A Problem-Based Learning,

STEM Experience
by Amy Abbott

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CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

ake a look at the tag in the back of your tshirt. Where was your shirt made? I posed
this question to a class of 30 sixth-grade science students and listened to the many names of foreign countries called out: Indonesia, China, Bangladesh. Only twice did I hear Made in the U.S.A.
My students appeared surprised and inquisitive. Why
are so many items of clothing made in such faraway
places? They noticed the trend, and it piqued their curiosity; the hook was a success! (Note: You may choose
to bring in t-shirts to ensure that many countries are
represented.)
In this problem-based learning (PBL), STEM activity, students use their content knowledge and engineering designprocess (EDP) skills to engage in inquiry.
PBL affords students the opportunity to grapple with
problems and resolve them. Incorporating real-world
problems into science learning enables the teacher to
guide, probe, and challenge student thinking. Students
become self-directed owners of the problem as their inquiry drives their exploration, enabling them to make
meaningful connections between the disciplines and
career fields (Barell 2007).

The PBL experience

Teaching students to embrace problems as opportunities through an inquiry-based approach is a great instructional investment, especially when the scientific
problems you bring into the classroom mimic those
found in society. The PBL experience begins with the
teacher introducing a real-world problem that serves
as the foundation for the activity. The problem must
be not only scientific and purposeful but also include
missing pieces of understanding that students can uncover through self-discovery and research. A suggested timeline for a six-day PBL unit is shown in Figure
1. (Note: To further familiarize yourself with PBL, visit
the Resources list at the end of the article.)

FIGURE 1
Day 1

The following PBL activity could be situated in a unit

that features pollution, environmental impacts of human and natural disasters, ecosystems, or conservation. Students should have prior content knowledge of
pollution and natural resources, in addition to experiences with generating inquiry, note-taking, conducting
research, and working collaboratively in groups.
After looking at the t-shirts, the activity begins with
presenting the real-world scenario that establishes the
need for an investigation. Introduce students to the
situation shown in Figure 2. Give each student a copy
of the situation and read through it as a class.

Suggested PBL timeline

Days 2 and 3

Step 1: The PBL scenario Step 4: Researching the

problem
Step 2: Introducing
students to the tasks
Step 3: The learning board
* This timeline assumes 60-minute periods for each day.

34

Step 1: The PBL scenario

Days 4 and 5

Day 6

Step 5: EDP

Step 6: Student reflections;

celebrate successes

CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

Connecting to the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States 2013)
The chart below makes one set of connections between the instruction outlined in this article and theNGSS.
Other valid connections are likely; however, space restrictions prevent us from listing all possibilities.
The materials, lessons, and activities outlined in the article are just one step toward reaching the performance
expectations listed below.
Standards
MS-ESS3: Earth and Human Activity
www.nextgenscience.org/msess3-earth-human-activity
MS-ETS1: Engineering Design
www.nextgenscience.org/msets1-engineering-design
Performance Expectation
MS-ESS3-3. Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the
environment.
Dimension

Name or NGSS code/citation

Matching student task or question

taken directly from the activity

Science and
Engineering
Practice

Asking Questions and Defining Problems

Students consider the many possibilites

of what they must uncover to further
investigate the problem.
Students submit a written portfolio to
the United Nations to offer alternative,
greener methods that factories might use
to protect the environment.

Disciplinary
Core Idea

ESS3.C Human Impacts on Earth Systems

Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions

ETS1.B: Developing Possible Solutions

A solution needs to be tested, then modified on the
basis of the test results, in order to improve it.
Models of all kinds are important for testing
solutions.

Crosscutting
Concept

Connections to Engineering, Technology, and

Applications of Science

How can you apply scientific principles to

design a filter prototype as a solution to
protecting Earths natural resources (e.g.,
local waters)?
Brainstorm possible solutions for testing.
How can you then modify your prototype
based on the results to improve it?
How can the findings of scientific research
and construction of innovative technologies
address societal and environmental needs
(i.e., protect natural resources over time)?

