CLINICAL

PHARMACOLOGY
Dr. P. Oh
Aman Hussain, chapter editor
Leora Horn, associate editor

GENERAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS (ADRs) ...... 9

Drug Nomenclature Type A
Phases of Clinical Testing Type B
Drug Administration and Site of Action Approach to Suspected ADR
Pharmacokinetic Calculation
PHARMACOKINETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Absorption AUTONOMIC PHARMACOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Bioavailability Physiology
First Pass Effect
DRUGS THAT REQUIRE
DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 THERAPEUTIC MONITORING (TDM) . . . . . . .13
Volume of Distribution (Vd) ANTIBIOTICS
Protein Binding Aminoglycosides
Depots Vancomycin
Barriers
ANTICONVULSANTS
METABOLISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Phenytoin
Elimination Carbamazepine
Drug Interactions
PSYCHIATRIC MEDICATION
PHARMACOKINETICS CALCULATIONS . . . . . 6 Lithium
Half-life (t1/2)
Steady State CARDIAC MEDICATION
Elimination Kinetics Digoxin

PHARMACODYNAMICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Agonist
Antagonists
Dose-Response Relationships
Effectiveness and Safety
Therapeutic Index (TI)
Variability in Drug Actions

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Clinical Pharmacology 1

 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
DRUG NOMENCLATURE
chemical name: describes the chemical structure, the same in all countries
drug company code: a number, usually for drugs that are not sold
non-proprietary name: shortenend form of chemical name, listed in pharmacopea
proprietary name: the brand name or registered trademark
street name: drugs of abuse
PHASES OF CLINICAL TESTING
phase I: healthy humans in hospitals, kinetics and dynamics are known
phase II: unhealthy humans: small studies, not blinded
phase III: double blind, hundreds of people, comparing new drug to standard of care
phase IV: wide distribution, patients closely monitored
DRUG ADMINISTRATION AND SITE OF ACTION
different routes of administration are chosen depending on
• desired onset of action
• systemic or local effects
• patient characteristics
• properties of the drug
Table 1. Routes of Drug Administration
Route Advantage Disadvantage
Oral (PO) Convenient Drug metabolism
Large surface area for absorption Incomplete absorption
First pass effect
Gastrointestinal (GI) upset
Intravenous (IV) Direct Requires IV access
No first pass effect Hard to remove
Slow infusions or rapid onset of action Vascular injury, exctra-vasation
Easier to titrate dose
Intra-arterial To specific organs, e.g. brain, heart
Intramuscular (IM) Good for depot storage (if oil based) Pain at site of injection
Rapid onset of action
Subcutaneous (SC) Non irritating small volumes Pain at site of injection
Even slow absorption
Adrenaline in local anesthetics
Topical Convenient Effects are limited to area of application
Localized
Limited systemic absorption
Inhalation Immediate action in lungs Must be in gas, vapor or aerosol form
Rapid delivery to blood
Local or systemic action
Buccal Rapid onset of action Must be lipid soluble
No first pass effect
Transdermal Direct application Irritation at site of application
Rapid onset of action Delayed onset of action
Others: Intrathecal,
Intraperitoneal, Rectal

CP2 – Clinical Pharmacology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

 PHARMACOKINETICS (ADME)
“ADME”: absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion
definition: the manner in which the body handles a drug
examines the rate at which drug concentrations change in the body by observing
• input processes
• absorption : movement of drug into the body from the site of administration
• output processes: responsible for drug delivery and removal from the body
• distribution : movement of drug from intravascular to extravascular compartment
• metabolism : chemical transformation of drug
• elimination : removal of drug from the body

