The Intertrans Group: Controlling Road Rage

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Controlling Road Rage:

A Literature Review and Pilot Study


Prepared for the

The AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety

By

Daniel B. Rathbone, Ph.D.


Jorg C. Huckabee, MSCE

June 9, 1999

The InterTrans Group

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Table of Contents

Executive Summary
I. Introduction
II. Methodology
III. Results
A. Literature Search
1. Legislation
a. Recent Legislation
2. Implemented Programs at the Regional, State and Local Levels
3. Methods Used
a. Education
b. Enforcement
c. Self-help Methods
d. Penalties for Offenders
e. Call-in Cellular and Other Telephone Systems
f. Intelligent Transportation Systems and Photo Enforcement
g. The Internet
h. Driver Education
i. Other Countries
4. Literature Search on Characteristics of Road Rage Incidents
B. Results of the National Survey
C. Results of the Detailed Survey
D. Results of the Survey Characteristics of Road Rage Incidents
IV. Synthesis of Results
V.

Conclusions and Recommendations

VI. Bibliography
VII. Appendices

16

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Executive Summary
This report discusses results of a literature review and pilot study on how to prevent
aggressive driving and road rage. The study Controlling Road Rage: A Literature
Review and Pilot Study defines road rage as an incident in which an angry or
impatient motorist or passenger intentionally injures or kills another motorist,
passenger, or pedestrian, or attempts or threatens to injure or kill another motorist,
passenger, or pedestrian. It must be emphasized that road rage and aggressive
driving are not synonymous. Road rage is uncontrolled anger that results in violence
or threatened violence on the road; it is criminal behavior. Aggressive driving does not
rise to the level of criminal behavior. Aggressive driving includes tailgating, abrupt lane
changes, and speeding, alone or in combination. These potentially dangerous
behaviors are traffic offenses, but are not criminal behavior.
This report discusses results of a literature review and three surveys. The literature
review identified recent legislation to combat aggressive driving and road rage. On the
state level, only Virginia and Arizona have enacted specific legislation for this purpose.
A national survey and a follow-up detailed survey identified three organizations with
highly rated road rage interventions that included rigorous evaluation components.
These are the New York City Police Department, the New Jersey State Police
Department, and the West Valley City Police Department. The New Jersey program
was the only one that responded to a request for more information. Indications are that
the New Jersey program may be a good model for other jurisdictions.
A supplemental survey on road rage characteristics asked U.S. law enforcement
personnel about actual road rage incidents. Most respondents say road rage is a
problem in their area. Although based on a small sample, there appears to be a
slightly higher incidence of road rage incidents during the Friday afternoon peak travel
times, during fair weather, under moderately congested conditions, and in urban areas.
Incidence does not appear to be influenced by proximity to holidays. However, alcohol
and/or drugs were found to be associated with one quarter of incidents.
Enforcement and education are the most commonly used interventions to prevent
aggressive driving and road rage. Legislation is another avenue, but so far the
enactment of statutes has been impeded by existing laws that address this issue and
by concerns about ambiguous wording. Results suggest that enforcement efforts
should be accompanied by public information campaigns. Cooperative programs were
found to be effective for distributing resources and creating invisible patrol boundaries.
Interagency liaisons also offer economies of scale to smaller jurisdictions that have
smaller advertising budgets. Intelligent transportation systems also show promise for
deterring aggressive driving and road rage, mainly through the use of intersection
cameras.

I. Introduction
3

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Concern over aggressive driving and road rage has swept the United States in the final
decade of the 20th century. While still relatively infrequent, the number of incidents
appears to be growing. The apparent randomness of the victims and perpetrators
frightens the public, yet motorists who wish to avoid confrontations are ill informed
about the precursors leading to aggressive driving or how to defuse potentially
dangerous traffic situations. Likewise, little practical information exists on how
organizations can intervene to curb road rage.
Definitions of road rage vary and too often go unstated. In this study, road rage is
defined as an incident in which an angry or impatient motorist or passenger
intentionally injures or kills another motorist, passenger, or pedestrian, or attempts or
threatens to injure or kill another motorist, passenger or pedestrian. In this sense,
road rage incidents can be distinguished from other traffic incidents by their willful and
criminal nature. They are serious crimes that just happen to occur within the roadway
environment.
Law enforcement agencies, the transportation community, and other organizations
concerned with roadway safety have responded to the perceived road rage epidemic
in various ways. In March 1998, the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety awarded a
contract to the InterTrans Group to conduct a literature review and pilot study on
aggressive driving and road rage.
The literature search was aimed at identifying promising interventions. A survey was
faxed to law enforcement and transportation organizations in the fifty largest
metropolitan areas nationwide. A second, detailed survey was designed to elicit more
in-depth information from national survey respondents who indicated they had
implemented aggressive driving programs. To determine the conditions under which
road rage incidents are most likely to occur, a third supplemental survey on the
characteristics of road rage incidents was also faxed to recipients of the national
survey.
Promising interventions are identified based on the literature search and the first two
surveys. The results of the third survey and a portion of the second survey, on
characteristics of road rage incidents, were tabulated and a profile of typical road rage
conditions is presented. Specific recommendations are then developed for
organizations wishing to implement programs, and finally, suggestions for further
research are provided.

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

II.

Methodology

A. Literature Search
A literature search was conducted to identify strategies that have been implemented in
the United States and other countries to combat aggressive driving and road rage.
Sources include the Internet, proprietary databases such as Dow Jones
News/Retrieval, Pro-Quest, The New York Times @ OnDisc, Uncover web, TRIS, and
periodicals, public information brochures, books, videotapes, and newspapers. The
search was not intended to be comprehensive; rather its aim was to provide an
overview of interventions currently in use to combat aggressive driving.
B. National Survey
The first survey was designed to identify organizations that have implemented
programs to combat aggressive driving. The survey was faxed to law enforcement
organizations and to public works and traffic engineering departments. Between May
1st and 15th 1998, surveys were sent to organizations in 504 randomly selected
jurisdictions in the fifty largest metropolitan areas. A total of 139 surveys were returned
for a response rate of 28 percent. Responses to the survey were tabulated and
organizations that have implemented programs to curb road rage were identified.
C. Detailed Survey
A second, detailed survey was developed for respondents of the initial national survey
who indicated that their organizations had implemented programs to curb road rage.
The purpose of the survey was to identify interventions that are being evaluated and
appear to reduce aggressive driving incidents. An added part of the survey, Question
15 and its subparts, was designed to obtain information about actual road rage
incidents from law enforcement and traffic professionals.
The survey was faxed between July 22 and August 18, 1998, to the 37 respondents to
the first survey who reported that their organizations had taken active measures. A
total of 16 surveys were returned for a response rate of 43 percent. Three jurisdictions
that appeared to be monitoring road rage interventions with appropriate outcome
measures were selected. Through contact with the organizations, additional
information was solicited to more completely evaluate their programs.
D. Survey on Characteristics of Road Rage Incidents
A third survey entitled Characteristics of Road Rage Incidents was faxed to the 139
respondents of the first survey and later to 150 non-respondents to the first survey. In
total, 25 surveys were returned, reporting on a total of 57 incidents. This survey
consisted only of Question 15 from the detailed survey. This question asked about the
conditions under which actual road rage incidents occur. This survey was not included
in the original research design, but it was added to boost the number of cases. The

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

results of the survey (N=57) were combined with responses to Question 15 from the
detailed survey, resulting in 80 separate occurrences of road rage.

