A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 01

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
The demand for high data rate services has been increasing very rapidly and there is no
slowdown in sight. Almost every existing physical medium capable of supporting broadband
data transmission to our homes, offices and schools has been or will be used in the future. This
includes both wired (Digital Subscriber Lines, Cable Modems, Power Lines) and wireless media.
Often, these services require very reliable data transmission over very harsh environments. Most
of these transmission systems experience many degradations, such as large attenuation, noise,
multipath, interference, time variation, non-linearitys, and must meet many constraints, such as
finite transmit power and most importantly finite cost. One physical-layer technique that has
recently gained much popularity due to its robustness in dealing with these impairments is multicarrier modulation. High capacity and variable bit rate information transmission with high
bandwidth efficiency are just some of the requirements that the modern transceivers have to meet
in order for a variety of new high quality services to be delivered to the customers. Because in
the wireless environment signals are usually impaired by fading and multipath delay spread
phenomenon, traditional single carrier mobile communication systems do not perform well.
In such channels, extreme fading of the signal amplitude occurs and Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI) due to the frequency selectivity of the channel appears at the receiver side.
This leads to a high probability of errors and the systems overall performance becomes very
poor. Techniques like channel coding and adaptive equalization have been widely used as a
solution to these problems. However, due to the inherent delay in the coding and equalization
process and high cost of the hardware, it is quite difficult to use these techniques in systems
operating at high bit rates, for example, up to several Mbps. An alternative solution is to use a
multi carrier system. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is an example of it
and it is used in several applications such as asymmetric digital subscriber lines (ADSL), a
system that makes high bit-rates possible over twisted-pair copper wires. It has recently been
standardized and recommended for digital audio broadcasting (DAB) in Europe and it is already
used for terrestrial digital video broadcasting (DVB-T). The IEEE 802.11a standard for wireless
local area networks (WLAN) is also based on OFDM.
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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

The purpose of this project is to investigate how OFDM performs in an Additive White
Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel only. In this project OFDM system where multipath induced
inter symbol interference (ISI) is reduced enabling higher data rate. Pilot signals are uniformly
inserted into data symbols (subcarriers) and are extracted at the receiver for channel estimation.
Modulation: Mapping of information on changes in the carrier phase, frequency or amplitude or
combination.
Multiplexing: Method of sharing bandwidth with other independent data channels.
OFDM is a combination of modulation and multiplexing. Multiplexing generally refers to
independent signals those produced by different sources. So it is a question of how to share the
spectrum with these users. In OFDM the question of multiplexing is applied to the independent
signals but these independent signals are a sub-set of the one main signal. In OFDM the signal
itself is first split into independent channels, modulated by data and then re multiplexed to create
the OFDM carrier. OFDM is a special case of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). In FDM,
each of the several low rate user signals is modulated with a separate carrier and transmitted in
parallel. Thus the separation of the users is in the frequency domain. In order to be able to easily
demodulate each user signal, the carriers are spaced sufficiently apart from each other. Moreover,
guard band has to be provided between 2 adjacent carriers so that realizable filters can be
designed. Hence the spectral efficiency is very low.
OFDM is a Multi-Carrier Modulation technique in which a high rate bit-stream is split
into (say) N parallel bit-streams of lower rate and each of these are modulated using one of N
orthogonal sub-carriers. In a basic communication system, the data are modulated onto a single
carrier frequency. The available bandwidth is then totally occupied by each symbol. This kind of
system can lead to inter-symbol-interference (ISI) in case of frequency selective channel. The
basic idea of OFDM is to divide the available spectrum into several orthogonal sub channels so
that each narrowband sub channels experiences almost flat fading. Orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) is becoming the chosen modulation technique for wireless
communications. OFDM can provide large data rates with sufficient robustness to radio channel
impairments. Many research centers in the world have specialized teams working in the
optimization of OFDM systems. In an OFDM scheme, a large number of orthogonal,

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

overlapping, narrow band sub-carriers are transmitted in parallel. These carriers divide the
available transmission bandwidth.
The separation of the sub-carriers is such that there is a very compact spectral utilization.
With OFDM, it is possible to have overlapping sub channels in the frequency domain, thus
increasing the transmission rate. The attraction of OFDM is mainly because of its way of
handling the multipath interference at the receiver. Multipath phenomenon generates two effects
(a) Frequency selective fading and (b) Inter symbol interference (ISI).The "flatness" perceived
by a narrowband channel overcomes the frequency selective fading. On the other hand,
modulating symbols at a very low rate makes the symbols much longer than channel impulse
response and hence reduces the ISI. Use of suitable error correcting codes provides more
robustness against frequency selective fading. The insertion of an extra guard interval between
consecutive OFDM symbols can reduce the effects of ISI even more.
The use of FFT technique to implement modulation and demodulation functions makes it
computationally more efficient. OFDM systems have gained an increased interest during the last
years. It is used in the European digital broadcast radio system, as well as in wired environment
such as asymmetric digital subscriber lines (ADSL). This technique is used in digital subscriber
lines (DSL) to provide high bit rate over a twisted-pair of wires. The major advantages of OFDM
are its ability to convert a frequency selective fading channel into several nearly flat fading
channels and high spectral efficiency. However, one of the main disadvantages of OFDM is its
sensitivity against carrier frequency offset which causes attenuation and rotation of subcarriers,
and Inter carrier interference (ICI) [1, 2]. The undesired ICI degrades the performance of the
system.
1.2 History of Mobile Wireless Communications:
The history of mobile communication [3, 4] can be categorized into 3 periods:
1

The pioneer era

The pre-cellular era

The cellular era

In the pioneer era, a great deal of the fundamental research and development in the field
of wireless communications took place. The postulates of electromagnetic (EM) waves by James
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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

Clark Maxwell during the 1860s in England, the demonstration of the existence of these waves
by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in 1880s in Germany and the invention and first demonstration of
wireless telegraphy by Guglielmo Marconi during the 1890s in Italy were representative
examples from Europe. Moreover, in Japan, the Radio Telegraph Research Division was
established as a part of the Electro technical Laboratory at the Ministry of Communications and
started to research wireless telegraph in 1896.
From the fundamental research and the resultant developments in wireless telegraphy, the
application of wireless telegraphy to mobile communication systems started from the 1920s. This
period, which is called the pre-cellular era, began with the first land-based mobile wireless
telephone system installed in 1921 by the Detroit Police Department to dispatch patrol cars,
followed in 1932 by the New York City Police Department. These systems were operated in the
2MHz frequency band. In 1946, the first commercial mobile telephone system, operated in the
150MHz frequency band, was set up by Bell Telephone Laboratories in St. Louis. The
demonstration system was a simple analog communication system with a manually operated
telephone exchange. Subsequently, in 1969, a mobile duplex communication system was realized
in the 450MHz frequency band. The telephone exchange of this modified system was operated
automatically. The new system, called the Improved Mobile Telephone System (IMTS), was
widely installed in the United States. However, because of its large coverage area, the system
could not manage a large number of users or allocate the available frequency bands efficiently.
The cellular zone concept was developed to overcome this problem by using the
propagation characteristics of radio waves. The cellular zone concept divided a large coverage
area into many smaller zones. A frequency channel in one cellular zone is used in another
cellular zone. However, the distance between the cellular zones that use the same frequency
channels is sufficiently long to ensure that the probability of interference is quite low. The use of
the new cellular zone concept launched the third era, known as the cellular era. So far, the
evolution of the analog cellular mobile communication system is described. There were many
problems and issues, for example, the incompatibility of the various systems in each country or
region, which precluded roaming. In addition, analog mobile communication systems were
unable to ensure sufficient capacity for the increasing number of users, and the speech quality
was not good.

