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Statistical Inference
A. Nature of Sampling
A sample is some part of a larger body specially selected to represent the
whole. Sampling is the process by which this part is chosen. Sampling then is
taking any portion of a population or universe as representative of that
population or universe.For a sample to be useful, it should reflect the
similarities and differences found in the total group.The main objective of
drawing a sample is to make inferences about the larger population from the
smaller sample.
B. Sampling Concepts
Population/Target population: This is any complete, or the theoretically
specified aggregation of study elements. It is usually the ideal population or
universe to which research results are to be generalized. For example, all
adult population of the U.S.
Survey population: This is an operational definition of the target population;
that is target population with explicit exclusions-for example the population
accessible, excluding those outside the country.
Element (similar to unit of analysis): This is that unit about which information
is collected and that provides the basis of analysis. In survey research,
elements are people or certain types of people.
Sampling unit: This is that element or set of elements considered for
selection in some stage of sampling (same as the elements, in a simple
single-stage sample). In a multi-stage sample, the sampling unit could be
blocks, households, and individuals within the households.
Sampling frame: This is the actual list of sampling units from which the
sample, or some stage of the sample, is selected. It is simply a list of the
study population.
Sample design: This refers to a set of rules or procedures that specify how a
sample is to be selected. This can either be probability or non-probability.
Sample size: The number of elements in the obtained sample.
Sampling error: This is the degree of error to be expected for a given sample
design or the difference between the sample mean and the population mean.
Sampling bias: This refers to the notion that those selected are not "typical"

or "representative" of the larger populations that have been chosen from.

Margin of error refers to the precision needed by the researcher. A margin of
error of 5 percent means that the actual findings could vary by as much as 5
points either positively or negatively.
Confidence level (or level of confidence) is a statement of how often you
could expect to find similar results if the survey were to be repeated, or the
degree of certainty of obtaining the same results. It often informs about how
often the findings will fall outside the margin of error.
Confidence interval is a range in which we are fairly certain that the
population value lies.
Parameter-the summary description of a given variable in a population.
Statistic-the summary description of a given variable in a sample.
Statistical inference:The process of reasoning by which information about a
population is extracted from sample data.
D. Types of sampling-Probability and Nonprobability
i. Probability sampling is one in which each person in the population has the
same probability/chance of being selected. In addition, the selection of
persons from the population is based on some form of random procedure.
Samples that have this quality are often labeled as EPSEM (Equal probability
of Selection Method).
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Types of probability sampling are:

i. Simple Random Sampling- is a sampling scheme with the probability that
any of the possible subsets of the sample is equally likely to be the chosen
sample. A way of selecting the sample is by means of a table of random
numbers. Once a sampling frame is available, each person in the population
is assigned a number. SRS can be with or without replacement.
ii. Systematic sampling (interval random sampling) is an EPSEM strategy
which gives each element in the population the same chance of being
selected for the sample. We would proceed down the sampling frame
selecting for the sample every Kth person, starting with a person randomly
selected from among the first K persons and choosing systematically form
inclusion in the sample.
Two terms are often used in connection with systematic sampling are
sampling interval (the standard distance between elements selected in the

sample) and sampling ratio (the proportion of elements in the population that
are selected ).
iii Stratified sampling is where we begin by grouping elements that share
certain characteristics, or dividing the population into several large groups, or
clusters. Its purpose is to classify populations into subpopulations or strata
based on some supplementary information and then a selection of separate
samples from each of the strata.
The two types of stratified sampling are proportionate stratified (is where the
strata sample size are made proportional to the strata population size) and
disproportionate stratified (where a varying sampling is used).
iv. Cluster (Area) sampling-may be one-stage, two-stage or multi-stage
cluster/area sampling (eg.-studying blacks' attitudes toward transracial
adoption). It is where all the elements in selected clusters are included in the
sample. Usually the sampling unit contains more than one population
element, eg., sampling households as sampling units only a sample of
elements is taken from each selected cluster, this is called two-stage
sampling. The whole technique is referred to as multi-stage sampling.

Types of Nonprobability Sampling are:

i. Availability/Accidental sampling is where the first available appropriate
sample are used.
ii. Quota sampling begins with a matrix describing the characteristics of the
target population. The goal is to select people to reflect characteristics found
in the population.
iii. Purposive/Judgmental sampling is where the sample is selected on the
basis of knowledge of the research problem to allow selection of "typical"
persons for inclusion in the sample.
iv. Snowball sampling is appropriate when the members of a special
population are difficult to locate.
v. Dimensional sampling is a sampling technique for selecting small samples
in a way that enhances their representativeness. There are two steps to
dimensional sampling. First, specify all the dimensions or variables that are
important, and second, choose a sample that includes at least one case
representing each possible combination of dimensions.
F. Advantages of Sampling
i. Sampling saves time and money

ii. Sampling saves labor.

iii. A sample coverage permits a higher overall level of adequacy than a full
enumeration.
iv. Complete census is often unnecessary, wasteful, and the burden on the
public.