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

III. Results
A. Literature Review
1. Legislation
Legislation directed at controlling road rage has actually been introduced in 17 states
and many other bills are under development (5). Definitional problems and concerns
about conflicts with current traffic laws are barriers to passing aggressive driving
legislation. Many of these statutes are perceived as unenforceable due to ambiguous
wording that allows for too much interpretation by law enforcement officers
(35)(42)(12)(43)(37)(48). The Mid-America Research Institute conducted a series of
focus groups for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Group
participants included judges, prosecutors, public defenders, defense attorneys and
police; none of the groups believed that specific legislation was needed to address
road rage (30).
Proposed legislation targets aggressive driving and road rage in several ways,
including developing legal definitions and recommended penalties. Other interventions
include enhanced enforcement, expanded driver education programs, and
authorization of studies to examine modifications to existing laws, rules, or policies.
Studies of the effectiveness of existing measures and, in one state, leveraging
insurance premiums to require aggressive driver education are additional interventions.
a. Recent Legislation
In 1998, nine states introduced 26 aggressive driving bills. To date, only two of these
have been enacted: Arizonas aggressive driving bill and the Virginia Drivers
Education Requirement (12)(19).
All nine of the states that introduced legislation in 1998 defined aggressive driving as a
separate charge from other driving offenses. The majority of the bills that focus on
increased penalties distinguish violent driving acts, or road rage, from aggressive
driving by charge (felony and misdemeanor, respectively), and class, so road rage
incidents are most often considered to be degrees of aggressive driving. Illinois
HB2509, however, defines separate offenses for road rage and aggravated road rage.
Six states introduced legislation that provided specific penalties for aggressive driving.
Bills that focused on educational efforts include either mandatory re-education for
convicted offenders (3 states) or the inclusion of aggressive driving in driver education
courses (3 states). Many states (such as Arizonas HB2311) have included penalties
and mandatory education within the same bill.
In addition to increased penalties and expanded driver education programs, some of
the proposed legislation encourages developing new aggressive driving interventions
and evaluating existing measures (3 states). Nebraskas LR373 calls for a study of
options for penalties and enforcement, while another bill (LR391) proposes to study
ways in which laws, rules and regulations can be modified to address aggressive
7

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

driving or road rage. New Yorks law (AB9173) proposes a public education campaign
and another bill (AB10037) provides for an evaluation of the effects of driver education
on traffic violations and road rage.
The most frequently proposed penalties for aggressive driving are fines, mandatory reeducation, suspension or revocation of drivers licenses, and points deducted for
offenses.
The salient features of the bills introduced in 1998 are summarized in Table 1. The
information is current as of December 1998.
Table 1. Legislation Introduced in 1998

State
Arizona

Bill(s)
HB2311

Connecticut

HB5267

HB5675

Hawaii

SB2054

Illinois

HB2509

Description (s)
The bill adds a section to the existing code and defines
aggressive driving as an offense. It classifies a violation as a
class 1 misdemeanor. In addition to fines and/or other
penalties, it requires that offenders attend driver training and
education and allows for a license suspension of 30 days. A
second offense within 24 months results in a class I
misdemeanor charge and a one-year license revocation, in
addition to other penalties. Approved May 26, 1998
(19)(40)(12).
The bill created a penalty for, and defined, aggressive driving.
The penalty was not to exceed $250 and a 30-day license
suspension. This bill died in the Judiciary Committee (19).
The bill allows the Commissioner of Motor Vehicles to require a
driver with two or more moving violations in one year to attend
an aggressive driving class. It required class attendance for
reckless driving and failure to stop when directed by a police
officer. This bill died in the Judiciary Committee (19).
The bill creates and defines a separate offense for aggressive
driving punishable by not less than a $200 fine or more than
$2,500 and incarceration for not less than one month or more
than one year. It establishes a mandatory minimum jail
sentence, where applicable, and a point system applied to
drivers licenses. In Judiciary Committee (19).
The bill creates and defines separate offenses for road rage
and aggravated road rage. This bill passed the House on March
27, 1998 and is pending in the Senate (19)(42)(6)(16)(43).

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Table 1. Legislation Introduced in 1998 (continued)


State
Maryland

Bill(s)
HB292

Description(s)
The bill creates and defines the offense of aggressive driving.
The bill is in the Commerce and Government Matters
Committee (19).

HB294

The bill requires driver improvement courses to include


aggressive driving in the curriculum. In Commerce and
Government Matters Committee (19).

HB989
Nebraska

LB1188

LR 373

LR 391

New York

AB8817/SB5959

Requires the Motor Vehicle Administrator to assess points for


multiple violations of aggressive driving. In Commerce and
Government Matters Committee (19).
Amends the definition of reckless driving. In Transportation
Committee (19)(62).
Studies various options for penalties and enforcement against
aggressive driving. In Transportation Committee (19)(62).
Creates a committee to study ways that the state can address
aggressive driving or road rage through modification of laws,
rules, regulations and other programs. In Transportation
Committee (19)(62).
The bill creates the offense of aggressive driving and defines
and classifies aggressive driving as a class E felony. It also
requires an aggressive driving education curriculum. In
Codes Committee (19)(22)(50).

AB9713

Authorizes the governors Traffic Safety Committee to


cooperate with other agencies in the development of a public
education campaign. In Transportation Committee
(19)(22)(50).

AB10037

Authorizes the Department of Motor Vehicles, in consultation


with the American Automobile Association (AAA), to study the
effects of driver training programs on occurrences of traffic
violations and road rage. In Transportation Committee
(19)(22)(50).

SB6956/AB11118

Requires pre-licensing and defensive driving courses to


devote a minimum of 15 minutes to the topic of road rage.
Passed Senate and referred to Assembly Transportation
Committee (19)(22)(50).

SB 7328

Directs state police to establish the Stop Aggressive


Vehicular Encounters Program and provides for increased
enforcement. In Finance Committee (19)(22)(50).

SB 7451/AB10968

Creates and classifies crimes of criminal aggressive driving. It


requires pre-licensing education on aggressive driving and
suspends or revokes licenses for violators. It also prohibits
insurance premium reductions for courses that do not
address aggressive driving. In Codes Committee
(19)(22)(50).

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Table 1. Legislation Introduced in 1998 (continued)


State
Virginia

Washington

Bill(s)
HB895

Description(s)
The bill creates and defines a separate offense for aggressive
driving and establishes penalties. Carried over to next session
(19).

HB1309/SB546

Creates and defines a separate offense for aggressive driving


and establishes penalties. HB 1309 was killed in the
Transportation Committee; however, SB546 carried over to the
next session (19).

HB896

Requires school driver education programs to include


aggressive driving. Signed by the governor on March 13, 1998
(19).

HJR169

Calls for a subcommittee to define aggressive driving and


recommend penalties. This bill was killed in Rules Committee
but the Committee has urged the Transportation Committee to
study the issue (19).
Creates, defines and establishes penalties for aggressive
driving. This bill died in the Rules Committee (19)(36).

SB6708

2. Implemented Programs at the Regional, State and Local Levels


Numerous programs have been implemented at the regional, state, and local levels to
combat aggressive driving. Efforts identified in the literature tend to include both
enhanced enforcement and media efforts. In addition to expanded enforcement
efforts, a number of jurisdictions are adding notes to tickets indicating that a driver has
been observed driving aggressively. There is some evidence that, even where specific
legislation is lacking to impose stiffer penalties on aggressive drivers, the courts are
making this distinction. In King County, Washington, Prosecutor Norm Maleng stated,
in his filing of assault second degree charges against two motorists, that road rage is a
threat to us all and it will not be tolerated (10).
Table 2 outlines the components of programs identified in the literature search that
have been implemented in the U.S. and Canada:
Table 2. Regional, State and Local Programs in the U.S. and Canada
State
Arizona

California

Program Description
This state program is the longest running in the U.S. and relies on both
enforcement and a media campaign. Several aggressive driving patrols
are scheduled each week and there is zero tolerance for the aggressive
driver (63)(15). Arizona is one of only two states that has specific
aggressive driver legislation in place.
California initiated the long-running media campaign known as Smooth
Operator- a name also adopted by the Washington, D.C. Metropolitan
Area. Enforcement activity was also expanded, including programs for
red-light running (63)(4). At the municipal level, a number of cities have
adopted San Franciscos program, known as STOP, which impounds
cars of unlicensed drivers (26).