ABSORPTION
PRINCIPLE: The amount of drug that reaches the systemic circulation (bioavailability) is highly
dependent on absorption. Properties of the drug, route of administration and patient factors
should be considered to ensure clinical effectiveness.
most drugs are absorbed into the systemic circulation via passive diffusion
other mechanisms of absorption include: active transport, facilitated diffusion, pinocytosis/phagocytosis
absorption rate and amount depends on
• local blood flow at admininstration site
(eg. sublingual vessels provide significant blood flow therefore rapid absorption)
• lipid solubility: greater lipid solubility = increased rate of diffusion through membranes
• e.g. anesthetics are very lipid soluble therefore have a rapid onset of action
• molecular size: small size, water soluble drugs can pass through channels in membranes,
large molecules cannot
• e.g. aminoglycosides are large molecules and are not absorbed
through intestinal mucosa and are therefore not orally active
• local pH and drug ionization: charged molecules do not cross membranes
• e.g. lactulose ionizes ammonia to ammonium and keeps it in the bowel
• total surface area for absorption: the small intestine has villi which
increase the surface area for absorption, and hence is the primary
site of absorption for most oral drugs
Bioavailability
the percentage of dose given that reaches the systemic circulation in unchanged form
the administered dose does not equal active dose
drugs with a low bioavailability may be ineffective orally
• e.g. pencillin G is destroyed by gastric enzymes and needs to be administered IV
fate of oral drug: GI Tract ––> portal vein ––> liver (metabolism) ––> systemic circulation
First Pass Effect
metabolism of orally administered drug in the liver before it reaches the systemic circulation
significant first pass metabolism limits a drug’s bioavailability
drugs with a high first-pass effect include: chlorpromazine, levodopa, morphine, propranolol,
lidocaine, hydralazine, nortriptyline, and organic nitrates
drugs with low hepatic extraction (little or no first pass effect) include:
diazepam, digoxin, phenylbutazone, phenytoin, theophylline, tolbutamide, warfarin

PRINCIPLE: Some drugs have uncommon distribution parameter (e.g. Vd, protein binding,
storage in fat depots) and have to be dosed carefully to avoid toxicity while ensuring
therapeutic efficacy.

definition: process by which drugs are carried throughout the body to reach target sites of action
Volume of Distribution (Vd)
actual volume of distribution (Vd): the anatomic volume that is accessible to drug,
e.g. total body water of 40 L
apparent volume of distribution (Vd) is a calculated value that does not correspond to an anatomical space,
a drug with a large Vd (larger than 40 L) must distribute in other tissues besides body water
• e.g. Amiodarone; Vd=400L in a 70kg person

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Clinical Pharmacology – CP3

 PHARMACOKINETICS (ADME). . . CONT.
Protein Binding
drug molecules in the blood are in two forms:
• bound to plasma proteins, mainly albumin
• free
principles of protein binding
• only free drug can distribute into tissues and exert its action, and is subject to
metabolism and elimination
• affinity of a protein binding site for a drug determines bound/unbound concentrations,
and reversibility of interaction
• saturation of binding sites may result in a large increase in unbound drug concentration,
which could cause toxicity
• if albumin concentration is decreased (liver failure or nephrotic syndrome),
dose of highly bound drug must be lowered to avoid toxicity
• competition for binding sites between drugs and endogenous substrates
can result in interactions and toxicity
• significant drug interactions can occur due to competitive protein binding
• e.g. ASA displaces several drugs which are highly bound to
plasma proteins such as phenytoin, increasing risk of toxicity
• in general, only drugs that are highly protein bound, e.g. > 90%, are involved in
drug interactions due to competitive binding
Depots
a part of the body (e.g. a type of tissue) where drug molecules tend to be stored
fat tends to be a depot for very lipid soluble drugs (e.g. diazepam)
Barriers
body structures that limit/prevent diffusion of drug molecules,
e.g. blood-brain barrier (BBB), placenta

Table 2. Examples of Important Highly Table 3. Organ Distribution of Drug

Metabolizing Enzymes
Protein Bound Drugs
Site Relative Activity
Name % Bound
Liver 100
Salicylic Acid 82 Lung 20-30
Phenytoin 90 Kidney 8
Propranolol 93 Intestine 6
Term Placenta 5
Diazepam 99 Adrenal Glands 2
Warfarin 99.5 Skin 1

METABOLISM (BIOTRANSFORMATION)
PRINCIPLE: Drugs that are metabolized by similar enzymes, eg. the same cytochrome P450
isoenzymes, have the potential to interfere with each other’s metabolism. When in doubt,
especially for new drugs, look up metabolic route and then anticipate the interaction before
writing the prescription.
conversion of a drug into another form may result in
• activation of pro-drug: eg. codeine to morphine, nitroglycerine to NO
• maintenance of activity, eg. diazepam is metabolized to an active metabolite
• inactivation, eg. procaine to PABA
main site of biotransformation in the body is the LIVER.
drug metabolizing enzyme pathways generally mediate 2 types of reactions
• Phase I reactions
• oxidation-reduction and hydrolysis
• introduce or unmask polar chemical groups therefore increase water solubility
• mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes
• P450’s are found in the endoplasmic reticulum or cell cystoplasm
• phase II reactions
• conjugation with polar endogenous substrates e.g. glucoronic acid, glutathione
• increases water solubility and renal elimination
Clinical Pearl
Cytochrome P450 isoenzyme CYP 3A4 metabolizes about 50% of all drugs, hence if a drug
which is metabolized by 3A4 is prescribed, double check for possible interactions if any
other drug is added to the regimen.