Connections to the Common Core State Standards (NGAC and CCSSO 2010)
Text Types and Purposes:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6.2
Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic
and convey ideas, concepts, and information through
the selection, organization, and analysis of relevant
content.
Production and Distribution of Writing:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6.4
Produce clear and coherent writing in which the

development, organization, and style are appropriate to

task, purpose, and audience.
Range of Writing:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6.10
Write routinely over extended time frames (time for
reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a
single sitting or a day or two) for a range of disciplinespecific tasks, purposes, and audiences.

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CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

Step 2: Introducing students to the tasks

As you introduce students to their tasks (Figure 2), ask
them to view phenomena through the eyes of a scien-

FIGURE 2

Activity introduction and

instructions issued to students

Introduction
Chemicals are everywhere, and we are constantly
exposed to them. Some keep us healthy and some
are harmful, but all leave a chemical fingerprint.
Today, most clothing, including the shirt you are
wearing right now, is produced in a foreign country
where working standards may not be closely
regulated for environmental controls for waste
products. A recent report highlighted the common
practice in some foreign nations of disposing excess
dyes directly into their waters. It has been reported
that rivers turn the color of the dye being used that
day as waste products containing heavy metals and
salts are dumped. While some agencies claim no
harm has or will come from dye dumping, others
protest that these released chemicals negatively
impact water quality and environmental health.

Student tasks
The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
has become aware of the toxic dumping of chemicalwaste dyes, and they have hired you to investigate
the extent of the problem. You will need to first
research the problem and determine the human and
environmental impacts of the dumping. Next, you will
submit a written portfolio with your research findings
to the United Nations. As part of your solution to the
problem, you will need to offer alternative, greener
methods that factories might use to protect the
environment.

EDP
Calling all engineers! In an effort to reduce the
harmful effects of dye dumping, you and your
engineering team will design and build a prototype
filtering system that will remove the dyes used in the
manufacturing process. This filter will be positioned
at the clothing factorys drainage pipes, or the pointsource from which the waste water (i.e., pollutants)
is released into the nearest water site. A successful
filter will have been vetted through the EDP so that it
reduces the amount of chemical dyes released into
the local waters.

36

tist or engineer. In doing so, you will elevate their level

of thinking and the quality of their investigation, which
encourages them to view their work as purposeful.
(Note: You may opt to end this project with the student
tasks if there isnt time or materials to complete the
engineering piece.)

Step 3: The Learning Board

The next step of PBL is to introduce your students to
the Learning Board by providing individual boards to
the students (see Figure 3). When I introduced my
students to the Learning Boards, they demonstrated
great curiosity and began to buzz with conversation
and questions. I had anticipated their excitement due
to the open-ended nature of the problem. As a class,
students became engaged as we filled in the columns
of the Learning Board with their ideas, presenting one
at a time. This is a critical stage for establishing a firm
understanding of the problem in need of solutions.
The goal is to activate student understanding of the
situation. On large chart paper at the front of the room,
record What Do We Know About the Problem ideas
from students, in their exact words. Ask students to
return to the problem stated in the task and tap into
their prior knowledge. Students prior knowledge will
vary, so ensure they are revisiting the problem and at
least pulling out specific details from the scenario you
have presented to them. (Note: Ensure students are filling in their individual boards with the ideas written on
the main Learning Board at the front of the room. Your
role is to facilitate the conversation, while the ideas
should come directly from students.)
Still working as a class, lead students through
What Do We Know About the Problem? Ask them
to consider the many possibilities of what they must
uncover as they further investigate the problem. The
many gaps in the problem enable students to generate
further inquiry by thinking about what they must find
to determine possible solutions.
Finally, ask students to consider How will we find
our answers? to find answers and solutions. Responses should range from research sources, such as newspaper and journal articles and authentic websites, to filter materials, such as two-liter bottles, sand, and plastic
piping. Emphasize the importance of first researching
the problem to fill gaps in understanding before jumping into engineering solutions to solve the problem.
At this point in the activity, students should not yet
establish a plan of action. They will revisit this part of
the Learning Board after they begin their investigations and have ideas for possible solutions. (Note: To
assist students with generating ideas for the Learning

CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

FIGURE 3

Sample Learning Board

What do we know about

the problem?