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

To solve these problems, the R&D of cellular mobile communication systems based on
digital radio transmission schemes was initiated. These new mobile communication systems
became known as the second generation (2G) of mobile communication systems, and the analog
cellular era is regarded as the first generation (1G) of mobile communication systems [5,6]. 1G
analog cellular system was actually a hybrid of analog voice channels and digital control
channels. The analog voice channels typically used
Frequency Modulation (FM) and the digital control channels used simple Frequency Shift
keying (FSK) modulation. The first commercial analog cellular systems include Nippon
Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) Cellular Japan, Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
US, Australia, China, Southeast Asia, Total Access Communications system (TACS) - UK, and
Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) Norway, and Europe.
2G digital systems use digital radio channels for both voice (digital voice) and digital control
channels. 2G digital systems typically use more efficient modulation technologies, including
Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), which uses a standard 2-level Gaussian
Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). Digital radio channels offer a universal data transmission
system, which can be divided into many logical channels that can perform different services.
2G also uses multiple access (or multiplexing) technologies to allow more customers to
share individual radio channels or use narrow channels to allow more radio channels into a
limited amount of radio spectrum band. The 3 basic types of access technologies used in 2G are:
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code
division multiple access (CDMA). The technologies reduce the RF channel bandwidth (FDMA),
share a radio channel by assigning users to brief timeslot (TDMA), or divide a wide RF channel
into many different coded channels (CDMA). Improvements in modulation techniques and
multiple access technologies amongst other technologies inadvertently led to 2.5G and 3G.

1.3 Motivation:
Multimedia is effectively an infrastructure technology with widely different origins in
computing, telecommunications, entertainment and publishing. New applications are emerging,
not just in the wired environment, but also in the mobile one. At present, only low bit-rate data
services are available to the mobile users. The radio environment is harsh, due to the many
reflected waves and other effects. Using adaptive equalization techniques at the receiver could be

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

the solution, but there are practical difficulties in operating this equalization in real-time at
several Mb/s with compact, low-cost hardware.
A promising candidate that eliminates a need for the complex equalizers is the
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), a multiple carrier modulation technique.
OFDM is robust in adverse channel conditions and allows a high level of spectral efficiency. It
effectively mitigates performance degradations due to multipath and is capable of combating
deep fades in part of the spectrum. The OFDM waveform can be easily modified to adjust to the
delay spread of the channel. OFDM can handle large delay spreads easier to the independence of
the carriers and the flexibility of varying the cyclic prefix length. OFDM allows efficient
operation in both FDD and TDD mode as very short or no pre-ambles are needed. Multiple
access techniques which are quite developed for the single carrier modulations (e.g. TDMA,
FDMA) had made possible of sharing one communication medium by multiple number of users.
Multiple techniques schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a
finite amount of radio spectrum. The sharing is required to achieve high capacity by
simultaneously allocating the available bandwidth (or the available amount of channels) to
multiple users. For the quality communications, this must be done without severe degradation in
the performance of the system. FDMA, TDMA and CDMA are the well known multiplexing
techniques used in wireless communication systems.
While working with the wireless systems using these techniques various problems
encountered are
(1) Multi-path fading
(2) Time dispersion which lead to inter symbol interference (ISI)
(3) Lower bit rate capacity
(4) Requirement of larger transmit power for high bit rate and
(5) Less spectral efficiency.
Disadvantage of FDMA technique is its Bad Spectrum Usage. Disadvantages of TDMA
technique is Multipath Delay spread problem. In a typical terrestrial broadcasting, the transmitted
signal arrives at the receiver using various paths of different lengths. Since multiple versions of
the signal interfere with each other, it becomes difficult to extract the original information. The

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

use of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technique provides better solution
for the above mentioned problems.

1.4 OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is simply defined as a form of
multi-carrier modulation where the carrier spacing is carefully selected so that each sub carrier is
orthogonal to the other sub carriers. Two signals are orthogonal if their dot product is zero. That
is, if you take two signals multiply them together and if their integral over an interval is zero,
then two signals are orthogonal in that interval. Orthogonality can be achieved by carefully
selecting carrier spacing, such as letting the carrier spacing be equal to the reciprocal of the
useful symbol period. As the sub carriers are orthogonal, the spectrum of each carrier has a null
at the center frequency of each of the other carriers in the system. This results in no interference
between the carriers, allowing them to be spaced as close as theoretically possible. The major
advantages of OFDM are its ability to convert a frequency selective fading channel into several
nearly flat fading channels and high spectral efficiency. However, one of the main disadvantages
of OFDM is its sensitivity against carrier frequency offset which causes attenuation and rotation
of subcarriers, and Inter carrier interference (ICI). The undesired ICI degrades the performance
of the system.
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is emerging as the preferred
modulation scheme in modern high data rate wireless communication systems. OFDM has been
adopted in the European digital audio and video broadcast radio system and is being investigated
for broadband indoor wireless communications. Standards such as HIPERLAN2 (High
Performance Local Area Network) and IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11g have emerged to
support IP-based services. Such systems are based on OFDM and are designed to operate in the 5
GHz band. OFDM is a special case of multi-carrier modulation. Multi-carrier modulation is the
concept of splitting a signal into a number of signals, modulating each of these new signals to
several frequency channels, and combining the data received on the multiple channels at the
receiver.
One of main advantages of OFDM over single carrier (SC) system is the robustness
against delay spread. Channel delay spread causes inter-symbol-interference (ISI) which cause
irreducible error floor, hence limiting maximum data rate. However, symbol duration of each

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

subcarrier in OFDM is N times longer than that of single carrier system. Therefore, OFDM is
more robust to delay spread. Although OFDM suffers from less ISI than SC, it still experiences
some ISI. This ISI can be totally avoided by using cyclic prefix whose length is equal to or longer
than maximum channel delay spread (for the channel which has K sample-spaced taps, the
number of cyclic prefix guard samples should be Ng K - 1) as shown in Figure 1.1. Due to
cyclic prefix, linear convolution of the channel impulse response and the signal becomes cyclic
convolution.

Figure.1.1 Cyclic prefix for avoiding ISI

Researchers have proposed various methods to combat the ISI in OFDM systems.
(1)

Insertion of guard slots into each differential pulse interval modulation scheme

(2)

Spread spectrum technique has been used to combat ISI but at the expense of reduced
bandwidth efficiency.

(3)

Angle diversity scheme based on multibeam-narrow FOV transceiver has also been
employed to overcome multipath dispersion since a small fraction of the delayed light
normally lies within the same field-of-view (FOV) as the primary signal.

(4)

Adaptive decision equalizer is used to combat ISI.

OFDM has been used in mainly RF based wireless communication schemes offering high

data rates capability as well as high bandwidth efficiency and effectively dealing with the
multipath induced ISI. In this project I investigate OFDM system where multipath induced ISI
and the effects of background noise are reduced by taking the advantage of narrowband
frequency interference, which affects only one of the frequency sub bands when compare to the
single-carrier modulation.

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

1.5 Objective and Outline of Thesis:

The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the performance of OFDM system in
AWGN channel along with reduction in ISI. Many techniques have been proposed here I focused
on the channel estimation of OFDM system by pilot insertion. I have also briefly discussed
OFDM and its advantages and disadvantages as compared to single carrier modulation
technique. This report is organized as follows: In Chapter 2 Literature survey is presented. In
Chapter 3 the applications and problems of OFDM is presented. In chapter 4 channel estimation
of OFDM is considered in detail. Chapter 5 work done is presented Chapter 6 concludes the
report and future works are also outlined. Chapter 7 contains references.

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 02
LITERATURE SURVEY

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 02
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Introduction:
It is well known that Chang proposed the original OFDM principles in 1966, and
successfully achieved a patent in January of 1970. OFDM is a technique for transmitting data in
parallel by using a large number of modulated sub-carriers. These sub-carriers divide the
available bandwidth and are sufficiently separated in frequency so that they are orthogonal. The
Orthogonality of the carriers means that each carrier has an integer number of cycles over a
symbol period.
In 1971, Weinstein and Ebert proposed a modified OFDM system [7] in which the
discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) was applied to generate the orthogonal subcarriers waveforms
instead of the banks of sinusoidal generators. Their scheme reduced the implementation
complexity significantly, by making use of the inverse DFT (IDFT) modules and the digital-toanalog converters. In their proposed model, baseband signals were modulated by the IDFT in the
transmitter and then demodulated by DFT in the receiver. Therefore, all the subcarriers were
overlapped with others in the frequency domain, while the DFT modulation still assures their
Orthogonality.
Cyclic prefix (CP) or cyclic extension was first introduced by Peled and Ruiz in 1980 [8]
for OFDM systems. In their scheme, conventional null guard interval is substituted by cyclic
extension for fully-loaded OFDM modulation. As a result, the Orthogonality among the
subcarriers was guaranteed. With the trade-off of the transmitting energy efficiency, this new
scheme can result in a phenomenal ISI (Inter Symbol Interference) reduction. Hence it has been
adopted by the current IEEE standards. In 1980,Hirosaki introduced an equalization algorithm to
suppress both inter symbol interference (ISI) and ICI [9], which may have resulted from a
channel distortion, synchronization error, or phase error. In the meantime, Hirosaki also applied
QAM modulation, pilot tone, and trellis coding techniques in his high-speed OFDM system,
which operated in voice-band spectrum.
In 1985, Cimini introduced a pilot-based method to reduce the interference emanating
from the multipath and co-channels [10]. In the 1990s, OFDM systems have been exploited for

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

high data rate communications. In the IEEE 802.11 standard, the carrier frequency can go up as
high as 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz. Researchers tend to pursue OFDM operating at even much higher
frequencies nowadays. For example, the IEEE 802.16 standard proposes yet higher carrier
frequencies ranging from 10 GHz to 60 GHz. However, one of the main disadvantages of OFDM
in multipath environment is inter symbol interference. Number of authors has suggested different
methods for ISI reduction. Pilot insertion for channel estimation is investigated in this thesis and
their performances are evaluated.