CP4 – Clinical Pharmacology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

 PHARMACOKINETICS (ADME). . . CONT.
Drug Interactions are Often Due to Interactions in Biotransformation Pathways
Phase I (Cytochrome P450 enzymes)
1. erythromycin inhibits the CYP3A4 enzyme, and predisposes to cisapride toxicity and possible fatality
2. cimetidine inhibits P450 enzymes, leading to increased levels of theophylline, diazepam,
warfarin, phenytoin
3. phenobarbital induces P450 enzymes, which could decrease levels of other drugs
(see below: Enzyme Induction)
4. the SSRIs could inhibit CYP 2D6 (and 3A4), and therefore increase serum levels of other
drugs metabolized by these enzymes, e.g. benzodiazepines, carbamazepine, phenytoin
5. the new HIV drugs, the protease inhibitors, are metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes, (e.g. indinavir
is metabolized by CYP 3A4), and hence could interact with other drugs metabolized by this route
Phase II (Conjugation reactions):
1. Acetaminophen is 95% metabolized to inactive glucuronic acid and sulfate conjugates,
and 5% oxidized by P450, generating a reactive metabolite which is then conjugated with glutathione.
If glutathione stores are depleted, eg. massive dose of acetaminophen, the reactive metabolite
remains unconjugated and causes hepatocellular damage. In concurrent ingestion of alcohol and large
doses of acetaminophen, a double whammy situation occurs. Alcohol induces the P450 enzymes,
and hence the generation of the reactive metabolite; alcoholics tend to be deficient in nutrients,
notably glutathione, hence depletion occurs more readily, resulting in massive hepatocellular
damage in this situation
Enzyme Induction
• over 200 unrelated drugs have the ability to increase the activity of drug biotransforming
enzymes generally reducing activity/intensity of drug action
• reflects de novo synthesis of P450 and other biotransforming enzymes
• induction of P450 can stimulate multiple iso-enzymes specifically or non specifically

Table 4. Examples of Inducing Agents

Inducing Agent Substance whose metabolism is increased
Phenobarbital Bilirubin
DDT Chlorpromazine
Phenytoin Codeine
Glutethamide Cortisol
Phenylbutazone Estradiol, meperidine, morphine, testosterone, thyroxine

other factors affecting drug metabolism

• age
• early in fetal life drug metabolizing enzyme levels are low
• elderly have reduced rates of metabolism due to reduced hepatic function
• nutrition
• inhibition or drug metabolizing enzymes with decreased
protein, decreased fatty acids
• alcohol, vitamin deficiency states
• induction of P450 with chronic ingestion
• inhibition of P450 with acute ingestion
• radiation
• sex
• race

Clinical Pearl
The very young and the very old are very sensitive to the actions of drugs.

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Clinical Pharmacology – CP5

 PHARMACOKINETICS (ADME). . . CONT.
ELIMINATION
PRINCIPLE: Dosing of drugs needs to be adjusted according to the elimination characteristics
of the patient (e.g. in renal impairment) in order to avoid toxicity from drug or metabolite
accumulation.
routes of elimination include
• stool (e.g. corticosteroids from biliary system)
• lungs (e.g. general anesthetics eliminated by expiration)
• skin and mucous membranes (e.g. rifampin in tears)
KIDNEYS are the main organ of drug excretion through
• glomerular filtration: passive, pore size about 400-600 Angstroms
• tubular secretion: active, against concentraion gradient, saturable,
two distinct transport mechanisms for weak acids and weak bases
• e.g. acids: penicillin, salicyclic acid, probenecid, chlorothiazide
• e.g bases: quinine, quaternary ammonium compounds (e.g. choline)
• tubular reabsorption: can be active or passive (depending on charge)
elimination rate depends on renal function (assessed clinically, using serum creatinine levels)
• the Cockroft-Gault equation can estimate creatinine clearance (CrCl) for males as:
CrCl (mL/min) = (140-patient's age in yrs) x IBW (kg)
50 x SCr (µmol/L)
• for females above equation x 0.85
drug interactions due to interference with filtration, secretion, reabsorption
• probenecid significantly reduces renal excretion of penicillin by competing
for the weak acid transport
• lithium is renally eliminated through glomerular filtration, much of the filtered
load is reabsorbed at the proximal renal tubule. Sodium competes for the
reabsorption site with lithium. Hence, thiazide diuretics, which can cause
hyponatremia and reduced sodium load in the renal tubule, increase the
reabsorption of lithium and can predispose to increased serum lithium levels
and lithium toxicity