What do we need to find

out?

How will we find our

answers?

Wastes are being dumped

into local waters in foreign
countries.

Harmful chemicals: How

much is too much?

newspaper articles
(international)

What regulations, if any,

are in place?

scientific journal
articles

Which countries and

companies are dye
dumping?

databases (e.g.,
Wordbook)

What green alternatives

exist?

environmental reports

Most clothing is
manufactured in secondand third-world countries.
Environmental controls
are limited and working
standards are not
continuously regulated in
these countries.

What are the short- and

long-term environmental
Companies deny they are and human health impacts
the cause or that there is a of dye dumping?
problem.
What organisms are
There are human and
impacted most? How does
environmental impacts
this affect the food chain?
from the heavy metals and
How educated is
salts.
the public about this
The United Nations
problem?
is seeking help from
chemists and engineers to What are the heavy
metals and salts? What
investigate.
chemical reactions take
Greener alternatives
place after dumping?
and a prototype filter
are needed.

Board, consider individual homework assignments or

small-group reading assignments in class that align
with topics embedded in the problem.)

Step 4: Researching the problem

Researching the problem could take place in the classroom or in the school library; students need access to
computers, the internet, and reading materials. Prior
to beginning the activity, plan well in advance with a
library media specialist to gather research materials
for students to access. Consider gathering articles
from scientific journals, library texts, current articles
from international media, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations, and media clips for students
to view. A guest speaker from a local organization is
also a nice surprise for students, if possible. Topics for

library texts
media streaming clips
websites (e.g., EPA)
experts in the field

What is our action plan?

We will use our
environmental and Earth
science knowledge in such
a way that will allow us to:
1. report the effects of dye
dumping to the United
Nations in the format of
a portfolio.
2. offer greener
alternatives, based on
research, to the textile
companies.
3. create a filter prototype
that would be inserted
at the point-source
of the waste waters.
(Note; We will only be
working to remove a
dye substitute that does
not contain any heavy
metals or salts.)

resources might include environmental pollution, environmental health, chemical spills, point-source and
nonpoint-source pollution, and historical information
about textiles.
To begin researching, place students in collaborative groups of four for an activity called Research Expert Jigsaw. This structured activity will help them
further uncover content knowledge and delve deeper
into the problem. (Note: The Research Expert Jigsaw
process can be differentiated for students by their level
of readiness. Students can be grouped based on their
reading level or the difficulty of the topic you assign
them to research. Know which students will require
more or less support in this process.) You have choices
as to how students will record their research: in science notebooks, on lined paper or graphic organizer,
or via electronic note-taking.

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CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

Students start in their home groups of four, to

which each student is assigned a different journal article or media resource from which to obtain useful
qualitative and quantitative data. Take a moment for
each student to announce his or her topic to the group.
Next, upon teacher direction, individuals who have
been assigned the same resource are broken into expert groups. Once moved into expert groups, students
collaborate with reading, gathering pertinent information, and sharing ideas with one another. During these
moments, it is critical to monitor students note taking
to ensure information is accurate and sufficient. Finally, transition students back into their original home
groups with their research findings. Direct students
on how to take turns teaching the information (i.e., research) to their peers. While one student is teaching,
all others should be taking notes. (Note: Attempt to culminate the research experience by bringing the class
together for an overall consensus regarding what was
found in the resources. You can also revisit the Learning Board and continue to fill in What We Know.)
Before transitioning from PBL to EDP, allow students to demonstrate their understanding of their research by asking them the following questions:
What big ideas related to the issue were you able
to uncover?
What major findings that can help address the
problem stood out from your research?
What new scientific understandings have you
acquired?
What proposed solutions do you have to offer?
How has this experience helped you better
understand scientific concepts?

sider asking students, What do you know about the

engineering design process? or How might an engineer or scientist test a product? as a formative assessment, prior to giving them the chart.) When scientists
and engineers use it in the field, it may take several
trials before a prototype is considered ready for production. Therefore, you should explain how the EDP
may test students patience, especially because they
may experience multiple trials and errors.