2.2 Description:
OFDM is a combination of modulation and multiplexing. Multiplexing generally refers to
independent signals, those produced by different sources. In OFDM the question of multiplexing
is applied to independent signals but these independent signals are a sub-set of the one main
signal. In OFDM the signal itself is first split into independent channels, modulated by data and
then re-multiplexed to create the OFDM carrier. If the FDM system above had been able to use a
set of subcarriers that were orthogonal to each other, a higher level of spectral efficiency could
have been achieved. The guard bands that were necessary to allow individual demodulation of
subcarriers in an FDM system would no longer be necessary. The use of orthogonal subcarriers
would allow the subcarriers spectra to overlap, thus increasing the spectral efficiency.
As long as Orthogonality is maintained, it is still possible to recover the individual
subcarriers signals despite their overlapping spectrums. It can be seen that almost half of the
bandwidth is saved by overlapping the spectra. As more and more carriers are added, the
bandwidth approaches (N+1)/N Bits per Hz. Larger number of carriers gives better spectral
efficiency. The main concept in OFDM is Orthogonality of the sub-carriers. The "orthogonal"
part of the OFDM name indicates that there is a precise mathematical relationship between the
frequencies of the carriers in the system. It is possible to arrange the carriers in an OFDM Signal
so that the sidebands of the individual carriers overlap and the signals can still be received
without adjacent carriers interference. In order to do this the carriers must be mathematically
orthogonal. The Carriers are linearly independent (i.e. orthogonal) if the carrier spacing is a
multiple of 1/Ts. Where, Ts is the symbol duration.
The Orthogonality among the carriers can be maintained if the OFDM signal is defined
by using Fourier transform procedures. The OFDM system transmits a large number of

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

narrowband carriers, which are closely spaced. Note that at the central frequency of the each sub
channel there is no crosstalk from other sub channels. In an OFDM system, the input bit stream
is multiplexed into N symbol streams, each with symbol period Ts, and each symbol stream is
used to modulate parallel, synchronous sub-carriers. The sub-carriers are spaced by 1/NTs in
frequency, thus they are orthogonal over the interval (0, Ts). A typical discrete-time baseband
OFDM transceiver system is shown in Figure 2.1. First, a serial-to-parallel (S/P) converter
groups the stream of input bits from the source encoder into groups of log2M bits, where M is
the alphabet of size of the digital modulation scheme employed on each sub-carrier. A total of N
such symbols, Xm, are created. Then, the N symbols are mapped to bins of an inverse fast
Fourier transform (IFFT). These IFFT bins correspond to the orthogonal sub-carriers in the
OFDM symbol. Therefore, the OFDM symbol can be expressed as
x ( n )=

1
N

N 1

m=0

Xm e

2 mn
N

0 n N 1

Where Xm are the baseband symbols on each sub-carrier. The digital-to-analog (D/A)
converter then creates an analog time-domain signal which is transmitted through the channel.

Figure.2.1 Baseband OFDM transceiver system

At the receiver, the signal is converted back to a discrete N point sequence y (n),
corresponding to each sub-carrier. This discrete signal is demodulated using an N-point fast
Fourier transform (FFT) operation at the receiver. The demodulated symbol stream is given by:
N 1

Y ( m) = y (n)e

2 mn
N

+W ( m)0 m N 1

n=0

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

Where W (m) corresponds to the FFT of the samples of w (n), which is the Additive
White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) introduced in the channel. The high speed data rates for OFDM
are accomplished by the simultaneous transmission of data at a lower rate on each of the
orthogonal sub-carriers. Because of the low data rate transmission, distortion in the received
signal induced by multi-path delay in the channel is not as significant as compared to singlecarrier high-data rate systems. For example, a narrowband signal sent at a high data rate through
a multipath channel will experience greater negative effects of the multipath delay spread,
because the symbols are much closer together. Multipath distortion can also cause inter-symbol
interference (ISI) where adjacent symbols overlap with each other. This is prevented in OFDM
by the insertion of a cyclic prefix between successive OFDM symbols. This cyclic prefix is
discarded at the receiver to cancel out ISI. It is due to the robustness of OFDM to ISI and
multipath distortion that it has been considered for various wireless applications and standards.

2.3 Theory of OFDM:

OFDM is a technique for transmitting data in parallel by using a large number of
modulated sub-carriers. These sub-carriers (or sub-channels) divide the available bandwidth and
are sufficiently separated in frequency (frequency spacing) so that they are orthogonal. The
Orthogonality of the carriers means that each carrier has an integer number of cycles over a
symbol period. Due to this, the spectrum of each carrier has a null at the center frequency of each
of the other carriers in the system. This results in no interference between the carriers, although
their spectra overlap.
The separation between carriers is theoretically minimal so there would be a very
compact spectral utilization. OFDM systems are attractive for the way they handle ISI, which is
usually introduced by frequency selective multipath fading in a wireless environment. Each subcarrier is modulated at a very low symbol rate, making the symbols much longer than the
channel impulse response. In this way, ISI is diminished. Moreover, if a guard interval between
consecutive OFDM symbols is inserted, the effects of ISI can completely vanish. This guard
interval must be longer than the multipath delay. Although each sub-carrier operates at a low data
rate, a total high data rate can be achieved by using a large number of sub-carriers.
ISI has very small or no effect on the OFDM systems hence an equalizer is not needed at
the receiver side. In the OFDM system, Inverse Fast Fourier Transform/Fast Fourier Transform

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

(IFFT /FFT) algorithms are used in the modulation and demodulation of the signal. The length of
the IFFT/FFT vector determines the resistance of the system to errors caused by the multipath
channel. The time span of this vector is chosen so that it is much larger than the maximum delay
time of echoes in the received multipath signal. OFDM is generated by firstly choosing the
spectrum required, based on the input data, and modulation scheme used. Each carrier to be
produced is assigned some data to transmit. The required amplitude and phase of the carrier is
then calculated based on the 3 modulation scheme (typically differential BPSK, QPSK, or
QAM). Then, the IFFT converts this spectrum into a time domain signal. The FFT transforms a
cyclic time domain signal into its equivalent frequency spectrum. Finding the equivalent
waveform, generated by a sum of orthogonal sinusoidal components, does this. The amplitude
and phase of the sinusoidal components represent the frequency spectrum of the time domain
signal.

2.4 Principles of OFDM:

The main features of a practical OFDM system are as follows:
1.

Some processing is done on the source data, such as coding for correcting errors,
interleaving and mapping of bits onto symbols. An example of mapping used is QAM.

2.

The symbols are modulated onto orthogonal sub-carriers. This is done by using IFFT.

3.

Orthogonality is maintained during channel transmission. This is achieved by adding a

cyclic prefix to the OFDM frame to be sent. The cyclic prefix consists of the L last samples
of the frame, which are copied and placed in the beginning of the frame. It must be longer
than the channel impulse response.

4.

Synchronization: the introduced cyclic prefix can be used to detect the start of each frame.
This is done by using the fact that the L first and last samples are the same and therefore
correlated. This works under the assumption that one OFDM frame can be considered to be
stationary.

5.

Demodulation of the received signal by using FFT.

6.

Channel equalization: the channel can be estimated either by using a training sequence or
sending known so-called pilot symbols at predefined sub-carriers.

7.

Decoding and de-interleaving.