PHARMACOKINETICS CALCULATIONS
definition: the quantitative description of the rates of the various steps of drug disposition
(ie.how drugs move through the body)
the pharmacokinetic principles of ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination)
can be graphically represented on the concentration vs time graph (see Figure 1)
The Time Course of Drug Action
2
1. Absorption Phase
2. Peak Absorption Co = concentration at time 0
3 3. Post-Absorption
1 - Distribution Phase
4. Elimination Phase K = slope
- Half Life based on this
Drug

Log

Time to Peak Absorption Time Time (hrs)

Figure 1. Time Course of Drug Action Figure 2. Log Concentration vs. Time Graph
(IV bolus dose)

many kinetic parameters are measured using IV dosing, there is no absorption phase, and distribution for
most drugs is rapid, therefore the elimination is the main process measured.
the concentration axis is converted to a log base 10 concentration to allow for easier mathematical calculations
equations from the graph
• t1/2 (Half-life) = the inverse of the slope of the line (k) x 0.693
• Vd (volume of distribution) = dose/concentration at time 0
• Cl (clearance) = k x Vd

CP6 – Clinical Pharmacology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

 PHARMACOKINETICS CALCULATIONS
. . . CONT.

Half-Life (t1/2)
defined as the time it takes for blood level of a drug to fall to one-half (50%) of the level
measured at some prior time
for most drugs, half-life correlates with the elimination phase
in general it takes 5 half lives to reach steady state with repeated dosing or for drug elimination
once dosing is stopped
Steady State
the concentration at which the same amount of drug entering the system is eliminated from the system
time is important for therapeutic monitoring as drug levels are only reliable when the drug has
reached this steady state
any change in drug dose and interval will change the steady state level
special situations
• drug with long half-life and the need to rapidly increase blood levels –
give a loading dose (e.g. phenytoin)
• drugs with a very short half-life and the need for a long term effect – multiple, frequent repeated doses
are too inconvenient thus use a continuous infusion (e.g. nitroprusside)
Elimination Kinetics
first-order kinetics (the most common type)
• a constant fraction of drug is eliminated per unit time
• the amount of drug eliminated is based on the concentration of drug present
• this relationship is linear and predictable
zero-order kinetics (less common, associated with toxicities)
• non-linear kinetics
• a constant amount (number of molecules) of drug is eliminated per unit time
• clearance slows as drug concentration rises
• some drugs can follow first order kinetics until elimination is saturated (usually at large doses)
and the clearance decreases
• some drugs follow non-linear kinetics at therapeutic levels e.g. phenytoin

PHARMACODYNAMICS
definition: the relationship between the drug concentration and effect (what the drug does to the body)
Agonists Have Two Main Properties
affinity: the ability of the agonist to “bind to” the receptor
efficacy: the ability to cause a response via the receptor interaction
e.g. the ß2-agonist (salbutamol) bind to ß2-receptors (i.e. has affinity) and result in activation of
smooth muscle relaxation (ie. has efficacy)
Antagonists
have affinity (can bind to a receptor) but no efficacy
chemical antagonism: direct chemical interaction between agonist and antagonist
prevents agonist binding to receptor
• e.g. chelator agents for removal of heavy metals
functional antagonism: interaction of 2 agonists that act at different receptors
independent of each other but have opposite physiological effects
• e.g. acetylcholine at the muscurinic receptor decreases HR, constricts pupil, stimulates intestinal motility
• epinephrine at the adrenergic receptor increases HR, dilates pupil, decreases intestinal motility
competitive antagonism (most common in clinical practice) (see Figure 3)
• antagonist acts at same receptor (i.e. binds) displacing agonist
• antagonist binding is reversible and can be overcome

A
B
C A ––> C increasing level of antagonist.
Response
At each dose of antagonist increasing the
concentration of agonist can surmount
the inhibition

Dose

Figure 3. The Log Dose-Response Curve for Competitive Antagonism

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Clinical Pharmacology – CP7

 PHARMACODYNAMICS. . . CONT.
non-competitive antagonism (see Figure 4)
• irreversible binding of antagonist to receptor
• allosteric effect: changes ability of the agonist to bind to the receptor through various
mechanisms such as changing the conformation of the receptor
• increasing concentrations of agonist cannot reverse the antagonism

A
Response
A ––> D increasing dose of irreversible antag-
B onist. With one dose of antagonist, increasing
dose of agonist does not completely surmount
C antagonism as seen in B. Eventually with high
enough antagonist concentrations, no amount
of agonist can elicit a response as seen in D.
D
Dose