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Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Table 2. Regional, State and Local Programs in the U.S. and Canada (continued)
State
Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

Florida

Illinois

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Missouri

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

Program Description
Colorados program began in late 1997 and features an extensive
media program as well as enhanced enforcement. Known as ADAPT
(Aggressive Drivers are Public Threats), the program relies on
unmarked cars, motorcycles, and aircraft (63)(49).
The program, which began in 1997, uses unmarked cars in conjunction
with marked patrol cars. A 911 system is available for cellular phone
callers to report aggressive drivers (63)(37).
Delawares program, known as Take It Easy, started in 1997 and
features unmarked and nontraditional vehicles in conjunction with
marked patrol cars. A media campaign with public service
announcements is also being conducted (63).
The St. Petersburg Police Department program, referred to as Wheres
Jockers? uses a variety of non-traditional vehicles and a plain-clothes
officer to record violations with a radar unit and to relay information to
patrol vehicles in the area (63).
The Illinois program, started in 1997, is a decentralized effort that relies
on individual districts using a variety of tactics. These can include
enforcement teams, catch cars, targeted patrols, air operations, covert
operations and speed enforcement (63). Notes are being added to
tickets to indicate aggravated behavior (49).
Maryland is one of three participants (the others are Virginia and
Washington, D.C.) in the Smooth Operator program conducted in the
Washington metropolitan area. The Maryland state police program,
known as ADVANCE (Aggressive Driver Video and Non-Contact
Enforcement), started in 1997 and uses digital video cameras and
lasers to record violations on the National Capital Beltway. Added
features include a televised public information campaign and letters and
photos mailed to aggressive driving offenders (59)(63)(49).
This program, started in 1997, is known as the 3D Program (for Drunk,
Drugged and Dangerous). It includes a special unit that uses videoequipped, unmarked cars (63).
Michigans effort consists of a media campaign combined with
enhanced enforcement efforts (including the use of unmarked cars) in
two existing programs: Operation C.A.R.E. and Campaign Safe & Sober
(63)(33).
The Missouri program targets typical problem areas and relies on
cooperation between the State Highway Safety Office for media efforts,
and police agencies throughout the state for enforcement. The Highway
patrol uses aircraft, unmarked patrol cars and non-conventional
vehicles to spot aggressive drivers. The state is adopting a zero
tolerance policy and enforcement officers are placing notes on tickets to
indicate aggressive driving behavior (63)(55).
New Jersey utilizes semi-marked patrol cars as well as unconventional
vehicles in a multi-agency enforcement program. The program includes
toll free and cellular telephone numbers (63)(9)(28).
The City of Albuquerque program is known as Safe Streets, and uses
intensive enforcement to focus on violent offenders and areas with high
numbers of violent felonies (63).
Begun in July 1998, the program features enforcement and education
components and has been expanded to local law enforcement
jurisdictions. Efforts rely on non-conventional vehicles and unmarked
cars, some with video cameras (63)(21)(22)(50).

11

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Table 2. Regional, State and Local Programs in the U.S. and Canada (continued)
State
Ohio

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

South Carolina

Texas

Utah

Virginia

Washington

District of Columbia
British Columbia

Ontario

Program Description
Started on July 4, 1997, the Ohio Highway Patrol statewide program is
known as TRIAD (Targeting Reckless & Intimidating Aggressive
Drivers). The program uses thirteen aircraft along with ground units
from the Highway Patrol and other local organizations (63)(60).
The Pennsylvania State Police Program is known as Ticket the
Aggressive Driver, and uses unmarked cars, aircraft and DOT vehicles
in conjunction with some plain-clothes officers (63). Operation
Centipede establishes police speed zones (46).
Rhode Island State Police began their program in 1997. It features a
media campaign and unmarked cars dedicated to an aggressive driving
patrol (63).
Started in 1997 by the Greer Police Department, the program is known
as Targeting the Aggressive Driver. It features a thorough education
component to promote community awareness and an enforcement
component (63).
Begun in 1997 by the cities of Arlington and Fort Worth, efforts include
increased attention to aggressive drivers by patrol officers and teams of
marked patrol cars and motorcycles. A motorist call-in program has also
been implemented, along with follow up letters and investigations, when
warranted (63).
The Utah Highway Patrol began its aggressive driver program in Salt
Lake City, in response to congestion resulting from freeway
construction. The program uses unmarked cars and non-conventional
vehicles in addition to a training program (63).
The Commonwealth is a participant in the regional Smooth Operator
program. Coordinated by the Fairfax County Police Department, the
effort includes Maryland and the District of Columbia in a multijurisdictional effort that utilizes coordinated enforcement waves in a
fifteen-agency effort. A special cellular phone number has been
provided for direct reporting to law enforcement organizations (63)(65).
Washington State has initiated a stepped-up law enforcement program
and Aggressive Driver Apprehension Team that uses motorcycles and
unmarked vehicles to apprehend aggressive drivers. The state has
begun compiling road rage statistics (63)(41).
The District is a participating agency in the Smooth Operator effort
along with Maryland and Virginia (63).
Begun as a speed enforcement program in 1995, this effort combines
enforcement and public information to target aggressive drivers in
British Columbia. It uses lasers and radar. Enforcement schedules are
posted on the Ministry of Attorney General Internet site (44).
The Peel Regional Police Department began their efforts in June 1996,
which includes a media campaign and intensive enforcement effort.
They have also installed a data collection system to monitor aggressive
driving. The Provincial Police conduct a separate program in Torontoarea highways (63). This program includes roadside counseling and the
use of on-the-spot surveys (24).

12

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

3. Reported methods to prevent road rage


a. Education
Many public and private organizations have launched education campaigns to teach
drivers about their own behavior and how to deal with aggressive behavior of other
drivers. For example, education campaigns have been developed by government
agencies such as the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, by the National
Safety Council, and by the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. Citizen groups, such as
Citizens Against Speeding and Aggressive Driving, and insurance companies, such as
State Farm and Allstate, have also launched education campaigns (45)(11).
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration provided funding for the Smooth
Operator project in the Washington National Capital region. This includes an intensive
public awareness campaign with distribution of educational materials, self-tests, and
public service announcements. A companion effort will study enforcement techniques.
Citizens Against Speeding and Aggressive Driving, active in the Washington, D.C.
metropolitan region, is focusing efforts on public awareness and citizen involvement in
transportation legislation. The National Safety Council has developed a widely used
driver education curriculum for aggressive driving offenders (20). The subject of driver
education is discussed more completely in Section H.
The media is a willing partner in educating the public about aggressive driving and road
rage. Radio and television public service announcements, such as the ones developed
by the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety and by the Colorado State Patrol, are popular
ways to increase public awareness. In a local example, the Nashville Tennessean
provided readers with a list of alternate routes to ease driver frustration and reduce
road rage incidents during construction (38).
Determining the independent effect of these educational efforts is complicated by the
simultaneous use of other methods for combating aggressive driving. For instance, it
is difficult to separate out the impact of education from that of enforcement or self-help
materials.
b. Increased Enforcement
Enhanced law enforcement is another method to combat road rage at the regional,
state, and municipal levels. Common enforcement methods include using unmarked
cars, plain-clothes police officers, helicopters, airplanes, video cameras, motorcycles,
radar, and non-conventional vehicles. Pooling resources across jurisdictions appears
to be an effective strategy. One such multi-jurisdictional effort, the Smooth Operator
campaign, involves 15 separate organizations in Maryland, Virginia, and the District of
Columbia (49).
Program evaluations of these efforts seem promising however most have been
conducted by the implementing organizations themselves. Marylands enforcement
program, which is combined with a public information campaign, is said to have
reduced the states fatality rate by 22 percent since 1995 (49). Pennsylvanias TAG-D
13