The OFDM signal generated by the system shown in Figure 2.2 is at baseband; in order

to generate a radio frequency (RF) signal at the desired transmit frequency filtering and mixing is
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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

required. OFDM allows for a high spectral efficiency as the carrier power and modulation
scheme can be individually controlled for each carrier. However in broadcast systems these are
fixed due to the one-way communication. OFDM is a multicarrier system and it uses discrete
Fourier Transform/Fast Fourier Transform (DFT/FFT) and sin(x)/x spectra for subcarriers.
Available bandwidth is divided into very many narrow bands and 2000-8000 for digital TV and
48 for Hiperlan2. Data is transmitted in parallel on these bands. Most broadband systems are
subject to multipath transmission. Conventional solution to multipath is an equalizer in the
receiver with high data rates - equalizers too complicated. With OFDM there is a simple way of
dealing with multipath for relatively simple DSP algorithms. Multipath is more than one
transmission path between transmitter and receiver. Received signal is the sum of many versions
of the transmitted signal with varying delay and attenuation.

Figure.2.2 Basic OFDM system

2.5 Block Diagram of an OFDM System:

At the transmitter, the user information bit sequence is first subjected to channel encoding
to reduce the probability of error at the receiver due to the channel effects. Usually, convolution
encoding is preferred. Then the bits are mapped to symbols. Usually, the bits are mapped into the
symbols of either 16-QAM or QPSK. The symbol sequence is converted to parallel format and
IFFT (OFDM modulation) is applied and the sequence is once again converted to the serial
format.

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Guard time is provided between the OFDM symbols and the guard time is filled with the
cyclic extension of the OFDM symbol. Windowing is applied to the OFDM symbols to make the
fall-off rate of the spectrum steeper. The resulting sequence is converted to an analog signal
using a DAC and passed on to the RF modulation stage. The resulting RF modulated signal is,
then, transmitted to the receiver using the transmit antennas. Here, directional beam forming can
be achieved using antenna array, which allows for efficient spectrum reuse by providing spatial
diversity. At the receiver, first RF demodulation is performed. Then, the signal is digitized using
an ADC and timing and frequency synchronization are performed. Synchronization will be dealt
with in the later sections. The guard time is removed from each OFDM symbol and the sequence
is converted to parallel format and FFT (OFDM demodulation) is applied. The output is then
serialized and symbol de-mapping is done to get back the coded bit sequence. Channel decoding
is, then, done to get the user bit sequence.

Figure.2.3 OFDM System Block Diagram

2.6 Basics of OFDM:

2.6.1 Introduction:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has grown to be the most popular
communications systems in high speed communications in the last decade. In fact, it has been
said by many industry leaders that OFDM technology is the future of wireless communications.
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Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a multicarrier transmission technique,

which divides the bandwidth into many carriers; each one is modulated by a low rate data
stream. In term of multiple access technique, OFDM is similar to FDMA in that the multiple user
access is achieved by subdividing the available bandwidth into multiple channels that are then
allocated to users. However, OFDM uses the spectrum much more efficiently by spacing the
channels much closer together. This is achieved by making all the carriers orthogonal to one
another, preventing interference between the closely spaced carriers. Late 1997, Lucent and NTT
submitted proposals to the IEEE for a high speed wireless standard for local area networks
(LAN). Eventually, the two companies combined their proposals and it was accepted as a draft
standard in 1998 and as a standard now known as IEEE802.11a standard, in 1999.
2.6.2 Evolution of OFDM:
The evolution of OFDM can be divided into three parts. There are consists of Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM), Multicarrier Communication (MC) and Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing.
2.6.2.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) has been used for a long time to carry more
than one signal over a telephone line. FDM is the concept of using different frequency channels
to carry the information of different users. Each channel is identified by the center frequency of
transmission. To ensure that the signal of one channel did not overlap with the signal from an
adjacent one, some gap or guard band was left between different channels. Obviously, this guard
band will lead to inefficiencies which were exaggerated in the early days since the lack of digital
filtering is made it difficult to filter closely packed adjacent channels.
2.6.2.2 Multicarrier Communication (MC):
The concept of Multi carrier (MC) communications uses a form of FDM technologies but
only between a single data source and a single data receiver. As multicarrier communications
was introduced, it enabled an increase in the overall capacity of communications, thereby
increasing the overall throughput. Referring to MC as FDM, however, is somewhat misleading
since the concept of multiplexing refers to the ability to add signals together. MC is actually the
concept of splitting a signal into a number of signals, modulating each of these new signals over
its own frequency channel, multiplexing these different frequency channels together in an FDM
manner; feeding the received signal via a receiving antenna into a de multiplexer that feeds the
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different frequency channels to different receivers and combining the data output of the receivers
to form the received signal.
2.6.2.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is simply defined as a form of
multi-carrier modulation where the carrier spacing is carefully selected so that each sub-carrier is
orthogonal to the other sub-carriers. Orthogonality can be achieved by carefully selecting the
sub-carrier frequencies. One of the ways is to select sub-carrier frequencies such that they are
harmonics to each other.
2.6.3 Principle of OFDM Transmission Technology:
As stated above OFDM is a multi-carrier modulation technology where every sub-carrier
is orthogonal to each other. The "orthogonal" part of the OFDM name indicates that there is a
precise mathematical relationship between the frequencies of the carriers in the system. It is
possible to arrange the carriers in an OFDM Signal so that the sidebands of the individual
carriers overlap and the signals can still be received without adjacent carriers interference. In
order to do this the carriers must be mathematically orthogonal. Two signals are orthogonal if
their dot product is zero. That is, if we take two signals multiply them together and if their
integral over an interval is zero, then two signals are orthogonal in that interval. Since the
carriers are all sine/cosine wave, we know that area under one period of a sine or a cosine wave
is zero which is as shown below.

Figure.2.4 The area under a sine and a cosine wave over one period is always zero

If a sine wave of frequency m is multiplied by a sinusoid (sine or cosine) of a frequency

n, then the product is given by
f ( t )=sin mwt sin nwt

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Where both m and n are integers. By simple trigonometric relationship, this is equal to a
sum of two sinusoids of frequencies (n-m) and (n+m). Since these two components are each a
sinusoid, the integral is equal to zero over one period. The integral or area under this product is
given by
2

1
1
cos ( mn ) wt cos ( m+n ) wt
0 2
0 2
00
So when a sinusoid of frequency n multiplied by a sinusoid of frequency m, the area
under the product is zero. In general for all integers n and m, sinmx cosmx, cosnx, sinnx are all
orthogonal to each other. These frequencies are called harmonics.
As the sub carriers are orthogonal, the spectrum of each carrier has a null at the center
frequency of each of the other carriers in the system. This results in no interference between the
carriers, allowing them to be spaced as close as theoretically possible. The orthogonality allows
simultaneous transmission on a lot of sub-carriers in a tight frequency space without interference
from each other as shown in Figure 2.6.

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Figure.2.5 Single Carrier of OFDM Signal

Figure.2.6 Carriers of OFDM Signal

So in the receiver side easily we can extract the individual sub-carriers. But in traditional
FDM systems overlapping of carriers are not possible, rather a guard band is provided between
each carrier to avoid inter-carrier interference which is as shown below.

Figure.2.7 Spectrum of FDM

2.6.4 OFDM Generation and Reception:

Figure 2.8 shows the block diagram of a typical OFDM transceiver. The transmitter
section converts digital data to be transmitted, into a mapping of subcarrier amplitude and phase.
It then transforms this spectral representation of the data into the time domain using an Inverse
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Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT). The Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) performs the
same operations as an IDFT, except that it is much more computationally efficiency, and so is
used in all practical systems. In order to transmit the OFDM signal the calculated time domain
signal is then mixed up to the required frequency. The receiver performs the reverse operation of
the transmitter, mixing the RF signal to base band for processing, then using a Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) to analyze the signal in the frequency domain. The amplitude and phase of the
subcarriers is then picked out and converted back to digital data. The IFFT and the FFT are
complementary function and the most appropriate term depends on whether the signal is being
received or generated. In cases where the signal is independent of this distinction then the term
FFT and IFFT is used interchangeably. The binary data sent at the transmitter side is compared
with the binary data received at the receiver. Bit error rate is calculated by comparing both the
transmitted binary data and received binary data. Here channel is considered to be additive white
Gaussian and DAC (digital to analog converter) is not considered. Similarly ADC (analog to
digital converter) is not necessary but given in the block diagram.

Figure.2.8 Basic block diagram of an OFDM system in AWGN channel.