Figure 4. TIME: Log Dose Response Curve for Non-Competitive Antagonism

Dose-Response Relationship
pharmacodynamic principles measuring efficacy and potency can be quantified using dose-response curves
with gradual dose response relationships the response of the drug reflects the number of receptors that are
effectively occupied
efficacy
• the maximum intensity of response to a drug, eg. if Drug A causes a greater maximum intensity of
response than Drug B (regardless of dose), then Drug A is more efficacious than Drug B
• ED50 (effective dose-50%) the dose or drug that gives rise to the designated response in
50% of the subjects
• ED50 is easier to measure than maximum effect and is used to determine efficacy
potency
• a comparison of the ED50 of two or more drugs that have parallel log dose-response curves
• the drug that reaches the ED50 at the lower dose is the more potent
• potency is a term that is often misused (confused with efficacy)
• potency is not important if you can increase the dose of the less potent drug
without causing side effects

A
100% C In the Log Dose-Response curve, the efficacy
and potency of 3 different drugs are compared.
Drug A and Drug C give a 100% response and are
Response e.g. %

B thus more efficaceous than Drug B. Drug B

60% requires a lower dose than Drug C to give 50%
receptors

50% response, so Drug B is said to be more potent

than Drug C.
Potency
25% A>B>C
Efficacy
A=C>B

Log Dose

Figure 5. Log Dose-Response Curve Efficacy and Potency

Effectiveness and Safety

the two most clinically relevant properties of any drug are effectiveness and safety
effectiveness
• similar to efficacy but in real populations (i.e. not experimental)
safety (see Figure 6)
• LD50 (lethal dose-50%): defined as the dose of a drug needed to cause death in 50% of a
test population of subjects (e.g. usually rodents)
• TD50 (Toxic Dose - 50%): defined as the dose needed to cause a
harmful effect in 50% of the subjects
PHARMACODYNAMICS. . . CONT.

CP8 – Clinical Pharmacology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

 PHARMACODYNAMICS. . . CONT.
Drug A Drug B
100% Efficacy Toxicity 100% Eff Tox Eff Tox

Response
Response

50%
50% T
I

10%
ED50 TD50 Log Dose Log Dose
The therapeutic index (TD50 /ED50 ) is a measure of the Drug A has a much narrower therapeutic index than Drug
margin of safety of a given drug. B. The dose of Drug A required to achieve a 100% thera-
peutic response will be toxic in 50% of patients. For Drug
B, this is only 10%.
Figure 6. ED 50 , TD 50 and the Therapeutic Index (TI)

Therapeutic Index (TI) (see Figure 6)

defined as TD50/ED50
reflects the “margin of safety” for a drug - the likelihood of a high dose causing serious toxicity/death
the larger the TI, the safer a drug
factors can change the ED50, LD50 or the TD50
• presence of interacting drugs
• changes in drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination
• e.g. amoxicillin has a large TI, therefore therapeutic monitoring is not needed,
whereas warfarin has a small TI and must have accurate therapeutic monitoring
Variability in Drug Action
PRINCIPLE: not everyone experiences the same response to the same dose
(route of adminstration, dosage interval, etc. may need to be adjusted in some cases).

some common causes of variable responses to a drug

• age: (see geriatric pharmacology)
• gastric pH and gut motility (affects absorption of certain drugs)
• body composition (changes in fat, muscle, water content)
• plasma protein levels (affects various aspects of pharmacokinetics)
• renal, liver function (affects excretion and metabolism respectively)
• gender: mainly due to presence or absence of certain enzymes, hormones, etc.
• genetics: presence/absence of one or more genes needed to form enzymes,
other proteins, hormones, etc.
• overall health - presence/absence of other diseases
• use of other drugs (i.e. interactions)
• nutritional status - excess or deficiency of key vitamins, minerals, etc.
• compliance
ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS (ADRs)
classification of adverse drug reactions
• type A: predictable
• type B: unpredictable
Type A
side effects: excessive but characteristic pharmacological effect from usual dose of a drug
overdose / toxicity: exaggerated but characteristic pharmacological effect from supratherapeutic dose
teratogen: drug may produce developmental defects in fetus
characteristics
• account for 80% + of all ADRs
• extension of pharmacological effect
• dose-related and generally not severe
• usually do not require discontinuation
• dose reduction or titration may help minimize effect
• e.g. a common side effect of beta-blockers is bradycardia (an extension of its therapeutic effect)