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

program reportedly resulted in a 24 percent drop in total crashes including fatalities


(46). Since 1995, San Franciscos STOP program has reportedly resulted in an 80
percent reduction in crashes involving injuries and a 44 percent reduction in hit-andruns (26). A report released by New Jersey State Attorney General Peter Verniero
claims an 18 percent reduction in traffic fatalities throughout the six-county area
selected for enhanced enforcement activity (9). New Yorks Campaign Safe and Sober
reports that 6,805 aggressive driving moving violations were recorded during the week
of August 6-11, 1997. However, the impact of this operation on fatalities and crashes
was not available (23).
Notwithstanding the glowing results just reported, the effectiveness of enhanced
enforcement is difficult to distinguish from other efforts. In addition, most evaluations
are done in-house, so it is possible that favorable outcomes reflect the implementing
organizations perceived need to demonstrate success. Moreover, the results
generally do not distinguish true road rage incidents from other types of incidents.
Consequently, extrapolation on the effectiveness of increased law enforcement from
these incidents is difficult.
c. Self-help Methods
Self-help methods, using a variety of media, are aimed at helping drivers increase their
driving awareness, reduce personal stress levels, and thereby avoiding aggressive
driving. Self-help methods include tapes; books; seminars; classes in anger
management; surveys and self-tests.
An audiocassette produced by Dr. John Larson, for example, is intended to reduce
stress levels through relaxation techniques and breathing exercises. Dr. Larson is also
the author of a book that includes a driver stress profile to educate readers on causes
and remedies for roadway anger (32). Dr. Leon James has posted an extensive listing
of self-help materials on his Internet Web site at www.aloha.net/~dyc. Psychologist Arnold
Nerenberg offers an 18-page road rage 10-Step Compassion Program designed to
combat road rage disorder that includes visualization techniques for drivers (27). The
AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety has developed the video Preventing Road Rage:
Anger Management for Drivers. This video teaches motorists about anger
management and provides advice for avoiding conflicts with other drivers (1).
Seminars and classes in anger management are provided by numerous organizations,
and self-administered and face-to-face surveys are available. In Ontarios enforcement
program, officers of the Provincial Police provide roadside counseling and administer
surveys to drivers who appear aggressive. The United Kingdoms Department of
Transport is providing a laminated, glove box-sized card that provides motorists with
advice on how to avoid stressful situations and what to do when they are encountered
(53). Similarly, the Coalition for Consumer Health and Safety (CCHS) in the U.S. has
distributed wallet-sized cards for drivers that list courteous driving tips (57).
Informational brochures and publications are widely available from a number of
organizations, both public and private.

14

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

d. Increased Penalties for Offenders


Legislation introduced in 1998 to address aggressive driving focused primarily on its
definition as an act distinct from reckless driving, and most of the bills included
provisions for the classification of offenses and their penalties. These included higher
fines, mandatory driver education and re-education programs and penalty points
assessed to drivers licenses. Mandatory jail time, loss of license, and insurance
penalties were also proposed in some states. Finally, many states also allow law
enforcement officials to send warning letters and radar camera photos to offenders.
Only Arizona has enacted statutes that allow for increased penalties to drivers found
guilty of aggressive driving. The state has not yet released an evaluation of the
effectiveness of the new laws.
e. Call-in Cellular and Other Telephone Systems
A number of telephone hotlines allow citizens to report aggressive driving incidents
directly to local law enforcement officers. Special cellular telephone numbers and
other motorist call-in programs have been introduced in a number of jurisdictions (8).
However, with at least 23 magic numbers nationwide, motorists may be confused
about which number to call (see Appendix A).
Most areas do not have enabling legislation allowing citations to be issued solely based
on a citizen complaint without a supporting observation from a law enforcement officer.
This does not diminish the popularity of aggressive driving hotlines, however. Colonel
David Mitchell of the Maryland State Police reports that the special toll-free number
established for Maryland drivers to report aggressive drivers receives about 300 calls a
day (34).

f. Intelligent Transportation Systems and Photo Enforcement


Red light runners and speeders are captured on camera in some domestic jurisdictions
as well as in some European countries and Australia. The Maryland State Police are
developing a new photo imaging technology that will capture aggressive driving
incidents (48). This method makes it possible to detect traffic violators without the
physical presence of a law enforcement officer. One study of New Yorks camera
program concluded that compliance with the law was significantly improved during the
three-year pilot program (3). However, before using this type of automated
enforcement, enabling legislation must usually be passed. Privacy, distribution of ticket
revenue, ticketing procedures, and the effectiveness of enforcement are common
issues (61). In addition, if violations are detected but not enforced the credibility and
effectiveness of enforcement suffers (58). Using cameras looks promising given its
documented effectiveness in detecting and deterring other types of violations.

15

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

g. The Internet
The World Wide Web contains abundant resources for those wishing to increase their
awareness about their own driving behavior, as well as those wishing to publicize
instances of aggressive driving and road rage that they have encountered. Resources
include Report it Web sites, driver improvement pages and self-assessment quizzes.
The Iowa Department of Transportations Internet Web site, for example, includes an
informational section on road rage that provides a list of common roadway irritants as
well as tips for drivers (54). One Canada jurisdiction, the Township of King, has
provided a form for citizens to file complaints (51).
The Internet also provides an excellent means of distributing bibliographic and
reference lists. Examples of reference lists dedicated to the topics of aggressive driving
and road rage are provided by the Center for the Advanced Study of Public Safety and
Injury Prevention at the University of Albany and by the Washington State Library
(2)(52).
h. Driver Education
Driver education may be required for all potential licensees, or for the rehabilitation of
traffic offenders. School or defensive driving programs may be more specifically
focused to include segments on aggressive driving. Many of these programs are
voluntary. New Yorks Point and Reduction Program, for example, offers New York
drivers a 10 percent annual auto insurance reduction for attending defensive driving
class (25).
Virginia is the only state that has enacted specific legislation to address aggressive
driving through driver education. During a House Subcommittee hearing on Surface
Transportation in July 1997, it was stated that a 1994 Massachusetts study of the
effectiveness of the National Safety Councils Course Attitudinal Dynamics of Driving
was very effective. The evaluation of the course for drivers facing license suspensions
in Massachusetts, Mississippi, and New Hampshire indicated a 70 percent decrease in
crashes and violations among those drivers in the following year.
i. Other Countries
Countries besides the U.S. and Canada are also addressing road rage, including
England, Australia, Ireland, Japan, Scotland, and New Zealand. Approaches to the
problem vary, reflecting the different cultural norms of the implementing countries.
For example, Japans Ichihara Prison was founded to punish dangerously irresponsible
drivers, such as those guilty of vehicular homicide, drunk driving, fleeing the scene of
an accident and other crimes. Strict by western standards, it boasts a recidivism rate of
only 7% (13). In Australia, Police Minister Russell Cooper has drafted legislation that
would allow for up to two years jail term for road rage perpetrators and Victorian
magistrates are seeking the power to suspend licenses and require driver re-education
for drivers convicted of road rage offenses (57)(29). Most countries, however, are still
in the process of evaluating the extent of the problem. New Zealands Transport
16

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Minister Jenny Shipley has called for both community action and media efforts to
combat road rage (56). In Great Britain, efforts have thus far concentrated on collecting
information on the frequency of violent roadway incidents (8)(7)(31).
4. Literature Search on Characteristics of Road Rage Incidents
The literature search on the precursors to road rage yielded little solid information.
Ellison et al, cite studies that correlate aggressive driving behavior with ambient
temperature (Kenrick & McFarlane), social class (Deaux, 1971) and the presence of
aggressive stimuli (Turner, Layton & Simons, 1975). Ellisons own study relates
aggressive behavior to driver anonymity (14). There is abundant anecdotal evidence
relating the frequency of aggressive acts to levels of congestion: however, empirical
evidence to support this assumption was not discovered in the literature.

B. Results of the National Survey


The national survey conducted for this study was faxed to 504 randomly selected
jurisdictions in the fifty largest metropolitan areas in the U.S between May 1 and 15,
1998. Its purpose was to determine which organizations and jurisdictions have
implemented programs to address road rage and to provide a basis for the second,
detailed survey, which would then identify and characterize individual efforts that seem
promising. The survey also provided general information about the current activities
and perceptions of implementers nationwide, as well as information on planned
activities.

Figure 1. Respondents by Organization


Percentage of Respondents

100
80
60
40
20
0
City
Police

County
Sheriff

State
Police

DPS

State
Highway
Patrol

Metropolitan
Planning
Organization

State
DOT

Figure 1 shows a breakdown of respondents by organization type. A total of 139


surveys were returned for a response rate of 28 percent. The survey instrument is
included in Appendix B.
17

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Figure 2: Do you think road rage is a problem in your area?

No
14%
Yes definitely
39%

Neutral/ don't
know
32%

Yes
15%

Figure 2 shows that 39 percent of survey respondents indicated that road rage is
definitely a problem in their area and another 15 percent believe that it is a problem.
Nearly one-third (32%) did not know if road rage is a problem, or were neutral as to its
status, and 14 percent do not believe that it is a problem in their area.
Figure 3. Has your organization implemented any initiatives over the past 5 years to curb road
rage?
Percentage of Respondents

71%%

29%

Yes

No

Only 29 percent of the respondents to this question indicated that their organizations
have implemented any initiatives to curb road rage in the recent past.

18

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Figure 4. Which methods have been implemented/organized by your organization over the past 5
years to curb road rage?

O ther

15%

D r iver training

11%

I n c r e a s e d u s e o f u n m a rked police
v e h ic le s

15%

Public service announcements

22%

Increased use of regular police vehicles

23%

Of the 29 percent of respondents who indicated that their organization had undertaken
initiatives to combat road rage, the highest percentage, or 23 percent, indicated that
their organization had increased their use of regular police vehicles and 15 percent
indicated the use of unmarked police vehicles (see Figure 4). Public Service
Announcements were reported by 22 percent of respondents, followed by driver
training at 11 percent. Other methods were reported by 15 percent of respondents.
Many of these methods were used in combination.
Figure 5. Has your organization conducted efforts to monitor the effectiveness of these
initiatives/methods?
Percentage of Respondents

87%

13%

Yes

No

19

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Only 13 percent of respondents answered Yes to this question.


Figure 6. How do you rate each of the techniques that your organization has
implemented/organized in terms of its ability to reduce road rage incidents?

Rating out of 10

7.4
7.0
6.0

Increased
use of
unmarked
police
vehicles
N=11

Increased
use of regular
police vehicles
N=28

Driver
training

N=5

5.7

5.2

Providing Public service


a hotline announcements/
N=3
use of media
N= 22

Respondents were asked to rate methods on a scale of one to 10. Ratings for each
method were then averaged to give each method a score (Figure 6). Techniques that
received less than three ratings are not shown. Respondents to this question rated the
increased use of unmarked police vehicles the highest, at 7.4, followed closely by the
increased use of regular police vehicles rated 7.0. Driver training ranked third at 6.0
and the provision of a hotline was rated at 5.7. The lowest rating was given to public
service announcements/use of media at 5.2.

Table 3. Measures to be undertaken within the next two years.


Measure to be Undertaken
Enforcement
Media and Education
Research
Traffic Monitoring Technology
Congestion Measures
Officer Training
Hotlines
Legislation
Grant Programs

Number
40
23
13
7
2
3
2
1 (Virginia)
3

Percent
56
32
18
9
3
4
3
1
4

The 71 respondents that listed a specific measure or measures to be undertaken in the


near future provided the above responses, with many indicating more than one
response.

20

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

The Michigan Department of Transportation has a unique approach; they provide


incentives to contractors on high-impact projects to minimize construction time and
thus lessen driver frustration. Three other respondents reported using Drive Friendly
signs, providing classes for county residents, and considering traffic calming measures.
It is an interesting contradiction that, while public service announcements and the use
of the media were given the lowest effectiveness rating by respondents to Question 5
(at a rating of 5.2), the use of the media and education is the second most frequently
reported planned activity in Question 6. Several reasons seem possible including:
actual small returns on media and education investments; bias by the law enforcement
community (the majority of respondents to all questions) in favor of enforcement
methods; and the inability to distinguish specific effectiveness between components of
a multi-faceted program.
C. Results of the Detailed Survey
The purpose of the detailed survey was to identify programs that either appear to be
reducing aggressive driving and road rage or at least are being thoroughly evaluated.
The detailed survey was sent to organizations that indicated in the national survey that
they had implemented measures to combat road rage. The evaluation of Question 15
and its subparts (addressing conditions under which incidents have occurred), is
included in Section D, Results of the Survey Characteristics of Road Rage Incidents.
The definition of road rage was provided to all survey recipients. Validation of individual
incidents was not possible, however. The survey instrument and summary of
responses are included in Appendix C.
All 16 respondents to the detailed survey were in the law enforcement field. They
provided the following information in response to the survey questions.
1. Please specify method
Eleven agencies indicated that efforts to combat road rage included increased patrols,
dedicated hours, or special teams. Ten of the responding agencies indicated that they
included the use of unmarked or semi-marked vehicles in their programs. Other
methods included special tracking codes, videos, radar, aircraft, red light cameras,
speed boards, and vans. One agency, the Arlington, Texas Police Department, has
implemented a commuter hotline intended to provide angry drivers with an alternative
to violent behavior. Other measures included increased media coverage in one
agency and the use of press conferences by another.
2. Which agency/organization applied this method?
All of the respondents worked for law enforcement agencies. However, six of the
respondents said their programs were conducted in cooperation with other entities.
Three mentioned only that efforts were cooperative, two reported state and local
combined efforts and one operation was performed in conjunction with a public works
department.
21

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

3. Why did you apply this particular method?


All respondents indicated that the method was selected because they believed it to be
the best technique for addressing the problem. Of the other reasons provided, five
indicated cost-effectiveness or affordability, three indicated that the technology was
either the most appropriate or available, and four indicated that political pressure and
public or media visibility were factors. One respondent indicated that the method
enhanced other efforts while another suggested it was the best for achieving long-term
results. Answers to questions 1 and 3 reveal a strong reliance on enforcement
methods, not too surprising given the respondents backgrounds. Results of the survey
should be viewed accordingly.
4. Please provide the approximate date (month and year) when implementation of this
technique started.
5. Please provide the approximate date (month and year) when implementation of this
technique ended.
These two items were intended to identify programs that had been in operation for
sufficient time to allow before-and-after studies. Of special interest to the researchers
was the identification of programs that were up and running and had been monitored
prior to recent public interest in road rage. This would allow for some evaluation of the
effects of this interest. Interestingly, only one program has been in operation since prior
to 1997: the City of Falls Church, Virginia began its program in 1994.
All respondents to this question reported their programs as currently in operation.
6. How widely was this technique implemented?
The question was intended to discern whether responses to the question regarding the
location of incidents, were likely to be influenced by the scale of program
implementation. For example, if all respondents had reported state and regional efforts,
it is more likely that incidents would have been reported on interstate highways than on
local roads. The following breakdown, however, reflects a more even distribution of
responses. Still, it should be noted that the surveys were sent to organizations in the
50 largest metropolitan areas, which may have influenced the responses regarding
location and roadway type in both this survey and its successor on incident
characteristics. The total exceeds the number of respondents because some provided
more than one response.
Table 4. Scale of Program Implementation