2.6.4.1 Inter Symbol Interference:

In a multipath environment, a transmitted symbol takes different times to reach the
receiver through different propagation paths. From the receivers point of view, the channel
introduces time dispersion in which the duration of the received symbol is stretched. Extending
the symbol duration causes the current received symbol to overlap previous received symbols
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and results in inter symbol interference (ISI). In OFDM, ISI usually refers to interference of an
OFDM symbol by previous OFDM symbols. For a given system bandwidth the symbol rate for
an OFDM signal is much lower than a single carrier transmission scheme.
For example for a single carrier BPSK modulation, the symbol rate corresponds to the bit
rate of the transmission. However for OFDM the system bandwidth is broken up into N
subcarriers, resulting in a symbol rate that is N times lower than the single carrier transmission.
This low symbol rate makes OFDM naturally resistant to effects of Inter-Symbol Interference
(ISI) caused by multipath propagation. Multipath propagation is caused by the radio transmission
signal reflecting off objects in the propagation environment, such as walls, buildings, mountains,
etc. These multiple signals arrive at the receiver at different times due to the transmission
distances being different. This spreads the symbol boundaries causing energy leakage between
them.
2.6.4.2 Effect of AWGN on OFDM:
Noise exists in all communications systems operating over an analog physical channel,
such as radio. The main sources are thermal background noise, and electrical noise in the
receiver amplifiers, and inter-cellular interference. In addition to this noise can also be generated
internally to the communications system as a result of Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI), InterCarrier Interference (ICI), and Inter- Modulation Distortion (IMD). These sources of noise
decrease the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), ultimately limiting the spectral efficiency of the
system. Noise, in all its forms, is the main detrimental effect in most radio communication
systems.
It is therefore important to study the effects of noise on the communications error rate and
some of the tradeoffs that exist between the level of noise and system spectral efficiency. Most
types of noise present in radio communication systems can be modeled accurately using Additive
White Gaussian Noise (AWGN). This noise has a uniform spectral density (making it white), and
a Gaussian distribution in amplitude (this is also referred to as a normal distribution). Thermal
and electrical noise from amplification, primarily have white Gaussian noise properties, allowing
them to be modeled accurately with AWGN. Also most other noise sources have AWGN
properties due to the transmission being OFDM. OFDM signals have a flat spectral density and a
Gaussian amplitude distribution provided that the number of carriers is large (greater than about

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20 subcarriers), because of this the inter-cellular interference from other OFDM systems have
AWGN properties. For the same reason ICI, ISI, and IMD also have AWGN properties for
OFDM signals.

2.7 Advantages of OFDM:

OFDM has several advantages over single carrier modulation systems and these make it a
viable alternative for CDMA in future wireless networks. In this section, I will discuss some of
these advantages.
2.7.1 Multipath Delay Spread Tolerance:
OFDM is highly immune to multipath delay spread that causes inter-symbol interference
in wireless channels. Since the symbol duration is made larger (by converting a high data rate
signal into Nlow rate signals), the effect of delay spread is reduced by the same factor. Also by
introducing the concepts of guard time and cyclic extension, the effects of inter-symbol
interference (ISI) and inter-carrier interference (ICI) is removed completely.
2.7.2 Immunity to Frequency Selective Fading Channels:
If the channel undergoes frequency selective fading, then complex equalization
techniques are required at the receiver for single carrier modulation techniques. But in the case of
OFDM the available bandwidth is split among many orthogonal narrowly spaced sub-carriers.
Thus the available channel bandwidth is converted into many narrow flat- fading sub-channels.
Hence it can be assumed that the sub-carriers experience flat fading only, though the channel
gain/phase associated with the sub-carriers may vary. In the receiver, each sub-carrier just needs
to be weighted according to the channel gain/phase encountered by it. Even if some sub-carriers
are completely lost due to fading, proper coding and interleaving at the transmitter can recover
the user data.
2.7.3 Efficient Modulation and Demodulation:
Modulation and Demodulation of the sub-carriers is done using IFFT and FFT methods
respectively, which are computationally efficient. By performing the modulation and
demodulation in the digital domain, the need for highly frequency stable oscillators is avoided.
OFDM makes efficient use of the spectrum by allowing overlap.

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Figure.2.9 Spectrum Efficiency of OFDM Compared to FDM

OFDM achieves high spectral efficiency by allowing the sub-carriers to overlap in the
frequency domain. If the number of subcarriers is N and T s is symbol duration, then total
bandwidth required is
BWtotal =

(N +1)
Ts

On the other hand, the bandwidth required for serial transmission of the same data is
BWtotal =

2N
Ts

2.7.4 Robustness to Frequency Selective Fading channels:

In a multipath channel the reflected signals that are delayed, add to the main signal and
cause either gains in the signal strength or loss (deep fade) in the signal strength. Deep fade
means the signal is nearly wiped out. In a channel where deep fades occurs at selected
frequencies is called a frequency selective fading channel (Figure. 2.12) & those frequencies
depends upon the environment.
In a single carrier system the entire signal is lost during the fading intervals. But as in
case of OFDM the signal consists of many sub-carriers, so only few sub-carriers are affected
during the fading intervals (Figure. 2.13) & hence a very small percentage of the signal is lost
which can be easily recovered.

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Figure. 2.10 Signal and the channel frequency response

Figure. 2.11 Fading channel frequency response

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Figure.2.12 Robustness of OFDM to Frequency Selective fading channel

Makes efficient use of the spectrum by allowing overlap by dividing the channel into
narrowband flat fading sub channels, OFDM is more resistant to frequency selective fading than
single carrier systems i.e. robustness to frequency selective fading channels. Eliminates ISI
through use of a cyclic prefix. Using adequate channel coding and interleaving one can recover
symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel
Channel equalization becomes simpler than by using adaptive equalization techniques
with single carrier systems. It is possible to use maximum likelihood decoding with reasonable
complexity. OFDM is computationally efficient by using FFT techniques to implement the
modulation and demodulation functions. It is less sensitive to sample timing offsets than single
carrier systems. Provides good protection against co channel interference and impulsive parasitic
noise.

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CHAPTER 03
APPLICATION AND PROBLEMS OF OFDM

CHAPTER 03
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APPLICATION AND PROBLEMS OF OFDM

3.1 Applications of OFDM:
3.1.1 General:
We have seen that OFDM is digital transmission technique well suited for wideband, high
data rate transmissions. The main advantage is that less equalization is necessary. A consequence
of that is OFDM is not a very good solution for one to one communications with several users on
shared channels, because of the problem of frequency allocation. However on super high
frequency bands (SHF) and Extremely high frequency bands (EHF) where occupied bandwidth
is not a great problem, OFDM may be a good solution for one to one communications. But,
nowadays, OFDM is mainly used for one to many (broadcast) communications like radio or
television broadcasting. Thats why we find OFDM on several new digital broadcasting systems
such as DAB and DVB.
3.1.2 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB):
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) is an international, standardized digital broadcasting
system developed by the European EUREKA-147 Project. The system should completely
replace, in the future, the well-known analog FM (Frequency Modulation) radio system on the
88-108 MHz frequency band. The DAB system is digital and provides CD-like audio quality.
DAB is much more robust to interferences and is well suited for mobile reception like in a car.
New possibilities are available on receivers like for example multimedia features (image and
texts). The transmission scheme used for DAB is OFDM modulation.DAB is being deployed
around Europe and some other countries nowadays, receivers are still expensive like CD players
in the beginning of eighties but we might expect to see a wide use of it in the next 5 years.
3.1.3 What bandwidth to use for OFDM?
The wider the bandwidth, the more probably that the system overcome the correlation
bandwidth of the channel. Problem to overcome: Short delay echoes are the main problems to
overcome, and as these are always present there is no hard bound. The narrower the bandwidth,
the more likely it is that the whole signal will be affected. There is a tradeoff between bandwidth
and transmitter power.

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Bandwidth: 7MHz few problems and 2 MHz degradation of 1dB in performance at each
point and less than 1.5MHz degradation starts to increase and 200 KHz used for FM
sound, then the margin required would be an additional 6dB or so.

Trade off: 1.5MHz for the type of propagation conditions that apply to mobile and
portable radio reception.

Bit-rate: On each carrier the modulation system used is QPSK, the carriers are separated
by a gap of around 1/Ts, where Ts is symbol period. The maximum bit rate available is so
2bit/s/Hz of the bandwidth. This figure is reduced by the inefficiency (signal redundancy)
of the guard interval, the null symbol and the error coding. For DAB, this brings the useful
bit-rate down about 1 bit/s/Hz of the bandwidth. Therefore a DAB system will provide
just less than 1.5Mbit/s of useful data. This is considerably more than 256kbit/s that
needed for high-quality stereophonic program, so the implication is that several broadcast
programs will share the same multiplex.