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Clinical Pharmacology – CP9

 PHARMACODYNAMICS. . . CONT.
Type B
idiosyncratic: uncharacteristic response to drug, unrelated to pharmacology
pseudoallergenic: mimics immune-mediated reaction
allergic / immune-mediated: does not occur on first exposure (up to 7d), immediate with subsequent
exposure, may occur with low dose, resolves within 3-4 days of discontinuation
• characteristics
• usually more severe
• usually require discontinuation
• not dose-related
• e.g. sulpha based drugs (such as septra) can cause an idiosyncratic Stevens Johnson Syndrome (SJS)
Approach to Suspected ADRs
history and physical examination: symptoms, timing, risk factors, medication related, dechallenge
and rechallenge information is needed, look up previous reports in the literature
differential diagnosis: therapy or disease pathophysiology
treat the adverse drug reaction: stop the drug, supportive care, symptomatic relief

PHARMACOKINETIC CALCULATIONS
Volume of Distribution (Vd)
Vd = dose/concentration at time 0
λ = rise
run
= log (C1 – C2)
t2 – t1
Clearance (CL)
CL = k x Vd

Half-life (t1/2) = 0.693 x 1/k

Ideal Body Weight (IBW)

for males = 50 kg + [2.3kg x (no. of inches > 5 ft)]
for females = 45.5 kg + [2.3kg x (no. of inches > 5 ft)]
Loading Dose (LD)
LD = IBW x dose/kg
or
LD = Cp x Vd/F where Cp = target plasma drug concentration
Vd = volume of distribution
F = bioavailability (F = 1 for IV drugs)
Maintenance Dose (MD)
MD = IBW x Dose per kg/ (dosing interval)
For renally impaired:
MD = CrCl (patient)/ CrCl (normal) x Dose for normal patient
or MD = Cp x CLcr/ F

AUTONOMIC PHARMACOLGOY
atuonomic nervous system (ANS) is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
efferent fibers originate in nuclei in the CNS
sympathetic preganglionic fibers exit the CNS through thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves and terminate in
1. paravertebral ganglia that lie in a chain along the vertebral column - sympathetic trunk
2. prevertebral ganglia
parasympathetic preganglionic fibers exit through cranial nerves and sacral nerves and
terminate on ganglion cells located near or within the innervated organs
most organs are innverated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves having opposing effects
(see Table 1)
all preganglionic fibers release acetylcholine which acts on
• preganglionic fibers to all ganglia in the ANS and adrenal medulla
• postganglionic parasympathetic fibers to effector organs
• postganglionic sympathetic nerves to sweat glands
postganglionic fibers release either acetylcholine or norepinephrine

CP10 – Clinical Pharmacology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

 PHARMACODYNAMICS. . . CONT.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter of the parasymathetic nervous system
acetylcholine receptors include
• nicotinic located in autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
• muscarinic
• M1 located in the CNS
• M2 non-neuronal receptors located on smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glandular epithelium
acetylcholines action is terminated by metabolism in the synaptic cleft by acetylcholine esterase
and in the plasma by butyrocholinesterase
parasympathomimetics can be divided into three groups
1. choline esters e.g. carabachol, methacholine
2. alkaloids e.g. pilocarpine
3. anticholinesterases e.g. neostigmine
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
norepinephrine is the major neurostransmitter of the SNS
receptors include
• ß1 predominately in cardiac tissue
• ß2 predominately in smooth muscle and glands
• 〈 1 predominately on post-synaptic receptors in smooth muscles and glands
• 〈 2 predominately on pr-synaptic terminals as well as post-synaptic terminals
in the brain, uterus and vascular smooth muscle
each receptor has a different sensitivity to sympathomimetics
norepinephrines actions terminated by reuptake into the nerve terminal,
diffusion from the synaptic cleft, metabolism
Table 5. Direct Effects of Autonomic Nerve Acitivity of some Organ Systems
Effect Of
Organ Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Action Receptor Action Receptor
Eye
Iris
Radial Muscle Contracts 〈1 – –
Circular Muscle (iris) – – Contracts - miosis M
Ciliary Muscle (Relaxes) ß Contracts - near vision M
Heart
Sinoartial (SA) Node Accerlerates ß1 Decrease HR M
Atria Increases ß1 Decreases (contractility) M
Atrioventricular (AV) Node Decrease in conduction
Blood Vessels
Skin, Splanchnic Vessels Contracts 〈 – –
Skeletal Muscle Vessels Relaxes ß2 – –
(Contracts) 〈 – –
Relaxes M – M
Lung
Bronchiolar Smooth Muscle Relaxes ß2 Contracts M
Bronchiolar Glands Increased secretions M
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
Smooth Muscle
Wall Relaxes 〈 2ß2 Contracts M
Sphincters Contracts 〈1 Relaxes M
Secretion – – Increases M
Myenteric Plexus Inhibits 〈 – M
Genitourinary (GU) Smooth Muscle
Bladder Wall
Sphincters Relaxes ß2 Contracts M
uterus, Pregnant Contracts 〈1 Relaxes M
Relaxes ß2 – –
Penis, Seminal Vesicles Contracts 〈 – –
Ejaculation 〈 Erection M
Skin
Pilomotor Smooth Muscle Contracts 〈 – –
Sweat Glands
Thermoregulatory Increases M
Apocrine (stress) Increases 〈 – –
Metabolic Functions
Liver Gluconeogenesis 〈 /ß2 – –
Liver Glycogenolysis 〈 /ß2 – –
Fat Cells Lipolysis 〈2 /ß1 – –
Kidney Renin release ß1 – –
Exocrine Glands Secretion –