Designing the blueprint

In this design challenge, the six phases featured in the
EDP diagram (Figure 4) will strategically lead students
through the process of designing a (prototype) filter
for the dyes. Although Phase 1: State the Problem has
already been introduced, you may choose to revisit this
as a class. Phase 2: Generate Ideas becomes the brainstorming phase, to which students will work collaboratively in small groups of four to generate possibilities
for a solution. (Note: These could be the same groups
students were in before or different ones.) Provide
each student with a plain sheet of white paper to draw
and label a prototype design. In order to label the blueprint accurately, some background content knowledge
from science and math is required, such as knowing
the properties of various materials and metric measurements. As the facilitator, walk around the room
and monitor students, provide guidance, and probe
with questions as needed. For example, ask students,
Why do you think your filter will work? Flexibility in

FIGURE 4

The Engineering Design

Process (EDP)

How has this experience made you more globally

aware as a scientist?
After answering these questions, the class should revisit the Learning Board and generate a plan of action
for the EDP. (Note: This step can be completed as a class
or in research groups.) Students should start with the
words We will and continue with in such a way
that , finishing with the final actions students are to
complete. Be sure to glance over students statements to
ensure they are on the right track to completion.

Students will now return to the initial problem presented in Figure 2. To prepare for the EDP, share a visual
representation of the diagram (Figure 4) with students
and discuss how it is an iterative process. (Note: Con-

38

NASA

Step 5: Engaging students in EDP

CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

timing is key during this phase, because groups naturally develop ideas at different rates. Request that students generate at least four ideas to share before they
enter the next phase.

How to plan for innovation

Engineers strive for innovation, creativity, and novelty
to solve problems in the field. It is during Phase 3: Select a Solution where students will bring their ideas
together to share, compare, and select the most promising solution from their group. I begin this phase by
modeling the SCAMPER method (substitute, combine,
adapt, modify, put to other uses, eliminate, rearrange),
which is an idea-generating strategy that is useful for
generating creative ideas for innovation (Treffinger,
Isaksen, and Stead-Doval 2006) (Figure 5). For simplicity purposes I begin by drawing a roller skate on
the board, but potentially you could begin with any
common item students are familiar with (e.g., broom
or a chair.) Using students ideas, we use SCAMPER to
turn something ordinary into the extraordinary. (Note:
This modeling should take about 10 to 15 minutes.)
For example, I ask the class, What could we substitute for wheels? How might we modify the laces?
and How might you combine the idea of a roller skate
with something else to make it multifunctional? As
students share ideas, I modify the picture at the front
of the room. This strategy prepares students to share
their understandings of efficiency and innovation in a
collaborative manner to generate the best blueprint design for their prototype.
Next, in Phase 4: Build the Item, student groups
are ready to transform the ideas for the filter from a

FIGURE 5

The SCAMPER method

(Treffinger et al. 2006)

S Substitute: What might you use instead?

C Combine: What things might be combined to form

detailed, two-dimensional blueprint into a three-dimensional, final productthe prototype. At this stage
of development, consider reminding students that the
blueprint is not necessarily in its final form; it may be
modified at a future point depending on the prototypes
redesign and retesting needs. You can revisit previous
conversations about the EDPs iterative and fluid nature.

Constructing the prototype

The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (NGSS
Lead States 2013) encourage middle school students
to use systematic methods to compare solutions and
see which ones best meet criteria and constraints. The
standards also ask students to test and revise solutions
numerous times to arrive at an optimal design. Phases
46 of the EDP diagram align with these standards, as
they have students focus on the construction of a prototype, evaluating success through testing. The results
may require students to revisit previous phases and reevaluate.
Prior to the first day of construction, ask students
to bring in various materials from home that the group
will need; however, additional items may be pooled
for the whole class to use (Figure 6). During a prior
class period, I placed a Supply Wish List in the room
for students to record so the class could plan accordingly. Begin collecting materials weeks before beginning the project. I found it helpful to send out a memo
to families expressing the need for materials. Teachers
should specifically request clean or slightly used materials. Try to separate materials into clearly labeled
bins. (Note: If there are not enough materials brought
from home, consider reaching out to school and community members for support.)
During the construction phase (Figure 7), I stopped
by each group and informally assessed students abili-

FIGURE 6

new ideas?

A Adapt: What might be changed or used in a

different way?

M Magnify or minify: What might be made larger or

smaller?

P Put to other uses: How might something be used

or applied in a new way?

E Eliminate: What could be deleted or trimmed?

R Reverse or rearrange: What if the parts could be
restructured in a different way?

Sample supply list for prototype

construction

clean two-liter
bottles

newspaper

sanitized sand

plastic tubing

coffee filters

charcoal pieces of
various sizes

sanitized gravel

duct tape

unused plastic
sponge pieces
cotton balls

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CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

ties to effectively communicate and collaborate during

the production process. I used a clipboard and note
sheets to take anecdotal notes along the way, which I
later used to provide feedback to my students. Additionally, I monitored basic safety standards throughout
the prototype construction and testing processes. Students were required to use indirectly vented chemical
splash goggles during construction, testing, and disassembly of filters; wear appropriate dress for laboratory
work (such as an older set of clothes); and immediately

PHOTOS COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR

FIGURE 7

40

Students construct their filters

report all accidents and spills, no matter how trivial

they may seem at the time. To prevent accidents, I also
cut all materials for students.

Trial and error

After completing the previous phases, students are
now prepared to carry out Phase 5: Evaluate, and
Phase 6: Present Results to test and evaluate, and review and redesign, respectively. Students will use their
prior and present knowledge of properties regarding
their choice of construction materials. Sample questions to ask students might be, Why did you choose to
use these materials? and Can you explain how your
prototype is expected to work? Additional questions
may come from students during construction, particularly while designing, as they engage in trial and error.
For example, the students may want to know, How
many trials are permitted? Purposeful and strategic
planning time is required as students decide on what
steps to take and how to implement their plans in a
collaborative manner.
Testing should take place during a single class period in a location with several sinks for water access
(Figure 8). The work can be messy, so large plastic
bins to catch filtered water will be needed. To simulate
the waste water, I chose to add drops of food coloring
to one quart of water. (Note: You will need to decide
how dark or light to make the water.)
Tell students that any successful removal of dye
should be celebrated. Although crystal-clear water
would be ideal, this may be the first time students
are working with the EDP. Therefore, students work
should be assessed formatively, with emphasis on
content knowledge, process skills, and final product
(a rubric is available with this articles online supplements at www.nsta.org/middleschool/connections.aspx).
To dispose of filter materials, first consider what can
be reused and recycled. Large garbage bins may be
needed for the remaining materials.
Be aware that students work at different rates and
on varying levels. In recognition of the spectrum of
abilities and needs in a class, it may be appropriate to
provide scaffolding questions to guide students thinking during sticky moments. You can ask students:
How close did you get to your original plan? What
happened exactly?
Do you see a way to improve your design?
What new construction methods might lead to an
improved version?
Which measurements might need to be revisited?

CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

FIGURE 8

Students test their filters

Planning
How will we organize our time, access
resources, and find our answers?
How will we define the problem and
generate the best solution(s)?
What constraints might we encounter
that could limit possible solutions?
Monitoring
How well is the construction process
going according to our plan?
If our ideas arent working, how might
we combine different solutions to
create new solutions?
What new questions are we asking as
a result of surprises along the way?
Evaluating
How has this experience helped
us become more globally aware
as researchers, scientists, and
engineers?
Where and how can we apply the new
ideas weve learned?

PHOTOS COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR

What worked well while constructing

our prototype? How did we handle any
obstacles or constraints?

Step 6: An interdisciplinary approach with

writing
Consider incorporating literacy skills by having students engage in scientific journaling and portfolio writing. Moments of personal journaling can occur periodically throughout the PBL and EDP processes.
Throughout the journaling process, sets of reflection questions to guide student thinking are most beneficial (Barell 2007):

To culminate the experience, students

should return to their small groups to
submit a final, written portfolio addressed
to the United Nations. The portfolio
should address the call for researched solutions to the problem with suggestions
for greener alternatives to address environmental concerns. Consider including
the following prompts for students:
In what ways was science content
knowledge applied to your work? (Note: This
question should be tailored toward your
standards/objectives.)
Why does this type of scientific and engineering
investigation matter?
How is this work beneficial to solving real-world
problems?
Teachers can also ask students to display and share
their work (i.e., prototypes and portfolios). A Gallery

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CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

Walk would enable students to view one anothers

work and provide peer feedback.
I use a rubric to assess students levels of scientific
understanding and their progress throughout PBL
and the EDP (see a sample rubric with this articles
online supplements). Focus on the environmental and
Earth science objectives that align with your curricular
unit during assessment. Any rubric you use should be
given to students prior to beginning the task so they
understand your expectations (Marzano 2007). The
processes of conducting research and engaging in the
EDP should remain formative in nature, so effective
feedback for future experiences would be most beneficial for students.
Through their research, students learn about the
harmful effects that synthetic dyes can have on humans, wildlife, and the environment, especially when
these hazardous chemicals are found in high concentrations. Native Americans and Europeans from previous centuries used natural methods to dye cloth from
crushed flowers, fruits, and rooted vegetables, which
can provide a greener solution to a modern problem.
To culminate the experience, consider holding a
class discussion about why companies might consider
dye dumping at all. Ask students:

What if I cant get my filter to work and I fail? I reassured her by saying, This is all about the journey, not
the destination. Besides, the only way you could fail is
by not trying in the first place.
When its all said and done, this experience is about
providing your students practice with authentic scientific work. Make sure to bring your class together and
discuss your successes. Ask questions such as, How
did maintaining an open mindset help you along the
way? and What did you gain from the experience, and
how might this better prepare you for the future?

What do you suspect are their motives?

Barell, J. 2007. Problem-based learning: An inquiry

approach. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Marzano, R.J. 2007. The art of science and teaching.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2015. My
NASA data: Engineering design. http://mynasadata.larc.
nasa.gov/engineering-design.
NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science
Standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org/
next-generation-science-standards.
Treffinger, D., S. Isaksen, and B. Stead-Doval. 2005.
Creative problem solving: An introduction. 4th ed. Waco,
TX: Prufrock Press.

Why do you suppose companies might not be

using greener methods to begin with?
Why might companies resist using greener
alternatives suggested to them?

Celebrate your successes

If this is your first time implementing PBL or the EDP
in your classroom, dont be afraid to take risks, both
with yourself and with your students. Remember to discuss with students the fact that these experiences may
look, sound, and feel unfamiliar. Know your students
readiness, prior experiences, and even reservations
before starting PBL or the EDP.
Be prepared to accept the fact that good scientific
investigation can be messy. Some of my students were
not fully comfortable with the open-endedness and ambiguity of our PBL/EDP experience. For example, one
student expressed her anxiety when she asked me,
Amy Abbott ([email protected]) is
a gifted resource teacher in Virginia Beach,
Virginia. She is also a doctoral candidate in
the Curriculum and Instruction program at Old
Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia.

42

Preparing for the future: 21st-century skills

What our global society will look like in 20 years remains a mystery; however, it is incumbent upon us
as educators to equip all students with the skill sets
necessary for career readiness and college preparedness in the 21st century. Not since the Space Race has
there been such a concerted effort to expand STEM
horizons in K12 education in the United States. Our
country will continue to rely on a diverse, literate pool
of individuals to meet the known challenges upon us,
as well as those to come.

References

Resources
Duch, B.J., S.E. Groh, and D.E. Allen. 2001. The power of
problem-based learning. Steerling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Stepien, W., and S. Gallagher. 1993. Problem-based
learning: As authentic as it gets. Educational Leadership
50 (7): 2528. www.wou.edu/~girodm/670/PBL_Art3.
pdf.
Torp, L., and S. Sage. 1998. Problems as possibilities.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

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permission.