3.1.4 ASDL:
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is a technique to transmit high data rates
(up to 6 Mb/s downlink, 640kb/s uplink) on Subscriber Lines (telephone lines). Such lines
consist of twisted copper wires. The idea is to use the full capacity of the line instead of using
only 4 kHz needed to transmit voice. Occupied bandwidth goes to 1.1 MHz The main problem is
that the characteristics of the line change among users. They change with distance, presence of
bridged taps in the line, neighborhood of other lines. The results are reflections at certain
frequencies which cause attenuation, velocity dependant of the frequency which causes ISI. The
situation is very similar to wireless channels.
There are 2 possible modulation schemes usable for ADSL: CAP (Carrier less amplitude
phase) that is similar to QAM and Discrete Multi tone (DMT) that is another appellation for
OFDM. Nowadays, it seems that DMT is the retained candidate for ADSL. The downlink
consists of 222 tones (carriers) and uplink is spitted in 24 tones. 2 to 15 bits are coded by tone.
The transmission rate is optimized with respect to line conditions. If transmission on one of the
tone is disrupted because of strong reflections and interferences at the frequency band,
transmission is suspended on that tone by modem.

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3.1.5 HIPERLAN2:
HiperLAN2 is the all new high performance radio technology, specifically suited for
operating in LAN environments. HiperLAN2 is a technology being developed within the
European Telecommunications Standardization Institute (ETSI) and a final specification is due to
be finalized at the end of 1999 or beginning of 2000.HiperLAN2 operates in the unlicensed 5
GHz frequency band, which has been specifically allocated to wireless LANs. In contrast to the
IEEE 802.11 wireless Ethernet technology, HiperLAN2 is connection-oriented. Connections over
the air are time-division multiplexed. Connections can also be assigned different Quality of
Service (QOS) This QOS support allows for the transmission of a mix of different types of
technologies, e.g. voice, video, and data. There are also specific connections for Unicast,
multicast, and broadcast transmission.HiperLAN2 allows for interconnection into virtually any
type of fixed network technology. Thus, HiperLAN2 can carry, for example, Ethernet frames,
ATM cells, IP packets, etc. A likely first scenario for HiperLAN2 is to use it between a mobile
terminal such as a laptop, and an access point.
OFDM is the modulation used in the physical layer of HiperLAN2, with a 64 point Fast
Fourier Transform. For the subcarrier modulation we have choice between BPSK, QPSK, and
16-64 QAM; the symbol period used is 3.6s with a guard interval of 0.8s (optionally 0.4s).
The demodulation is coherent. OFDM obviously provides intentionally wide frequency band and
a potential bit-rate of 54Mbit/s.
Domestic electronics like televisions, cameras, stereo equipment and computers can all
be interconnected by HiperLAN2 using small H2 modules which automatically establish
connectivity. HiperLAN2 allows multimedia equipment to be intelligently controlled from any
computing device in the home without the need for network cables. HiperLAN2 also has strong
security support, including both authentication and encryption and has a built-in facility for
automatic frequency allocation, removing the need for frequency planning.
3.1.6 Other Applications:
1. Wireless ATM transmission system.
2. IEEE802.11a and IEEE802.11g.

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3.2 Problems in OFDM:

3.2.1 Synchronization:
One of the crucial problems in the receiver is to sample the incoming signal correctly. If
the wrong sequence of samples is processed, the Fast Fourier Transform shall not correctly
recover the received data on the carriers. The problem is more embarrassing when the receiver is
switched on. There is therefore a need for acquiring timing lock. If the signal transmitted is really
time domain periodic, as required for the FFT to be correctly applied, then the effect of the time
displacement is to modify the phase of all carriers by a known amount. This is due to the time
shift theorem in convolution transform theory.

Figure.3.1 Synchronization of OFDM signal

However, the signal is not really repetitive, we have cheated and performed the
mathematical transform as if it were repetitive, but then chosen different symbols and transmitted
them one after the other. The effect of the time shift would then be not only to add the phase shift
referred to above, but also to add some Inter symbol interference with adjacent symbols. This
interference could hardly degrade reception. To avoid these problems, we decide to transmit
more than one complete sequence of time samples in order to increase the tolerance in timing.
Its an additional data guard interval. It is built by repeating a set as long as channel memory of
last samples taken in the original sequence. One technique used to obtain good synchronization
is to add between each OFDM symbol a null (zero samples) symbol. This technique is used in
DAB for time Synchronization.
3.2.2 Phase Noise:
At the receiver, a local oscillator can add phase noise to an OFDM signal, for example.
The phase noise could so have two effects those are: Common Phase Error (CPE) due to a
rotation of the signal constellation and, Inter Carrier Interference (ICI), similar to additive
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Gaussian noise. The BBC R&D have made analysis of the effects of phase noise on an OFDM
signal, this analysis shows that CPE arises simultaneously on all carriers. Indeed, the signal
constellation within a given symbol is subject to the same rotation for all carriers and this effect
can be corrected by using reference information within the same symbol. Unfortunately, ICI is
more difficult to overcome, due to the additive noise, which is different for all carriers.
3.2.3 Frequency Error:
An OFDM system can be subject to two types of frequency error. They are Frequency
offset (as might be caused by the tolerance of the local oscillator frequency) and, Error in the
receiver master clock frequency (which will cause the spacing of the demodulating carriers to be
different from those transmitted). Before to find solutions to those problems, the system designer
needs to determine how much residual frequency error is permissible, and understand exactly
how errors affect the received signal. Both of these error situations have been analyzed so; a
frequency offset affects most carriers equally, with the very edge carrier less affected. ICI
resulting from a fixed absolute frequency offset increases with the number of carriers, if the
system bandwidth is kept constant. About error in the receiver clock frequency, in absence of
frequency offset, it affects carriers unequally (the center carrier suffers a little while the worst
affected carrier lies close to, but not at, the edge).
3.2.4 Disadvantages of OFDM Compared to Single Carrier:
The OFDM signal has a noise like amplitude with a very large dynamic range; therefore
it requires RF power amplifiers with a high peak to average power ratio. It is more sensitive to
carrier frequency offset and drift than single carrier systems are due to leakage of the DFT.
3.2.5 Intra Symbol Interference:
The guard interval is not used in practical systems because it does not prevent an OFDM
symbol from interfering with itself. This type of interference is called intra symbol interference.
The solution to the problem of intra symbol interference involves a discrete time property. Recall
that in continuous-time, a convolution in time is equivalent to a multiplication in the frequencydomain. This property is true in discrete-time only if the signals are of infinite length or if at least
one of the signals is periodic over the range of the convolution. It is not practical to have an
infinite-length OFDM symbol; however, it is possible to make the OFDM symbol appear
periodic.
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3.3 OFDM ANALYSIS:

3.3.1 Channel:
When doing radio transmission on high frequencies (VHF and higher) we are often
confronted to a multipath environment. Such environment is found mostly in urban areas where
buildings reflect waves.
3.3.2 Frequency Selectivity:
One problem of multipath is that the resultant of waves from different paths can be
constructive or destructive depending on the position, so signal change over time when moving.
You can experiment that when listening on FM radios while driving in a city: signal is cut by
noise when moving. Generally we speak of a frequency selective channel. Characteristics may
change fast when moving. Thats why the channel is also time varying. The aim of equalization
is to compensate the problems introduced by frequency selectivity.

Figure.3.2 Frequency response of a channel suffering from multipath propagation

3.3.3 Delay Spread:

Another effect that affects digital transmission is that the signal coming from different
paths has different time delays depending on the length of path.

Figure.3.3 Delay Spread

3.3.4 The Problem of Wideband Transmission on a Single Carrier:

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When transmitting wideband on frequency selective channels, equalization must be

performed in order to avoid inter symbol interference. Equalization try to make the channel flat.
In order to do that channel state information is needed. Training sequences have then to be
transmitted periodically to estimate channel. Channel estimation is performed by several
calculations and is then CPU time consuming. So when data rate is high and when characteristics
of channel change rapidly CPU power needed is high and system become expensive. Also is the
symbol period very small compared to the channel memory. That cause strong Inter symbol
Interference (ISI) and equalization is needed to correct that problem.