Scale
Regional
Regional
State
22

Number of
Responses
4
4
3

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

County
City/Municipal
Borough
Local
Specific Location

3
4
1
2
1

7. Please indicate all the resources that were used to plan and apply this technique.
8. Please rate the effectiveness of the technique to reduce road rage.
9. Please indicate what your rating is based on.
The subparts of Question 7 were intended to determine if some measure of costeffectiveness could be gleaned from survey responses as they were compared to the
respondents assessment of program effectiveness (Question 8). Question 9 is
especially important in determining effectiveness because increases in the number of
citations or violations reported are not considered evidence of effectiveness in
preventing aggressive driver behavior.
Responses to Question 7 varied widely, from the addition of an extra person dedicated
to a task to the addition of thousands of man-hours, pieces of equipment, and dollars.
Most efforts were reportedly modest in size, ranging from 1 to 10 man-hours.
However, because only three respondents indicated units of time, rate comparisons
are necessarily difficult. The complete breakdown of responses is included in Appendix
C. Responses to Question 8 are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Program Effectiveness Rating

Effectiveness Rating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
N/A

Number of
Respondents
0
0
1
2
9
2
1
8
1
1
5

The respondent who rated his operation a 10 was from the New Jersey State Police,
where cost data revealed the operation of 15 unmarked vehicles at $1750/vehicle. The
rating was based on enforcement data. Similarly, the effectiveness rating of 9 came
from the Connecticut State Police and related to the use of 10 unmarked vehicles as a
cost-effective technique to reduce crashes. The rating was based on experience only.

23

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Eight programs were given effectiveness ratings of 8. All of these programs report
data collection on moving violations. Only two, the New Jersey State Police and the
Connecticut State Police, report data collection on collisions and accident reduction,
respectively, as indicated in their responses to Question 9. Only the respondent from
the New Jersey State Police based his rating on a reduction in the number of fatalities
and collisions.
10. Are you currently, or did you in the past, collect before-and-after data to monitor the
effectiveness of this technique?
11. What kind of data are you collecting?
12. Over which time period were the before-and-after data collected?
These questions were intended to get at the duration and rigor of program monitoring.
To evaluate program effectiveness, respondents needed to collect data prior to
implementation. The data should reflect a meaningful measure of program success
and collection should be continued after program implementation.
Of the respondents to these questions, four organizations report collecting data for the
before condition and have continued to monitor their programs. Of these four, three
organizations rated their programs 7 or higher in effectiveness: the New York City
Police Department, the New Jersey State Police Department, and the West Valley City
Police Department.
13. In your opinion, how have the following factors changed since you began collecting
data?
This question was intended to identify variables that could be used to evaluate
programs. All respondent answers are included in Appendix C. The table below
summarizes the three organizations that rated their programs effective, collected
before-and-after data, and used a measure that has face validity in evaluating program
effectiveness.
Table 6. External Variables for the New York City Police Department, New Jersey State Police and
West Valley City (Utah) Police Department
Agency

13a.
Media
Press
ure

13b.
Level of
Congestion

13c.
Traffic
Volumes

13d.
Accidents

13e.
Speeding
Citations

13f.
Reckless
Driving
Citations

13g.
Political
Pressure

13h.
Legislation
Directed at
Road Rage

New York
City Police
Department
New Jersey
State Police

Same

Increase
Somewhat

Same

Same

Same

Same

None

None

Same

Same

Same

Decrease

Same

Decrease

Same

West Valley
City Police
Department

Same

Increase
Sig.

Increase
Sig.

Increase
Sig.

Increase
Somewhat
Increase
Sig.

Increase
Somewhat

Increase

Same

Respondents reported no perceivable increase in media pressure during the data


collection period. Increased congestion should be considered, however, in the
24

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

interpretation of data for these agencies. For instance, indications are that West Valley
City may have experienced unusual population and economic growth, or land
development conditions that could seriously affect results.
14. In your opinion, what do you consider to be the most effective technique to curb
road rage? Reasons?
All answers to this question are included in Appendix C. The primary emphasis was
placed on enhanced enforcement; however, many respondents also considered public
awareness and education. Of particular interest are the responses by the New York
City Police Department and the New Jersey State Police. The New York City Police
Departments program focuses on prevention of incidents. In describing its
cooperative effort, the New Jersey State Police provide the following reason for
considering their program to be effective:
This method provided maximum saturation of an area without impacting any
single agency in a negative manner. It also allowed many smaller agencies the
opportunity to participate in a program that could not be initiated at their level.
The researchers conducted follow-up telephone calls to solicit information from the
three selected organizations. Only one of these responded with supplemental
information: the New Jersey State Police.
New Jersey State Police: 1997 Aggressive Driver/Aggressive Enforcement Program
New Jerseys program began in April of 1997, with the goal of reducing fatal and
serious motor vehicle accidents caused by aggressive drivers. An aggressive driver is
defined as anyone who operates a motor vehicle in an offensive, hostile, or belligerent
manner, thereby creating an unsafe environment for the remainder of the motoring
public. The following violations of New Jerseys traffic regulations are classified as
aggressive driving: speeding; following too close; unsafe lane changes; driving while
intoxicated; reckless; careless or inattentive driving; disregard of traffic signs and
signals; improper passing; and driving while suspended.
The program targets offenders through the use of both unmarked and marked patrol
cars. In addition, troopers are assigned to units that operate stationary and mobile
radar to enforce speed limits, and state and municipal police have joined forces to
conduct roving drunk driving patrols and establish sobriety checkpoints to detect drunk
drivers. The effort is publicized through a public awareness and outreach effort that has
produced public information, brochures, and bumper stickers, and includes #77
cellular and 1-888-SAF-ROAD hotline numbers. It is an cooperative effort, involving
numerous enforcement agencies at the state, county, and municipal levels.
The Aggressive Driver/Aggressive Enforcement Report issued by the New Jersey
State Police, with statistics compiled by the New Jersey State Police Traffic Bureau
and the Division of Highway Traffic Safety, indicate an 18% decrease in highway
fatalities in the six-county area where aggressive driver patrols were concentrated. A
breakdown of incidents by county is provided in Appendix D. The monitored period
25

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

extended from April 1, 1997 (the program start-up date) through December 31, 1997,
and the number of fatalities was compared with the same time period in 1996 to arrive
at the 18 percent figure. Statistics for 1998 are not available yet.

26

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

D. Results of the Survey Characteristics of Road Rage Incidents


The results of Questions 15a through 15e on the detailed survey were combined with
identical Questions 1-8 on the third, supplemental survey titled Characteristics of Road
Rage Incidents. The supplemental survey results are included in Appendix E. From
responses to these questions about actual road rage incidents, characteristics of the
typical road rage incident were identified.
Time of Day
Table 7 shows that 10.5% of the observed road rage incidents occurred between 6:00
and 8:00 AM, which generally correspond with AM peak travel times. During the PM
peak hours, however, this figure jumps to 15.8% in the 2:00 to 4:00PM timeframe, and
to 25.0% during the 4:00 to 6:00 PM travel peak, dropping back to 11.8% in the hours
between 6:00 and 8:00 PM. In this small sample, road rage incidents were more likely
to occur during peak travel times and one in four occurred during the 4:00 to 6:00 PM
travel peak.
Table 7. Time of Day
Respondents:
Total Number of Incidents:
Time

Total

40
80

Detailed
Survey
1

Characteristics

Percent
of Total
6.5

12AM5
4
2AM
2AM1
0
1
1.3
4AM
4AM1
1
0
1.3
6AM
6AM8
5
3
10.5
8AM
8AM4
1
3
5.3
10AM
10AM2
0
2
2.6
12PM
12PM4
1
3
5.3
2PM
2PM12
4
8
15.8
4PM
4PM19
6
13
25.0
6PM
6PM9
2
7
11.8
8PM
8PM6
0
6
7.9
10PM
10PM5
1
4
6.6
12AM
Totals
76
22
54
99.9
There were three non-responses and one respondent answered that he had witnessed no incidents at
any time. These four answers were not included in the computations. Percent total does not equal 100
due to rounding.
27

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Figure 7. Time of day

Percentage of Incidents

80

40

0
AM
12-2

Time of day

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-2

2-4

PM
4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

Weather
The majority of road rage incidents reported in these surveys, 68.3 percent, occurred
during sunny weather. Another 20.1 percent of incidents occurred on overcast days.
Inclement weather does not appear to contribute to road rage; it may actually decrease
it by keeping motorists more preoccupied with roadway conditions and lowering driver
expectations. Of the 63 incidents (17 were either unknown or did not report the
conditions), none were reported to have occurred during rainy or snowy weather, and
only one was reported to have occurred under icy conditions. Incidents reported at
night constituted 9.5 percent.
Table 8. Weather Conditions
Total Number of Respondents: 40
Total Number of Incidents:
80
Weather
Sunny
Overcast
Rainy
Icy
Snowy
Dark/Night
N/A
Unknown
Total

Total
43
13
0
1
0
6
8
9
80

Detailed Survey
16
3
0
0
0
1
6
0
26
28

Characteristics
27
10
0
1
0
5
2
9
54

Percent of Total
68.3
20.1
0.0
1.6
0.0
9.5
--99.5

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

One respondent answered that he had not witnessed an incident under any conditions. This
answer was included in the N/A category, which was excluded from tabulations. Although
Dark/Night was not included as an answer option, these were volunteered by respondents and
have been categorized separately. Percent total does not equal 100 percent due to rounding.

Season
The highest percentage of road rage incidents, 37.8 percent, was reported to have
occurred during the summer. The lowest percentage was reported for the winter
months at 10.8 percent. Spring and fall occurrences were observed to be 23.0 percent
and 28.4 percent, respectively.
Table 9. Season
Total Number of Respondents: 40
Total Number of Incidents:
80
Season
Spring
Summer
Fall
Winter
N/A
Total

Total
17
28
21
8
6
80

Detailed Survey
9
6
4
1
6
26

Characteristics
8
22
17
7
0
54

Percent of Total
23.0
37.8
28.4
10.8
-100.0

The six N/A values were not included in the Percent of Total column.

Holidays
The occurrence of a holiday does not appear to influence the frequency of road rage
incidents. Only 12.5 percent of reported incidents occurred within four days of a
holiday.
Table 10. Proximity to Holidays
Respondents:
Incidents:
Within Four Days
of a Holiday?
Yes
No
N/A
Total

40
80
Total

Detailed Survey

Characteristics

8
56
16
80

3
16
7
26

5
40
9
54

The sixteen N/A values were not included in the Percent of Total column.

29

Percent
of Total
12.5
87.5
--100.0

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Day of the Week


The highest percentage of reported incidents, 26.1 percent, occurred on Friday. The
next highest percentage, 17.4 percent, occurrred on Wednesday, followed by Tuesday
and Thursday, both 15.9 percent. The weekend had the lowest percentage of reported
incidents, with 10.1 percent occurring on Saturday and 7.3 percent on Sunday.
Table 11. Day of the Week
Total Number of Respondents: 40
Total Number of Incidents:
80
Day
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
N/A
Unknown
Total

Total
5
11
12
11
18
7
5
9
2
80

Detailed Survey
1
3
7
3
4
1
0
7
0
26

Characteristics
4
8
5
8
14
6
5
2
2
54

Percent of Total
7.3
15.9
17.4
15.9
26.1
10.1
7.3
--100.0

Not available and unknown responses were omitted from the Percent of Total column.

Traffic Conditions
The highest percentage of road rage incidents reported on the surveys, 33.3 percent,
occurred under moderately congested conditions. This figure was followed by 26.4
percent of incidents that occurred under free-flowing conditions, and 22.2 percent
occuring under conditions of heavy congestion. The fewest incidents, 18.1 percent,
occurred under lightly congested conditions.
Table 12. Traffic Conditions
Total Number of Respondents: 40
Total Number of Incidents:
80
Traffic Conditions
Free-flowing
Lightly Congested
Moderately Congested
Heavily Congested
N/A
Unknown
Total

Total
19
13
24
16
7
1
80

Detailed Survey
1
3
6
11
4
1
26

Characteristics
18
10
18
5
3
0
54

Percent of Total
26.4
18.1
33.3
22.2
--100.0

Not available and unknown responses were omitted from the Percent of Total column.
30

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Alcohol and Drugs


In one quarter of the incidents (25.5%), where the information was known, either
alcohol or drugs was reported to be a factor.
Table 13. Involvement of Alcohol and/or Drugs
Total Number of Respondents: 40
Total Number of Incidents:
80
Was Alcohol or
Drugs a Factor?
Yes
No
N/A
Unknown
Total

Total

Detailed Survey

Characteristics

Percent of Total

12
35
17
16
80

4
11
6
5
26

8
24
11
11
54

25.5
74.5
--100.0

Not available and unknown responses were omitted from the Percent of Total column.

Location and Roadway Type


Road rage incidents were most commonly reported to have occurred on urban
freeways (23.7 percent). Urban area non-freeways followed closely with 21.1 percent
of reported incidents. The smallest percentage, 7.9 percent, occurred on rural nonfreeways.
Table 14. Location and Roadway Type
Total Number of Respondents: 40
Total Number of Incidents:
80
Location
Urban area (non-freeway)
Urban area (freeway)
Suburban area (non-freeway)
Suburban area (freeway)
Rural area (non-freeway)
Rural area (freeway)
N/A
Total

Total
16
18
14
13
6
9
5
81

Detailed
Survey
3
8
3
7
0
0
5
55

Characteristics
13
10
11
6
6
9
0
26

Percent
of Total
21.1
23.7
18.4
17.1
7.9
11.8
-100.0

The total number of incidents shown is higher than reported because one was reported to have involved
two types of roadway. Responses in the N/A category were not included in the percentages.

31

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

IV. Synthesis of Results


State legislatures are only beginning to make the distinction between road rage and
other forms of aggressive driving. Many lawmakers perceive, often correctly, that
aggressive driving offenses are already covered under existing statutes (64). One of
the primary difficulties in drafting such legislation lies in defining offenses in a way that
is unmistakable to the officer on the scene, who must decide quickly whether an act
qualifies as violent or merely aggressive. Motorists, on the other hand, must feel they
are being treated fairly and that fines and penalties are appropriate to the offense.
State legislative efforts are underway to examine these issues.
Other legislative approaches include mandated educational efforts oriented towards
both inexperienced and aggressive drivers. The bills introduced to date make the
distinction between these two very different groups. Driver education programs for
novice drivers, such as Virginias, include aggressive driving as a program component,
while others, such as Connecticuts (which died in committee), require repeat offenders
to undergo specific re-education on aggressive driving. The Massachusetts study (cited
earlier) showed a 70 percent reduction in crashes and violations in the year following
offenders participation in the course Attitudinal Dynamics of Driving given by the
National Safety Council.
A related approach, graduated licensing, is already in wide use and may prove to be
another means of providing early awareness and prevention of violent or aggressive
driving. Several states have undertaken research to determine the best strategies for
addressing the problem.
At the implementation level, many regional, state and local efforts are already
underway, operating under existing statutes. Regional efforts tend to be cooperative,
capitalizing on the resources made available by all participants. Efforts such as the
Washington metropolitan areas Smooth Operator program have the added
advantage of creating invisible boundaries between jurisdictions, which is especially
beneficial on interstate roadways.
Most of these large-scale efforts include law enforcement and public awareness
components. According to the national survey respondents, enhanced enforcement
and media and public information campaigns are the most commonly implemented and
planned components of their programs. This is possibly in recognition of the fact that
enforcement efforts alone are unlikely to deter potential offenders. However, it also
makes the independent evaluation of each effort difficult. Less comprehensive efforts,
however, are more likely to rely on law enforcement alone. Although enforcement is an
important element of these programs, potential offenders may not improve their
behavior unless they believe the chances of getting caught and punished for
aggressive driving have increased. In addition, many drivers are genuinely interested in
improving their driving ability. In either case, well-publicized programs of enforcement
and education, such as Marylands, are more likely to reproduce this states impressive
22 percent reduction in fatalities since 1995 or New Jerseys 18 percent reduction in
fatalities in a nine-month period.
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Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

Local efforts are less likely to feature extensive public information and education
components in their programs. This is probably due to both the high cost of publicizing
efforts and unfamiliarity with the public information arena. Coordinating resources
between smaller jurisdictions may offer a public information economy of scale that also
focuses attention on changing driver behavior.
For people truly interested in improving their driving behavior, educational and self-help
methods are becoming increasingly available. Many of these materials focus on the
self-defense aspect of roadway violence and provide valuable information on how to
avoid such encounters. Other materials educate drivers on how their own behavior
may contribute to confrontations. Hotlines may provide an alternative avenue for
venting driver frustration, even where complaints from citizens cannot form the basis
for issuing citations. It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of these efforts in
isolation because the motorists most likely to access them are probably also the most
motivated to improve their driving. Empirical data on effectiveness of these approaches
is still lacking.
Changes in the roadway environment are also being considered to combat road rage.
The most promising appears to be the use of intelligent transportation systems and
photo enforcement. Their success lies in their ability to detect offenders without the
physical presence of an enforcement officer and the perception by motorists that
officers need not be present or visible to enforce roadway laws. They are likely to be
effective in discouraging violent aggressive driving, as well, because offenders may
feel that their chances of being detected are increased and the use of this technology
allows for a higher level of monitoring without substantially increasing the number of
officers required.
The literature search on the characteristics of road rage incidents yielded little in the
way of documented studies. This may be due to the relative low incidence of road rage
or to the fact that road rage is a relatively new phenomenon. Still, the potentially
disastrous consequences of aggressive driving and road rage would seem to require
greater expenditures of public funds on research, education, and enforcement. This is
especially true given the number of respondents to the national survey who indicated
that road rage is perceived to be a problem in their areas.
Survey results indicate that road rage is most likely to occur Friday afternoon, in peak
travel times, and in fair weather. The surprisingly low number of incidents recorded
during rainy, snowy and icy weather may reflect increased attention to roadway
conditions and lowered expectations by the driver. It is, however, during the afternoon
peak that drivers are most apt to be both fatigued and rushed, with resulting shorter
tempers. Incidents occur most frequently during the summer months and do not appear
to be related to holiday stress. They are most frequently encountered under conditions
of moderate congestion, and alcohol or drugs may be contributing factors. While urban
areas were the most frequently reported location for such incidents, survey
respondents represented large metropolitan areas and this finding should be verified
through further research. The finding of moderately congested conditions is contrary to
the anecdotal evidence that congestion per se is the cause of increasing numbers of
these incidents. It is almost certainly a factor, but heavily congested conditions both
33

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

lower driver expectations and prevent escape for the truly violent. Heavy congestion
may also lessen the sense of anonymity that contributes to aggression on roadways.
The literature search and detailed survey illustrate not only a preference by
respondents for programs focused on enforcement and public information, but also
provide a clear indication that such efforts are rarely evaluated for their effectiveness.
Of those programs that are being monitored, most track the number of citations
recorded -- a measure of effectiveness that may be more closely related to patrol
activity than to improved driver behavior.
Still, several reporting jurisdictions are rating their programs as very effective using
measures of effectiveness that reflect goals of improving roadway safety. One of the
most comprehensive of these efforts, conducted by the State of New Jersey, includes
the continuing collection of data on collisions and evaluates its program based on an
impressive reduction in fatalities since program inception. The effort is cooperative,
sharing resources between jurisdictions, and features both strong enforcement and
public information components in addition to the use of technology. The program may
provide a model for jurisdictions that want to improve roadway safety through the
reduction of aggressive driving and road rage.

34

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

V. Conclusions and Recommendations


Legislation should clearly distinguish between aggressive driving and road rage. Clear,
unambiguous laws and penalties are needed and the public needs to be educated
about these legal consequences. Driver education courses, including those mandated
for the re-education of less-motivated offenders, may be a worthwhile avenue for
preventing road rage. Much additional research is needed to determine which program
elements and methods are most likely to be successful.
Law enforcement organizations that are implementing programs to combat road rage
should consider partnering with other organizations to pool resources and create
invisible boundaries. While the cost of public information may appear prohibitive to
smaller jurisdictions, heightened awareness is a necessary component in preventing
aggressive driving and road rage. Cooperative efforts may lessen these costs. The use
of intelligent transportation systems and photo radar, though relatively untested for this
purpose, may be effective in deterring aggressive drivers and even road rage
offenders.
The key to strong evaluations of road rage interventions is to collect solid before and
after data. Organizations that develop such programs should make program
evaluation an integral component right from the start. Outcome measures should
reflect a change in either driver behavior or a reduction of incidents, rather than simply
the number of citations issued.
More research is needed to recognize the conditions under which road rage incidents
are likely to occur. The incidence of road rage appears to be higher during Friday
afternoon peak hours, under moderately congested traffic conditions, and during fair
weather, particularly in urban areas. Targeting limited law enforcement resources
during these times may be most effective. Similarly, motorists who wish to avoid
confrontations should be especially cautious under these conditions.
Definitional problems and overlap with existing laws make it difficult to identify factors
associated with aggressive driving incidents. The identification of these factors is
made difficult by the relative infrequency of these incidents. The small number of actual
road rage cases suggest that much additional research is needed to corroborate or
refute the role of these factors.

35

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

VI. Bibliography
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4. Altman, Kyoko. Road Rage Runs Rampant in High-Stress U.S. Society. CNN
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6. Chase, Marc. Flurry of Legislation Targets Unsafe Drivers. Chicago Sun Times. 6
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Behavior and Personality. 10: n 1. (1995). 265-272.

36

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

15. Flick, A. J. Unmarked Road Rage Police Car Making Its Mark. Tucson Citizen. 11
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Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

28. James, George. On the Trail of Tailgaters and Other Aggressive Creatures. New
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12 April 1998. 1(C).
38

Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

43. Piscia, Jason. House OKs Road Rage Bill. Peoria Journal Star. 28 March 1998.
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Controlling Road Rage: A Literature Review and Pilot Study

56. Shipley, Hon. Jenny. Road Rage: A Gross Lack of Self Control. New Zealand
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