c + ... + xc k2 + ck1),
then prove true for n = k + 1,
that is, prove (x k+1 ck+1)
= (x c) (x k + x k1 c + ... + xc k1 + ck ).
Proof:
LHS = x k + 1 ck + 1
= x k +1 x k c + x k c c k+ 1
= x k (x c) + c (x k ck )
= x k (x c) + c (x c) (x k 1 + x k 2 c +
+ xc

k2

+ ck 1 )

= (x c) (x k + x k 1 c + x

k2

c2 +

+ xc k 1 + ck )
= RHS.
()

Conclusion:
Similar to Example 1, but commencing at n = 2.

Example 6(a)
Prove that the angle sum of an nsided figure is equal to 2n 4 right angles.
(a)

Prove true for n = 3.

The angle sum of a triangle = 180 = 2 right angles.
2n 4 = 2 x 3 4 = 2,
true for n = 3.

(b)

Assume true for n = k,

that is, the angle sum of a ksided figure
= (2k 4) right angles.
Then prove true for n = k + 1, that is,
prove the angle sum of a (k + 1) sided figure

= (2k 2) right angles.

Proof:
To form a (k + 1) sided figure from a ksided figure, replace one side by another two:
Angle sum of (k + 1) sided figure = angle sum of ksided figure + angle sum of triangle
= (2k 4) right angles + 180.
Angle sum of (k + 1) - sided figure
= (2k 4 + 2) right angles
= (2k 2) right angles.

()

If the statement is true for n = k, then it is true for n = k + 1. Since it is true for n = 3, it

Mathematical Induction

follows that it must be true for n = 4; and so on.

Therefore the angle sum of an nsided figure is equal to (2n 4) right angles for all n 3.
Example 6(b)
A sequence (un) is such that un + 3 = 6un + 2 5un + 1 and u1 = 2, u2 = 6. Prove that un = 5n1 + 1.
()

Prove true for n = 1.

511 + 1 = 5 + 1
= 1 + 1 = 2.
u1 = 2, given,
true for n = 1.

Prove true for n = 2.

521 + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6.
u2 = 6, given,
true for n = 2.

Prove true for n = 3.

u3 = 531 + 1
= 52 + 1 = 26.
u3 = 6u2 5u1
=6652
= 36 10 = 26
true for n = 3.

(b)

Assume true for n = k, n = k + 1, n = k + 2,

that is, uk = 5k1 + 1, uk+1 = 5k + 1, uk+2 = 5k+1 + 1.
Then prove true for n = k + 3,
that is, prove uk+3 = 5k+2 + 1.
Proof:
uk+3 = 6uk+2 5uk+1.
= 6 (5k+1 + 1) 5(5k + 1)
=6.5

k + 1

= 6.5
=5.5
= 5
(c)

+ 6 5.5

k + 1

k + 1

k + 2

k + 1

+ 1

+ 1
+ 1 = RHS.

If the statement is true for n = k, n = k + 1, and

n = k + 2, it also true for n = k + 3. Since the statement is true for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3, it
follows that the statement is true for n = 4, and so on. Therefore the statement is true for all
positive integers n.

Example 6(c)

Mathematical Induction

(i)

2k + 3 > 2 ( k + 1) ( k + 2 ) for k 0.
(2k + 3)2 4 (k + 1) (k + 2)
= 4k 2 + 12k + 9 4k 2 12k 8
= 1,
(2k + 3)2 > 4 (k + 1) (k + 2).

(1)

For k 0, 2k + 3 > 0, and (k + 1) (k + 2) > 0.

So taking the positive square root of both sides of (1):
(2k + 3) > 2 ( k + 1) ( k + 2 ) .
(ii)

Prove, by induction, for n 1:

1+

()

++

1
n

>2

[ n + 1 1].

Prove true for n = 1.

LHS = 1
RHS =

[ 2 1 ]< 2 [1 . 42 1]
< 0.84
< 1,

true for n = 1.

()

Assume true for n = k,

1

1+

that is,

++

>2

[ k + 1 1 ],

then prove true for n = k + 1,

1

that is, prove 1 +

=
=

But 2k + 3 > 2

1
3

+ +

[ k + 2 1 ].
2 [ k + 1 1]
>
+
>

Proof: LHS

k +1
2 (k + 1) 2 k + 1 + 1
k +1
2k +3 2 k +1
k +1

( k + 1) ( k + 2 ) [part (i)]

2k +3 2 k +1
k +1

>

2 (k + 1)(k + 2) 2 k + 1

>2 k+2 2

k +1

1
k +1

Mathematical Induction

()

>

k +1

1
r

=1

[ k + 2 1]

> 2

+2 1 .

Conclusion: The same as Example 1.

N

iii)

k =1

>

k =1

Is the statement
N

< 1010 true for all positive integers N ?

].

+1 1

Is the number N such that

10
N

10

=2

+1 =

[ N + 1 1]?

10 10
2

+ 1,
2

10 10

=
+ 1 1,
2

10 10

when N =
+ 1 1
2

,
N

1
k

k =1

> 10 10
.

So the original statement is not true.

Example 6(d)

(1 + 2 )

pn , qn J, prove that
()

= pn + qn .

Prove true for n = 1.

(1 + 2 ) =
1

1+

which is in the form p1 + q1

2,

where p1 = 1, q1 = 1,
true for n = 1.

()

Assume true for n = k.

(1 + 2 )

that is,

= pk + qk 2 where pk , qk J,

then prove true for n = k + 1,

(1 + 2 )

k +1

that is, prove

where pk+1, qk +1 J.
Proof: LHS

= 1+ 2

k +1

= p k + 1 + qk + 1 2 ,

Mathematical Induction

(
= (p

) (1 + 2 )
+ q 2 )(1 + 2 )

= 1+ 2
k

= pk + q k 2 + qk 2 + 2 q k

= (p k + 2q k ) + (p k + q k ) 2
= p k +1 + q k + 1 2 ,

where pk+1 = pk + 2qk

and qk+1 = pk + qk ,
and pk+1 and qk +1 J, since J is closed under addition and multiplication.
()

Conclusion:

As in Example 1.

Example 7
Prove: De Moivres theorem for n 1:
( cos

()

+ i sin ) = cos n + i sin n .

Prove true for n = 1.

LHS = cos + i sin
RHS = cos + i sin = LHS ,
true for n = 1.

()

Assume true for n = k,

k
that is , ( cos + i sin ) = cos k + i sin k .
k +1
= cos ( k + 1) + i sin ( k + 1 ) .
then prove true for n = k + 1, that is, ( cos + i sin )

Proof : LHS

= ( cos + i sin ) k +1
= ( cos + i sin ) k ( cos + i sin )
= ( cos k + i sin k )( cos + i sin )
= cos k cos + i sin cos k
+ i cos sin k sin k sin
= cos k cos sin k sin
+ i ( sin k cos + cos k sin )
= cos ( k + ) + i sin ( k + )
= cos ( k + 1 ) + i sin ( k + 1)
= RHS .

()

Conclusion:

As in Example 1.

Prove: De Moivres theorem for n 1.

Mathematical Induction

()

Prove true for n = 1.

1
LHS = ( cos + i sin )
=
=

1
cos + i sin
cos i sin

i sin
cos i sin
cos

cos + sin
= cos ( ) + i sin ( )
2

= RHS .
()

Assume true for n = k,

k
= cos ( k ) + i sin ( k ) ,
that is , ( cos + i sin )
then prove true for n = k 1 = (k + 1),
that is , prove

(cos

+ i sin )

( k + 1)

= cos [ ( k + 1) ] + i sin [ ( k + 1) ].
Proof:
LHS = ( cos + i sin ) k 1
= ( cos + i sin ) k ( cos + i sin ) 1
= [ cos ( k ) + i sin ( k )][ cos ( ) + i sin ( ) ]
(from assumption

(from part

(a ))

= cos ( k ) cos ( ) + i sin ( k ) cos ( )

+ i cos ( k ) sin ( ) sin ( k ) sin ( )
= cos ( k ) + i sin ( k )
= cos [ ( k + 1 ) ] + i sin [ ( k + 1) ]
= RHS .
()

If the theorem is true for n = k it is also true for n = k 1. Since the theorem is true for n =
1, it follows that it must be true for n = 2, and so on. So De Moivres theorem is true for all
integers n -1.

Example 8
(a)

cos (a + b) = cos a cos b sin a sin b

cos (2q) = cos 2q sin2q
= 1 sin2q sin2q
= 1 2 sin2q.

(b)

cos y cos ( y + 2q )
2 sin q

= sin (y + q).

LHS
=
=
=
=

cos y cos ( y + 2q )
2 sin q
cos y ( cos y cos 2q sin ysin 2q )
2 sin q
cos y cos y(1 2 sin 2 q ) + sin y. 2 sin q cos q
2 sin q
cos y cos y + 2 sin 2 q cos y + 2 sin q sin y cos q
2 sin q

Mathematical Induction

= sin q cos y + sin y cos q

= sin (y + q)
= RHS
(c)

sin q + sin 3q + sin 5q + ... + sin (2n 1)q

1 cos 2 nq
=
.
2 sin q

() Prove true for n = 1.

LHS = sin q.
1 cos 2 q
RHS =
2 sin q

=
=

1 (1 2 sin 2 q)
2 sin q
1 1 + 2 sin 2 q
2 sin q

= sin q = LHS.
true for n = 1.

() Assume true for n = k, that is,

sinq + sin 3q + sin 5q + ... + sin (2k 1)q
1 cos 2 kq
=
.
2 sin q

then prove true for n = k + 1,

that is, prove:
sin q + sin 3q +... + sin(2k 1)q + sin(2k + 1)q
1 cos 2( k + 1)q
=
.
2 sin q

Proof: LHS =
=

1 cos 2 kq
2 sin q
1 cos 2 kq

+ sin(2k + 1)q
+ sin (2kq + q)

2 sin q
1 cos 2 kq cos 2kq cos ( 2 kq + 2q )
2 sin q

2 sin q

from part (ii)

=

1 cos 2( k + 1)q
2 sin q

= RHS.
()

Conclusion: As in Example 1.

Example 9
(a)

A > 0, B > 0, n 1
An +1 A n B + B n +1 B n A
A B

Mathematical Induction

An ( A B) + B n (B A)
A B

= A n B n.
If A > B, then A n B n > 0,
An +1 A n b + Bn +1 Bn A
> 0,

A B
A n+1 A n B + B n+1 B n A > 0, since A B > 0,
A n+1 + B n+1 > A n B + B n A .

If B > A then A n B n < 0 and A B < 0,

n+
n
n+
n
A 1 A B+B 1 B A

< 0,
A B
A n+1 A n B + B n+1 B n A > 0, since A B < 0,
A n+1 + B n+1 > A n B + B n A .

(b)

Prove by mathematical induction that

n
n
n
A +B
A +B

.
2
2
() Prove true for n = 1.
A +B
LHS =

= RHS,

true for n = 1.

Prove true for n = 2.

LHS

2
A 2 + 2 AB + B 2
A +B
=
=
4
2

A +B
2

4
A2 + B 2
4

AB + BA

4
A2 + B2

from (a),

2
2
2( A + B )
A + B

<
2
4
2

2
2
A +B
A+ B
<

,
2
2

true for n = 2.

()

Assume true for n = k,

k
k
k
A + B
A +B

<
that is,
,,
2
2
then prove true for n = k + 1,

Mathematical Induction
k+
1
1
Ak + + Bk +
A + B
<
..
2
2
1

that is,

Proof

k
Ak + B k
A + B
<
2
2
k
A + B A + B A k + Bk A + B
<
2
2 2
2

A + B
2

k +1

<

But A B + B A < A
k

k +1

+ A k B + B k A + B k +1
4

k +1

+B

k +1

, from (a),

k +1
k +1
+ A k +1 + B k +1 + B k + 1
A + B
A

<
2
4
k +1
k +1
+ Bk + 1
A + B
A

<
2
2

()

Conclusion:
As in Example 1, but starting n = 2.
Special case n = 1.