Figure.3.4 Equalization

3.3.5 Multi carrier transmission:

The idea of multicarrier transmission is to divide bandwidth in several narrow band
transmissions so that the channel looks flat on each carrier. The data stream to transmit is then
split among the carriers instead of being transmitted on one carrier with large signal bandwidth.
Thats what is meant by Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM). The advantage is that no or less
complex equalization is needed. The symbol period on each carrier become large and the effect
of channel memory (length of channel impulse response) become less destructive on the
symbols, so inter symbol interference (ISI) is reduced and less equalization is needed.

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Figure.3.5 Multi Carrier Transmission.

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CHAPTER 04
CHANNEL ESTIMATION

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CHAPTER 04
CHANNEL ESTIMATION
4.1 Baseband Model
Block diagram (4.1) is a baseband model for OFDM

Fi
gure.4.1 Digital implementation of a baseband OFDM system

The binary information is first grouped, coded, and mapped according to the modulation
in a signal mapper. After the guard band is inserted, an N-point inverse discrete-time Fourier
transform (IDFTN) block transforms the data sequence into time domain (note that N is typically
256 or larger). Following the IDFT block, a cyclic extension of time length TG, chosen to be
larger than the expected delay spread, is inserted to avoid inter symbol and inter carrier
interferences. The D/A converter contain low-pass filters with bandwidth 1/TS, where TS is the
sampling interval. The channel is modeled as an impulse response g(t) followed by the complex
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) n(t), where m is a complex values and 0

m T s

TG.

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

t m T s
m ()
M

g ( t )=
m=1

At the receiver, after passing through the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and
removing the CP, the DFTN is used to transform the data back to frequency domain. Lastly, the
binary information data is obtained back after the demodulation and channel decoding. Let
X =[ X K ]T

and

Y =[Y K ] T

denote the input data of IDFT block at the transmitter and the

output data of DFT block at the receiver, respectively. Let

g=[g n ]T

and

n =[nn ]T

(n=0,,

N-1) denote the sampled channel impulse response and AWGN, respectively. Define the input
X
matrix X = diag ) and the DFT matrix,

W 00

W 0N(N 1)
N
F=

(N 1)0
(N 1) ( N1)
WN
WN

ik

1 J 2 ( N )
i,k

( )

Where W N ( N )
. Also define H=DFT N g =F g , N =F n .

Under the assumption that the interferences are completely eliminated [13], you can derive:
X

IDFT N ( g+n )= X F g + N= X H + N
Y =DFT N
This equation demonstrates that an OFDM system is equivalent to a transmission of data
over a set of parallel channels.
As a result, the fading channel of the OFDM system can be viewed as a 2D lattice in a
time-frequency plane, which is sampled at pilot positions and the channel characteristics between
pilots are estimated by interpolation. The art in designing channel estimators is to solve this

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

problem with a good trade-off between complexity and performance. The two basic 1D channel
estimations in OFDM systems are illustrated in Figure 2. The first one, block-type pilot channel
estimation, is developed under the assumption of slow fading channel, and it is performed by
inserting pilot tones into all subcarriers of OFDM symbols within a specific period. The second
one, comb-type pilot channel estimation, is introduced to satisfy the need for equalizing when the
channel changes even from one OFDM block to the subsequent one. It is thus performed by
inserting pilot tones into certain subcarriers of each OFDM symbol, where the interpolation is
needed to estimate the conditions of data subcarriers. The strategies of these two basic types are
analyzed in the next sections.

Figure.4.2 Types of channel estimation for OFDM system

4.1.1 Block-Type Pilot Channel Estimation

In block-type pilot-based channel estimation, as shown in Figure 2, OFDM channel
estimation symbols are transmitted periodically, and all subcarriers are used as pilots. The task
here is to estimate the channel conditions (specified by or ) given the pilot signals (specified by
matrix or vector ) and received signals (specified by ), with or without using certain knowledge
of the channel statistics. The receiver uses the estimated channel conditions to decode the
received data inside the block until the next pilot symbol arrives. The estimation can be based on
least square (LS), minimum mean-square error (MMSE), and modified MMSE.
4.1.1.1 LS Estimator

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

The LS estimator minimizes the parameter ( Y X H ) (Y X H ) , where ( ) H means

the conjugate transpose operation. It is shown that the LS estimator of

is given by

XK
)
YK

^
H LS = X1 Y =
(

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 05
WORK DONE

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 05
WORK DONE
5.1 Diffused and Line-of-sight Environment for OFDM
Basically two areas have been addressed in this project, first is the power efficiency of
OFDM and second is the SNR of OFDM.
I have completed this work in four parts; in first section I had done analysis of
implementation of OFDM system by all optically and conventional method. In second section
comparison is done between SC-CP systems for wireless and OFDM system for wireless. In the
third section I have worked upon power efficiency of the system and finally implementation of
OFDM using pilot based channel estimation to improve SNR of the system is done.
Inserting pilot signals uniformly in all symbols for channel estimation is in diffused link
was introduced by S. K. Hashemi and his colleagues in [11]. The main idea is to use OFDM
system that utilizes pilot based channel estimation method for equalization at the receiver end. At
the transmitter binary data is mapped to a specific modulation (QPSK, 16 QAM) and the
modulated data undergoes serial to- parallel conversion.
When the question of implementation of OFDM comes for wireless communication we
can use either conventional OFDM system or optical OFDM. In [12] review and comparison
between optical OFDM and conventional OFDM is given. Conventional digital signal processing
scheme will not be applicable for optical system because data speed is beyond the signal
processing speed. In conventional OFDM the output of the IDFT is added together, this is
implemented optically using the optical coupler to add the optical signals and correlated with
each other. A cyclic prefix (CP) should be added to overcome the ISI and inter carrier
interference (ICI). The CP is a crucial feature of OFDM; the basic idea is to replicate a part of the
OFDM time-domain waveform from back of the OFDM symbol to front to create a guard period.
The duration of the guard period should be greater than the worst case delay spread of the target
multi path environment. This is a challenging technique in optical signals as it is difficult to
optically copy and paste. This is overcome using optical gates and what we called optical cyclic
prefix. The optical cyclic prefix is divided into two branches by an optical coupler; the first is the
fiber delay line and the second is the optical switch. The optical switch is used to cut the last
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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

guard time of the active ray period and sum it to the front of the optical ray by an optical coupler
after it is delayed by the symbol period. Optical transmitter is used to propagate light to the
wireless optical channel. At the receiver side, optical OFDM signal is detected by an optical
receiver and then the optical cyclic prefix is removed. The DFT and optical demodulator are
performed to get the corresponding transmitted bit streams.
The DFT consists of fiber delay lines and phase shifters. The delay lines realize
orthogonality by having different lengths. The phase shifters implement the different subcarriers
that are orthogonal. Another approach for performing the CP is by using the optical cavity as
optical delay lines. The optical cavity can be used as multipath optical delay lines, folding a light
beam so that a long path-length may be achieved in a small space. A plane-parallel cavity with
the flat mirrors produces a flat zigzag light path.
In the second section I have done the analysis for optical OFDM and other with
conventional OFDM. Here I found that the results with implementation of conventional OFDM
are better than optical OFDM.
When I investigate the results for SNR Vs error of probability for fig.(5.1) where Pe = 107
at SNR =10 db while for same SNR for fig.(5.2) Pe =0.1 which is unacceptable for diffused
environment hence we cannot used this technique for diffused wireless environment.

`
Figure.5.1 Probability of error vs signal to noise ratio in diffused environment.

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

Figure.5.2 Probability of error Vs signal to noise ratio in LOS environment.

5.2 Front End Model for Power Efficient OFDM

Power efficiency is popular problem for OFDM; various methods are proposed to
improve power efficiency of the OFDM. In [13] OFDM Vs SC- CP is compared with respect to
power efficiency and influence of front end non- idealities on the digital modem are addressed.
The system setup for above is shown in figure. [5.3].

Fig. 5.3 System setup containing the baseband and front-end models.

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

The digital modem is sampled at 20 MHz. The OFDM system uses 64 sub-carriers per
symbol, out of which 48 carry data, 4 are pilot signals and 12 are zero carriers. The cyclic prefix
contains 16 samples. The SC-CP system equivalently contains 64 time samples per symbol, and
also a cyclic prefix of 16 samples. OFDM with 64QAM modulation (hereafter labeled OFDM64QAM). We compare OFDM-64QAM to SC-CP with 64QAM modulation (SC-64QAM). The
results are shown for a coding rate of 314 with hard decoding in the receiver. The equalization is
done with perfect channel knowledge. I have obtained the presented results for a Gaussian
channel, since all specifications for the front-end implementation loss are standardized for
Gaussian channels. All effects are considered at the transmit side only. This is justified since we
are studying an up-link scenario: the transmitter is a terminal with a non-ideal front-end, while
the receiver is a base station with close-to-ideal resources available. As in every digital modem,
the word length and the clipping level at the output of the digital transmitter modem and the
input of the receiver modem have a large impact The large PAPR of an OFDM signal requires a
highly linear power amplifier ; therefore the non-linearity of the power amplifier must be taken
into account. Without lose of generality, assumed that the number of pilots is even which
simplifies zero padding into the IFFT, simulated result is shown in figure. (5.4)

Fig. 5.4 OFDM and SC-CP have the same sensitivity to I/Q gain

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

When I study this system I found that even if OFDM and SC-CP display the same
sensitivity to some parameters such as phase noise and I/Q imbalance, front end non- idealities
disturb the digital modem performanance after some extent hence in multipath environment SCCP is not preferable. One of the solutions is to construct the system which will switch over
automatically when direct link and diffused link will interchange.
5.3 Baseband Model for OFDM Channel Estimation
Further in [14] I found better option to save the power for OFDM. Here all negative
values of the signals are forced to be zero because very less information in negative value signals
is present. Here it is shown that if the subcarrier frequencies used for data transmission are
correctly chosen, the data can be retrieved from a signal of this form with little, or for some
configurations, no in-band clipping noise.
Above method shows promising results to save the power in OFDM. From the literature
survey base band model for power efficient OFDM is designed as shown in fig. (5.5). The same
models is used for simulation in this project.

Figure. 5.5 Baseband model for OFDM channel estimation

In the final stage of the project to mitigate the inter symbol interference (ISI) problem for
multipath propagation pilot aided OFDM system is developed for wireless environment and
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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

investigation is done for SNR Vs BER for some parameters using BPSK, QPSK, 16 QAM
modulation is done also channel estimation using LSE estimator is done.
Simulations for three modulation techniques are done with following parameters

Table 5.1 Parameters for simulation

Parameter
Number of bits per symbol
Number of symbols

Specification
52
4
10

Length of FFT
Number of sub- carriers
Signal constellation

64
52
BPSK, QPSK, 16 QAM

Bit error probability curve for BPSK using OFDM

-1

10

-2

BER

10

-3

10

-4

10

-5

10

6
EbNo

10

12

Figure.5.6 BPSK modulation for OFDM

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

Bit error probability curve for QPSK using OFDM

-1

10

-2

BER

10

-3

10

-4

10

-5

10

6
8
EbNo
Figure.5.7 QPSK modulation for OFDM

10

12

Bit error probability curve for qam using OFDM

10

simulated
theoritical
-1

10

-2

BER

10

-3

10

-4

10

-5

10

EbNo

10

15

Figure.5.8 QAM modulation for OFDM

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

When we compare the results for three modulations i.e. BPSK, QPSK, 16 QAM the result
for QAM modulation is promising, hence I use same modulation technique for channel
estimation.
When channel estimation is done with inserting the pilot signals SNR improved
significantly.
0

10

-1

Bit Error Rate

10

-2

10

-3

10

-4

10

10

15
SNR in dB

20

25

30

Figure.5.9 Pilot based channel estimation for OFDM

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 06
CONCLUSION

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

CHAPTER 06
CONCLUSION
6.1 Conclusion
In this project the performanance of OFDM system in the presence pilot signals has been
studied in terms of bit error rate (BER) and signal to noise ratio (SNR) performance. For
implementation of OFDM for wireless system two methods are explored one with optical and
other with conventional digital signal processing, conventional method is proposed.
When we consider optical signals conventional method of digital signal processing does
not work because of the high speed data but that system is power inefficient.
In 4G wireless system high data rate is necessary, when high data rate is considered high
signal to noise ratio becomes (SNR) significant. The channel estimation for the OFDM system
can be done by two ways block type and comb type, for both the channel estimation pilot
insertion is necessary. In block type channel estimation pilots are inserted between blocks of the
signals, this estimation is suitable for slow fading channel. For wireless system diffused link is
most likely fading is on higher end so block type channel estimation will not be suitable on other
side in comb type channel estimation pilot signals are inserted between the symbols. In this
project later is used for channel estimation. In the pilot based channel estimation it is observed
that when the number of pilot increases better signal to noise ratio (SNR) is achieved.
For power efficiency the comparison between SC-CP and OFDM is done, two type of
links are possible in wireless system line of sight link and diffused link, for line of sight link SCCP works well but for diffused link we have to adopt OFDM.
Increasing the number of pilot signals SNR is improved but data rate get affected
significantly
6.2 Scope of Future Work

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Following are the areas of future study which can be considered for further research work.
1. In this work the BER performance of the OFDM system is evaluated considering BPSK,
QPSK and 16 QAM Modulation systems. It can be tested with other modulation systems
such as GMSK.
2. To improve power efficiency in optical wireless system instead of adding DC biasing
directly, it can be added after making negative side of the signal forcibly zero.
3. It is mentioned that for direct link wireless system SC- CP is power efficient but for
diffused link it becomes unacceptable hence system can be designed which will work in
switching mode.
4. Increasing the number of pilot signals SNR is improved but data rate get affected
significantly, so unnecessary pilot signals can be removed before transmission.

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References
[1]

J. Armstrong, Analysis of new and existing methods of reducing inter carrier

Interference due to carrier frequency offset in OFDM, IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 47, No.
3, pp. 365369, Mar. 1999.

[2]

P. H. Moose, A technique for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing frequency offset

correction, IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 42, no.10, pp. 29082914, 1994.

[3]

H .Harada and R. Prasad, Simulation & Software Radio for Mobile Communications,
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[4]

V. N. Richard and R. Prasad, OFDM for Wireless Multimedia Communication, Artech

house Publisher, London, 2000.

[5]

Wikipedia the Free encyclopedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/

[6]

T. S. Rapp port, Wireless Communications, principles and practice, 2nd Edition, PrenticeHall publications, 2002.

[7]

S. Weinstein and P. Ebert, Data Transmission by Frequency Division Multiplexing Using

the Discrete Fourier Transform, IEEE Trans. On Commun. vol.19, Issue: 5, pp. 628634,
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[8]

A. Peled and A. Ruiz, Frequency domain data transmission using reduced Computational
complexity algorithms, Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, IEEE International
Conference on ICASSP '80, vol. 5, pp.964 967, Apr. 1980.

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A Project report on Pilot Based OFDM Channel Estimation

[9]

B. Hirosaki, An analysis of automatic equalizers for orthogonally multiplexed QAM

Systems, IEEE Trans. Commun. , vol. COM-28, pp.73-83, Jan.1980.

[10] L. J. Cimini, Analysis and simulation of a digital mobile channel using orthogonal
Frequency division multiplex , IEEE Trans. Communications. Vol. COM- 33, pp. 665675. July 1985.
[11] S. K. Hashemi, Z. Ghassemlooy, L. Chao and D. Benhaddou - Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing for Indoor Optical Wireless Communications using Visible Light
LEDs IEEE Proceedings on comm. and signal processing CSNDSP08 vol. 44 No. 10 pp
174-178, 2008.
[12] M. K. Bivalkar, S. B. Deosarkar - Review of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
For Optical Wireless 2nd National conference on Emerging trends in information technology
(NCETIT 10).

[13] Jan Tubbax, Boris C6me, Liesbet Van der Perre, Luc Deneire, Stephane Donnay, Marc
Engels- OFDM versus Single Carrier with Cyclic Prefix: a system-based comparison||
IEEE Trans. Communications. Vol 49 PP 1115-1119. 2001
[14] J. Armstrong and A.J. Lowery- Power efficient optical OFDM, Electronics letters 16th
March 2006 Vol. 42 No. 6 PP 2006.
[15] Yushi Shen and Ed Martinez- Channel estimation in OFDM system, Free scale
semiconductor Application note, 2006.
[16] M.K. Bivalkar and S.L. Nalbalwar CP orthogonal frequency division multiplexing Vs
SC- CP for indoor wireless International conference and workshop on emerging trends in
technology (ICWET 2011)

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