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Clinical Pharmacology – CP11

 PHARMACODYNAMICS. . . CONT.

Table 6. Types of Action of Representative Agents at Peripheral Cholingeric and Adrenergic

Synapses and Neuroeffector Junctions
Mechanism of Actions System Agents Effect
1. Interference with Cholinergic Hemicholinium Block of choline uptake, consequent
synthesis of transmitter depletion of acetylcholine (ACh)
Adrenergic 〈 -Methyltyrosine Depletion of narepinepherine (NE)
2. Metabolic transformation Adrenergic Methyldopa Displacement of NE by false transmitter
by same pathway as precursor (〈 -methylnorepinephrine)
of transmitter
3. Blockade of transport system Adrenergic Cocaine, imipramine Accumulation of NE at receptors
of membrane of nerve terminal
4. Blockade of transport system Adrenergic Reserpine Depletion of NE (MAO)
of storage granule membrane
5. Displacement of transmitter from Cholinergic Black widow spider Cholinomimetic followed
axonal terminal venom by anticholinergic
Adrenergic Amphetamine, Sympathomimetic
tyramine
6. Prevention of release of Cholinergic Botulinus toxin Anticholinergic
transmitter
Adrenergic Guanethidine Antiadrenergic
7. Mimicry of transmitter Cholinergic
at postsynaptic receptor Muscarinic Methacholine Cholinomimetic
Nicotine Cholinomimetic
Adrenergic
Alpha1 Phenylephrine Sympathomimetic
Alpha2 Clonidine Sympathomimetic (periphery)
Reduced sympathetic outflow (CNS)
Beta1,2 Isoproterenol Nonselective ß-sympathomimetic
Beta1 Dabutamine Selective cardiac stimulation
Beta2 Salbutamol Selective inhibition of smooth muscle
contraction
8. Blockade of endogenous Cholinergic
transmitter at postsynaptic Muscarinic Atropine Muscarinic blockade
receptor Nicotinic, NM Tubocurarine Neuromuscular blockade
Nicotinic, NN Trimethaphan, Ganglionic blockade
Hexamethonium
Adrenergic
Alpha Prazosin 〈 -Adrenergic blockade
Beta1,2 Propranolol ß-Adrenergic blockade
Beta1 Metoprolol Selective adrenergic blockade (cardiac)
9. Inhibition of enzymatic breakdown Cholinergic Anti-ChE agents Cholinomimetic
transmitter (physostigmine)
Adrenergic MAO inhibitors Little direct effect on NE or sympathetic
response

CP12 – Clinical Pharmacology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

 DRUGS THAT REQUIRE
THERAPEUTIC DRUG MONITORING (TDM)
TDM is limited to drugs which demonstrate a good correlation serum concentrations and pharmacological
response. TDM is often used for drugs that have a narrow therapeutic index (TI).
Note: most drug concentration samples are taken as a trough (the lowest level before the next dose)
Therefore sampling times are always immediately before the next dose.
PRINCIPLE: The goal of TDM is to individualize therapy through accurate dosage adjustments.
Abbreviations
LD = Loading Dose
MD = Maintenance Dose
T1/2 = Half-Life
ANTIBIOTICS
Gentamicin and Tobramycin
dosing
• once daily dosing; 5mg/kg (expected peak 16 –20 mg/L, 18 hour post-dose concentration of <1 mg/L
is desirable, since the drug has a 6 hour post antibiotic effect.
• this regimen has been studied in stable, non-severely ill patients, but not in the extremes of age.
• regular dosing: 1-2mg/kg, q8h, adjust for impaired renal function (peak 5-8 mg/L and trough < 2 mg/L)
• time to peak: 15 minutes post 1 hour infusion
• time to steady state (SS): 2.5 – 1.5 hours (7.5 – 75 hrs for > 30 years old)
• T1/2 = 2 hours
• elimination: renal
• sample time: peak: 15 minutes post 1 hours infusion; trough: immediately prior to next dose
Increased concentration Decreased concentration
Renal impairment Increased clearance
Nephrotoxic agents • cystic fibrosis (CF)
• Cephalosporins Increased volume of distribution (3rd spacing)
• Cyclosporine • obesity
• vancomycin • severe congestive heart failure (CHF)
• amphotericin B • ascites
• peritonitis
• burn patients
Vancomycin
dosing: 1gm q12h over 1 hour to avoid “Red Man Syndrome”
• time to peak: 60 minutes
• time to steady state (SS): 20 –30 hours
• sample time: peak: 1 hour post infusion; trough – immediately prior to next dose
• therapeutic range: peak 25-35 mg/L
• trough 5-10 mg/L
• bioavailability: 100% IV, < 5% PO
• T1/2: 4-8 hours, 6-10 days in renal impairment
• elimination: renal: 80-90% unchanged
ANTICONVULSANTS
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
LD
• PO 15mg/kg divided in 3 doses administered at 2 hour intervals
• IV 15-20mg/kg at <50mg/min (to minimize arrhythmias and hypotension)
MD
• 12 hours after loading dose
• 300-400 mg or 5-7mg/kg once daily, titrate up to this dose can increase 30 – 100 mg/day
every 10 – 14 days
time to peak: 1.5 – 3 hours regular release, 3-9 hours for sustained release (SR)
T1/2 = 8-40 hours
time to steady state: 1-5 weeks
therapeutic range: 40-80 mmol/L (correct for low albumin)
elimination: 95% hepatic:
protein bound (PB): 90%
drug Interactions: numerous, many drugs decrease its metabolism (drugs metabolized by p450 drugs)
Concentration Correction with Low Albumin
conc (µmol/L) = serum conc/(0.02 x albumin g/L) +0.1
Concentration Correction with Renal Failure
conc (µmol/L) = serum conc /(0.01 x albumin g/L) + 0.1

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Clinical Pharmacology – CP13

 DRUGS THAT REQUIRE THERAPEUTIC DRUG MONITORING
. . . CONT.

Carbamazepine
dosing: 1.6 – 1.8 g/day in 3 – 4 divided doses
• time to peak: 6-18 hours
• T1/2 = 10-25 hours
• time to SS: 2-4 weeks (naive patient); 2-6 days – prior carbamazepine therapy
• therapeutic range: 17-50 mmol/L
• elimination: 99% hepatic
• carbamazepine is an hepatic inducer, it induces the metabolism of most drugs and is a self inducer
• CNS side effects related to the concentration
PSYCHIATIRC MEDICATIONS
Lithium
dosing: 600-1800 mg/day in 1 – 4 divided doses
• time to peak: 1-3 hours
• T1/2=18-20 hours (36 hours in the elderly)
• time to SS: 3-5 days
• therapeutic range: 0.6-1.0
• toxic effects with levels > 1.0 tremor, vomiting, slurred speech, confusion, seizure, coma
• adverse effects: nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
CARDIAC MEDICATION
Digoxin
LD
• PO: 0.5 mg then 0.25 mg twice at 6 hour intervals
• IV: 0.01-0.02 mg/kg, give 50% of dose then 25% at 6 hour intervals
MD
• 0.125 – 0.5 mg daily (CrCl >20mL/min)
• 0.125 mg daily if < 40 kg or elderly
• 0.0625 daily – 0.125 mg 3 times a week if CrCl < 20 mL/min
time to peak: 60-90 minutes
T1/2 = 40 hours
time to SS = 5-7days
therapeutic range: 1.0-1.9 nmol/L for CHF, 1.9-2.8 nmol/L for arrhythmias
adverse effects GI: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; CNS: headache, colour vision (yellow halos),
confusion; cardiac: premature ventricular contractions (PVC), AV block, sinus bradycardia
NOTE: TDM for digoxin is not routine, levels are only needed when a patient is symptomatic

REFERENCES
Hardman JG and Limbird LR. (eds). Goodman and Gilman’s the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. (9th ed). (1996) McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Kalant H and Roschlau WHE. (eds). Principles of Medical Pharmacology. (6th ed.) (1999) Oxford University Press, New York.
Katzung BG. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. (6th ed.). (1995) Appleton and Lange, Connecticut.

CP14 – Clinical Pharmacology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes