The

Metropolitan
of Art
Museum
1983
Bulletin/Spring

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ISLAMIC
POTTERY
A

BRIEF

HISTORY

Marilyn Jenkins

THE METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM OF ART

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ranksas one of the greatPottery-making

est artisticachievementsof Islamiccivilization.Some of the finestwares ever
made were producedduringa periodof
morethana thousandyears inthe vast
area of the Islamicworldextendingfrom
Spainto the bordersof China.Muslim
potters,displayingan innovativesense of
design and color,created botha delightfulvarietyof shapes and a luxuriantbut
hues - deep
subtlepaletteof "natural"
blues and turquoises,copper greens,
auberginesand earthreds. Theycovered theirwares withdecorationof extraordinaryrichness,employingskillful
variationsof stylizedplants,geometric
patterns,and calligraphicmotifs,often
workedintonetworksof engaging compexity.Inthe quintessentiallyIslamic
arabesque,leafyundulatingvinelike
stems growfromone anotherin a seemingly infiniteprogressionthatleads the eye
throughoutthe compositionand often
ingeniouslyfillsthe space completely.
Figuralimagery,less frequentlyseen on
Islamicobjects,oftenprovidesimportant
information
aboutthe styles and customs
of the period.
Intheirtechnicalaccomplishments
Islamiccraftsmenhave rarelybeen surpassed. Masteringnew techniquesand
adaptingold ones to new uses, Muslim

to any surveyof Islamicpottery,such as

pottersgained controlovertheirmedium,
the opulentalbarelloon the cover orthe
to the extentthatthey oftenenveloped
mihrab(figure36). Inaddition,inthis partitheirpieces in morethanone glaze by
cularhistory,new paradigmshave been
usinga multiplefiringprocess. Perhaps
substitutedforbetter-known
the apogee was reached inthe creation
examples of
certaintypes of wares (see figures4,5).
of lusterware,whose dazzlingiridescent
Also includedare recentlydiscovered
effectsimitatethe sheen of precious
metals.Luster-decorated
objectsthatforthe firsttimeare properly
objects, much
admiredand imitatedin Europeas early
placed inthisstudy(figures33, 34).
The Museum'sexcavationsat Nishapur
as the fifteenthcentury,had an impact
conducted by WalterHauser,J. M.Upton,
thatcan be seen inceramicsmade inthe
and CharlesWilkinson(inthe 1930s and
UnitedStatestoday.
in 1947),have added an importantdimenMuseumof Arthas
The Metropolitan
an outstandingcollectionof Islamicdecor- sion to thiscollection.Amongthe discoveries fromthissite are some of the finest
ativearts.Ofthe variousmedia- pottextile,
stone,
examplesof slip-paintedwaresof the tenth
tery,wood, metal,glass,
stucco, enamel, and ivory- the pottery,a
century,includingthe largebowlwhose
collectionof 1,600 objects representing
onlydecorationis an elegantArabic
a wide geographicalrange and every maj- inscription(figure9). Manyof the works
discussed here are the giftsof generous
or periodand style, is perhapsthe most
contributors
the
to the Islamiccollections:
ceramics
Indeed,
comprehensive.
collectionis among the best inthe world.
BenjaminAltman,W.B. Osgood Field,
Isaac D. Fletcher,HoraceHavemeyer,
could offersuch varied
Few institutions
and EdwardC. Moore,the latterhaving
a historyof
resourcesforillustrating
Islamicpottery.Thatthe Metropolitan
bequeathedthe firstmajorgroupof
in 1891.
stands among them is amplydemonstrat- Islamicobjectsto the Metropolitan
ed inthe followingpages, whichdrawsolely
fromobjects inthe Museum'scollection.
Amongthe examples chosen by the
authorof thisBulletin,MarilynJenkins,
DE MONTEBELLO
PHILIPPE
AssociateCurator,Departmentof Islamic
Director
Art,are pieces thatwouldbe essential

Spring1983
Museumof ArtBulletin
TheMetropolitan
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tilepanel(figure51).
fromIran(figure
Frontcover:Liddedalbarello
28).Insidefrontcover:DetailofEgyptian
2

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-rke

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Introduction

Littleis knownaboutthe artof the economicallysophisticatedmercantilearistocraciesof the threemajorArabiancitiesof

Mecca, Medina,and Ta'ifwhenthe Arabs
began theirconquests inthe name of
Islamduringthe second quarterof the
seventh centuryA.D.Whateverformthis
arttook,itapparentlyhad littleinfluence
on the Muslimculturesthatevolved later
outsidethe Arabianpeninsula.Rather,in
the earlycenturiesof Islam,most of the
decoration,
buildingstyles,architectural
types and shapes of objects,decorativetechniques,and iconographywere
adoptedfromculturesfoundinthe areas
conqueredby the Muslims.Itwas only
graduallythatthisadoptiveprocess
became firstadaptiveand finallycreative.
Thehistoryof the artof the potterin

the Islamicworldis no exceptionto this

pattern.This historycan be divided into
fourbroadperiods-beginning withthe
seventhcenturyand concludingwiththe
seventeenth.Withineach period,in centersthatwere wealthyand stable enough
to be able to supportnumerous
politically
ateliersof creativeartists,new techniques
and stylesevolved aftera timeof adoptionand adaptationor experimentation.
Because of the prestigeof such centers,
the wares produced in them created
vogues and subsequentlyspawned
imitationsor variationsin less important
centers. New techniques and styles
were often carriedto other areas by
migratingcraftsmenwho were seeking
workor were summonedby more prosperouspatrons.Eachof the periodsalso

witnessedeithera continuationof techniquesfoundinthe precedingperiodor a

revivalof one or moreof them.
Despitethe diversityimpliedin its geographicalspread and thousand-year
duration,the historyof Islamicpottery
has an inherentunity.In additionto the
cyclicalrepetitionof the processes of
adoption,adaptation,and creation,the
widespreaduse of fourbasic decorative
elementsalso contributedto this phenomenon. The Islamicpotteremployed
abstractvegetalforms(one of the most
popularwas the arabesque),calligraphy,
figuraliconography,and geometricpatternsinthe decorationof his medium
withineach of the fourchronologicalperiods discussed inthis briefhistory.

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"",

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Early

Pottery

SEVENTH
TOTENTHCENTURY

Twobasictypes of decoratedceramic
wareswere in use inthe Islamicworldbeforethe ninthcentury.One grew out of the
Romanterrasigillata("moldedearthenware")and bearsmoldeddecorationderivedfromlateGreco-Romanmodels or
morestylizedmotifsof Sasanianoriginthose derivedfromthe artof pre-lslamic
Mesopotamiaand Persia.The otherhas
Easternprototypesand bears stamped,
incised,or applieddecoration.Bothtypes
arefoundineitherglazed or unglazed
versions.
Theperiod-ofadoptionand adaptation
duringthe earlycenturiesof Islamwas
followed,beginninginthe ninthcentury,
by one of innovation.Excavationsin
Samarra,foundedin836 inwhatis now
Iraqas the temporarycapitalof the
Abbasiddynasty,have providedample
withnew
proofof the experimentation
potterytechniquesundertakenby Iraqi
ceramists.Inan attemptto imitateChinese
porcelain,they rediscovereda combinationused muchearlierby the Egyptians:
tinoxideand clearlead glaze, a mixture
thatprovideda fineopaque surface
fordecoration.Theyand otherIslamic
ceramistscontinuedto use such a surface forvarioustypes of decorationand
theyeventuallyintroduceditintoEurope.
Theproductsincorporatingnew techniquessuch as inglazeand lusterpainting
(see figures4, 5) thatwere made in

Samarraas wellas inthe permanent

Abbasidcapitalof Baghdadwereadmired
throughoutthe empire.Thusitis notsurprisingto findvariationsor imitationsof
themin manyof the provincialcities. By
the end of the tenthcenturythe purely
adoptiveand adaptivephases of Islamic
potteryproductionwere over and the
creativephase was almosttwo hundred
yearsold and givingriseto innovation,
and copies in
regionaldiversification,
far-flungareas of the Islamicworld.
1. Unglazedvessels were popularfor
centuriesbecause liquidsstoredinthem
were keptcool by the evaporationthat
occurredthroughtheirporouswalls.This
examplebears motifsdrawnfromor inspiredby pre-lslamicEasternmotifs:a
long-hornedquadrupedand a largetailedbirdon eitherside of a "treeof life."
Thecharmof thisprimitiveyet sophisticated design morethancompensates
forthe lackof perfectionof the ewer's
proportions.
Thedecorationused here is knownas
barbotine,a techniquein whichrolled
stripsand circlesof clay were appliedto
the surface,flattened,and then incised
withparallellines.Sasanianvessels bear
barbotinedecorationas well,butthe
manypossibilitiesinherentinthistechniquewere onlyfullydeveloped on
glazed and unglazedpotteryof the early
Islamicperiod.

Thistype of decorationplusthe additionalinciseddesigns and the vestiges of

metalprototypesvisibleon the handle
and neck, as wellas the ribsat the base
of the neck, indicatethatthe ewer was
made duringthe firstcenturyof the
Islamicperiod.
2. Thisfragmentaryewer illustratesa ceramictype thatwas very popularunder
Romanruleand laterenjoyeda renaissance duringthe earlyIslamicperiod.
Thisware,made in a carved ceramic
mold,was availablein glazed and unglazed varietiesduringthis period.The
shape of thisglazed vessel has Eastern
prototypes;in its originalstatethe ewer
musthave closely resembledan unglazed one inthe collectionof the L.A.
MayerMemorialInstituteforIslamicArtin
Jerusalem thatbears an Arabicinscriptionin Kuficscriptstatingthatitwas made
in Gurganin whatis now Iran.
Unlikethe unglazedpiece, the ewer
presumablyhad a panel in itscenterwith
an openworkdesign thatwouldhave
been attachedto one halfof the body beforethe two halves werejoined.Afterthe
foot, handle,spout, and neck were applied,furtherdecorationwas added to
maskthe joinof the neck and thatof
the handleto the body.The piece was
then glazed and fired.The green glaze
colorwas commonalso to otherpieces
of the type.
5

3. Pieces exhibitingsimilardecoration
and thisflat-bottomedrimlessshape
based on a metalprototypehave been
foundinSamarra,a locationindicatinga
date forthisdish inthe ninthcentury,
laterthanthe ewer executed inthe same
technique.
Thedish shows an Islamicadaptation
of an interlacedesign drawnfromGrecoRomantradition.Herethe variouselementsof the patternbearabstract
motifs-parallelslashes, circles,and dots
-additions thatare illustrative
of the
Islamicpenchantforalloverdecoration.
Thedish also representsthe veryimportantrediscoveryby Muslimpottersin
the ninthcenturyof the Egyptiandevice
of addingtinoxideto clearlead glaze. An
6

earlyexampleof the use of thisopaque

surfaceforcoloreddesigns can be seen
inthe green stainpaintedinthe glaze on
the fourinnermostknotsof the decoration
as wellas on fourof the squares created
by the interlace.
4. A furtherdevelopmentof stainor inglaze paintingis seen on thisjarwith
fourlug handles:afterthe opaque glaze
was applied,certainareas were stained
green-as on the moldeddish-and then
vegetal designs and swags were painted
in blue on the rawglaze as well.Theeffect
of the inglazepaintingis muchlikeink
on a blotter.
Thistechniqueappearsto have been
very popularin ninth-century
Iraqand to

have been copied inthe provinces,especiallyKhorasan,where manganese,

whichproduces an auberginecolor,was
used in place of cobalt.These imitations,
lackingthe finesse of the Iraqiwares,
were also producedin otherregions,
such as those of present-daySpain,Tunisia, and Algeria,thatlookedto Baghdad
as the culturalcapitalof the period.As in
Khorasan,the palettewas green and
aubergine.
Thisshape was decoratedin other
techniquesduringthe ninthcentury,but
examples of itare rarecomparedto
bowls,whose shape imitatedthe apparentlyprestigiousChinesewares imported
intoIraqat thistime.
4

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5. One of the mostimportantcontributionsto the ceramicindustryinthe early

Islamicperiodwas the applicationof the
luster-painting
techniqueto pottery.Previouslyused to decorateglass, luster
paintingas employedby ninth-century
ceramistsin Baghdadlefta permanent
on the ceramicindustryingeneral,
imprint
and itsinfluenceis stillevidentinthe lusterpaintedwaremade inAmericatoday.
Forthisextremelydifficultprocess, silverand copper oxides, each mixedwitha
medium,were used to paintdesigns on a
vessel alreadycovered withan opaque
glaze and fired.Duringa second firingin
a reducingkiln,oxygen was drawnout
of the metallicoxides, leavingthe metal
suspended on the surfaceto refractlight
and createa lustrousappearance.Shades
of green were obtainedfromsilverand
those of brownfromcopper.
Thefieldof thisIraqidish is filledwitha
highlystylizedfloweringbush, and the flat
rimbearsa repeateddesign of the Arabic
wordfor"sovereignty,"
writtenin Kufic
script,whichmay be an abbreviationof a
commoncalligraphicdecorationstating
"Sovereigntybelongs to God."Thispoly-

chromelustertechniqueis moreoften
foundon bowlsimitatinga Chinese
shape, ratherthanon those of the metallic
shape thatthisunusuallylargedish imitates withitswideflatrimand broadfootless base.
6. The polychromeluster-painting
techniquewas extremelyshort-lived;more
certainof success was the monochrome
variety,since onlyone colorwas involved
inthe executionof a design. Itwas monochromelusterpaintingthatspread from
Iraqto Tunisia,Algeria,Egypt,Syria,Iran,
Spain,England,and eventuallyto America.
Thisbowlexhibitsmanyof the design
characteristicsof the monochromelusterpaintedwaresof tenth-centuryIraq:the
caricaturelike
qualityof the seated man
holdinga beakerin one handand a floweringbranchinthe other;the plainborder
surroundinghimand the two birdsholdingfishintheirbeaks;the speckled background;the scalloped rimdesign; and the
exteriordecorationof a series of three
concentriccirclesevenlyspaced around
the wallon a fieldof dashes and dots. The
foot bearsthe Arabicwordfor "blessing"

in Kuficscript.
7. Inthe second halfof the ninthcentury
AhmadibnTulun,an Abbasidgovernor
and latervirtuallyindependentrulerof
Egypt,Palestine,and Syria,summoned
Iraqicraftsmento Egyptto create works
of artsimilarto those he had knownin
Samarra.Anotherinfluxof Iraqicraftsmen
probablycame to Egyptinthe tenthcentury,in search of new patronage,when
Abbasidpoliticalfortunesbegan to wane.
Thusdid migratingcraftsmenpresumablyintroducelusterpaintingintoEgypt
fromIraq.
Thistenth-centurybowlwithits
palmette-treemotifsurroundedby a
pseudo-Kuficborderis a fine largeexample of earlyEgyptianmonochromeluster.
Onthe exterioritis decoratedwitha
series of five petal-shapedareas, formed
by half-palmettes,each bearinga lineof
pseudo-Kufic.Theflatfoot gives the
name of the artist(see figure11).
Iraqiprototypesare knownand must
have served as inspirationforthis bowlas
wellas forimitationsof luster-painted
waremade inthe eastern Iranianprovince of Khorasan.
9

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10

8. By the ninthcentury, designs created

with molds and through the use of
stamped, incised, and applied decoration
gradually gave way to more original-and
difficult-techniques of inglaze and overglaze painting. Duringthat century and
the next, potters in Khorasan and in the
region northeast of the Oxus River in CentralAsia, as well as in Iraq,eastern Arabia,
Syria, and Egypt, employed a new technique to decorate ceramic surfaces.
Like Iraqiinglaze-painted and overglaze luster-painted pottery,this ware had
a plain opaque surface for decoration.
The body was covered by a white or colored engobe, a thin wash of the body
material.The design was then painted,
and the piece was glazed and fired.
One variety, known as "splashed sgraffito ware,"bears designs incised through
the engobe to the red-clay body and then
highlighted with differentcolors. When
the designs were covered with a colorless
transparent lead glaze, the colored dots
and lines were likelyto run during the firing. This bowl-one of the most successful examples of "splashed sgraffito
ware"-has a purely Islamic design of a
palmette-filledarcade with spandrels of
vegetal rinceaux.

The T'ang "three-color"ware that inspired this very popular group of pottery,
and shared its color scheme of green,
aubergine, and brown on a white ground,
may have appeared in the Middle East as
early as the eighth century.
9. The importantceramic centers of Nishapur and Samarkand in the provinces
of Khorasan and Transoxiana, respectively, produced a number of different
types of underglaze-painted ware in
their attempts to attaintotal mastery over
their medium. Perhaps one of the most
spectacular proofs of their achievement
can be seen in the clarityof the design
painted on this unusually large and deep
bowl.
The ultimatesolution to the problems of
underglaze painting in these two centers
evolved through the discovery that almost
complete control could be exercised over
the design ifthe coloring agents were
mixed with a clay slip, a more liquid version of the body itself. When the lead
glaze was applied over the slip-painted
design and the object fired, the design
remained stable.
The decoration on the interiorof this
bowl consists of an Arabic inscriptionin

Kufic:"Planning before work protects you

from regret. Prosperity and Peace." The
elegance of the letters has been enhanced by fine incisions. The perfection
of the design and potting in combination
with the size of the bowl (itis eighteen
inches in diameter) makes this a true tour
de force of the potter's art. Some examples of this slip-painted ware have red in
the palette; others reverse the color
scheme so that the designs are silhouetted on a dark ground.

10. While the emerging middle classes

and the patricians were buying locally
produced glazed pottery as well as the
coveted imported ceramic objects also
available in the markets of the Middle
East, unglazed wares were stillfulfilling
vital needs of all the citizenry. Humble
though they may have seemed at the
time, these vessels with their simple elegance superbly illustratethe control of the
potter over his medium. Withno glaze or
applied or painted decoration to hide its
flaws, this eggshell-thin cup, highlighted
only by tooled punches on its shoulder,
is a worthy testament to the level of the
industry in the tenth century.
11

7f

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Early

Medieval

Pottery

ELEVENTH
TOMID-THIRTEENTH
CENTURY

Thetechniqueof lusterpainting,which
movedfromIraqwithmigratingceramists
and,to the best of ourknowledge,was
neverto return,continuedinSpainas well
as in Egyptduringthisperiod.Itis from
the lattercountry-withthe disintegration
of the Fatimiddynastyand the riseof artisticpatronageunderthe KurdishAyyubids and variousTurkic
groups,including
the GreatSeljuks-thatthe technique
mostprobablymoved againwithmigrating artiststo Syriaand Iran.Inadditionto
ware,moldedslip-and inluster-painted
glaze-paintedwarecontinuedto be
made, alongwithobjectsexhibitingincised decoration.
However,the most importantinnovation
inthe fieldduringthisperiodwas the rediscoveryof faience,made inan attempt
to imitatethe appearanceof Sung porcelain.Firstemployedby the Pharoanic
Egyptians,thisis a man-mademixtureof
potash,quartz,and whiteclay.Once rediscovered,the whitecompositebody
was soon being used by Islamicceramistsas a groundforpainteddesigns that
exhibitedgreaterlinearand tonalvariety
thancouldhave been achieved before.

Thedecorativepossibilitiesopen to the
Muslimpotterwere now limitless.
These composite-bodiedobjectsseem
to have been almostexclusivelycovered
withalkalineglazes, to the exclusionof
lead glazes, intwelfth-to fourteenthcenturySyriaand latefourteenth-to early
Iran.However,and
eighteenth-century
contraryto widelyaccepted opinion,
these alkalineglazes were used onlysporadicallybetweenthe eleventhand the
middleof the fourteenthcenturyin Iran,
wherelead glazes were stillthe preferred
coveringforcomposite-bodiedware.
Itis duringthisperiodthat,underMusliminfluence,the firstlead glaze opacified
withtinwas used in Europe-in Pavia,
Italy,at the end of the eleventhcentury.
Thusthe ceramicindustryof the Islamic
worldlaidthe groundforItalianmajolica
and the manyotherEuropeanwaresthat
were decoratedwithdesigns paintedon
an opaque whitesurface.
11. Stylisticand iconographicchanges
took place inthe decorationof lusterpaintedpotteryafterthistechniquewas
broughtby artistsfromIraqto Egypt.As in
most Fatimidart,therewas an increasein

the use of humanand animalmotifsthat

appear morealivethantheirpredecessors. The heraldiceagle on thisoutstanding objectlacksthe caricaturelike
quality
of the seated man on the tenth-century
Iraqibowl(figure6). ItsHellenisticheritage is obvious:in composition-profile
head and outstretchedwings and legs
-it descends fromthe insigniaof the
Romanlegions.
Beneaththe bird'srighttalonand again
on the footof the bowlis the artist'ssignaActivearoundthe year
ture,"Muslim."
1000, he is the only Egyptianpotterof this
periodwho has been placed in a firmhistoricalcontext.
Theceramistin Egyptat thistimemust
have been held in ratherhighesteem, for
notonlydid manyartistssuch as Muslim
sign theirnames on the back orthe front
of theirobjects, butsome also countersigned those signed by others,thus indicatingimportantatelierswhose master
craftsmen'ssignatureswere coveted. In
the earlyIslamicperiod,pieces bearing
the potter'ssignaturewere notentirelyunknownbutthe practicewas notwidespread.
13

12

12. Inthe middleof the twelfthcenturyand apparentlycoincidingwiththe fallof

the Fatimiddynasty-the luster-painting
techniqueseems to have disappeared
fromthe Egyptianpotters'repertoireand
appearedinSyriaforthe firsttime.
Typicalof earlySyrianluster-painted
wareare some of the featuresof this
basin:copper-coloredluster,appliedto a
transparent,ratherthanopaque, glaze
thathas a crackledquality;and largeundecoratedareas withinthe design. Significant also arethe scallopeddecorationon
the rimand the wide plainbandforming
the upperborderof the principaldesign.
Examplesof thiswarewithmotifsincised
throughthe lusteralso exist.
withregardto
Ratherunimaginative
shapes, thisSyriancopper-coloredlusterpaintedwareoccurredmainlyinthe basin
formshown here (an unusuallylargeexample)or in bowlswithverysharplyflaring walls.Bowlsof the lattertype were set
intothe campanilesorfacades of Romanesque churchesin Italyas decorationduring construction.Because the buildings
are veryoftendated,these bacini,as they
are called,can be dated as well.
14

13. Thetechniqueof incisingceramicsurfaces, as seen on thisfooted Iranianbowl,

is a carry-overfromthe earlyIslamic
period;and the purelyIslamicarabesque
design on itsstraightwallsis a continuationof a motifthatwas verypopularin
Samarra.However,the perninth-century
iod of itsmanufacturewas notonlyone of
at a pointas yet notclearly
continuation;
defined,Chineseporcelaininspireda
new chapterin Islamicpotterymaking.
Notcontentwithimitatingonlythe whiteness of the porcelain,Iranianpotterswent
a step furtherand made deep incisionsin
the wallsof the vessels, sometimespiercing them.Whenthese deep incisions
were covered withtransparentglaze, the
wallsappearedas translucentas those of
the much-covetedChineseware.
14. Thispanel,one of a groupof six
Syriantilesbearinga bold moldedcalligraphicdesign, exhibitsa decorative
techniquepracticedin earlyIslamictimes.
Itis representativeof a type of warewith
moldeddesigns verycommoninthe centralIslamiclandsduringthe latetwelfth
and earlythirteenthcenturies.These ob-

jects-including dishes, vases, lanterns,

and lowtablesforfood and drink-were
mostoftencovered witha clearcolorless,
turquoise,or aubergineglaze.
Ceramicarchitectural
decorationhad
a long pre-lslamichistoryinthe Middle
East.TheearliestIslamicexamples are
fromninth-century
Iraq,whence the traditionpassed to othercountriesinthe Muslimworld.Ceramicarchitectural
elements
fromSyria,in any technique,datingfrom
the timeof this panel are rare.
15. Thereis verylittleevidence of the use
of glazed ceramicarchitectural
decorationinthe extremeeastern reaches of the
Muslimworldduringthis periodexcept
fora few tilefragmentsfromNishapurand
a largegroupof tilesfromGhazni,in what
is nowAfghanistan,foundin a palace destroyedby the Mongolsin 1221. Among
the Ghaznigroupwas thissquare red wall
tilewithmoldeddecoration.Itsmotifof affrontedlarge-tailedbirdshas earlyIslamic
parallels,as do the motifson manyother
Ghaznitiles.The colors used on the
group,notablygreen and yellow,as well
as the rarered seen here, are also more
characteristicof earlierpottery.

14

13

15

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16. One variety of slip painting under a

transparent lead glaze employed in early
Islamic Iranis found during the early
medieval period on the so-called silhouette
ware, here represented by a cup with a
band of gazelles striding across its belly.
Modificationsto the earliertechnique
were necessary because of the new body
type: in this ware the design was executed with a thinner version of the composite-body material(known as "frit")
instead of being painted with a clay slip.

The vessel was then covered with a transparent clear or turquoise glaze. In some
examples of this type, the whole object
was covered with a thick layer of frit;
when dry, the fritwas incised through to
the body, creating a design, or it was
carved away, leaving the design in relief.
The most common shapes among
silhouette ware are drinkingvessels,
although bowls are known as well. The
stripes on the lower section of this cup
and on its short neck are a popular device

on these objects.
17. The decoration on this bowl was created in the same manner as that on the
cup (figure 16), the only difference being
that the body is earthenware and the design is carved in a coat of white engobe,
not frit.This ware, known as "Garrus,"the
name of the districtwhere the type was
firstfound, is very probably a provincial
imitationof the silhouette ware made in
the frit-paintedtechnique.

17

16

17

18. Theabilityto painta design that

wouldnot runin,on, with,or undera
glaze requireda masteryof the medium
thatwas attainedonlythroughmuchtrial
and error.Atthe dawnof the twelfthcentury,the problemhad not been completelysolved, butceramistscontinuedto
investigatenew methods,includingthe
noveltechniqueused on thissmalldish. It
is an exampleof laqabi("painted")
ware,
which,because of itsshort-livedappearance inthe Islamicworld,musthave been
an experimentin potterypainting.
Here,the entirebackgroundis carved
away,leavingthe design in relief.Thisdesign, inturn,is incised,creatingwhatcan
onlybe calleddikesor cloisonsto prevent
the differentcoloredglazes fromrunning
together.Thistechnique,because of its

18

18

cloisons, has a built-instylizingeffectthat

is verysuccessful in depictingthiscolorfulperkybird,whichformsthe principal
design.
Theshape of the dish-with itslow
slightlyflaringwallsand wideflatrim
(bearinga pseudo-Kuficdesign)-places
itmoreinthe Syrianthaninthe Persian
sphere, althoughthistype of warewas
also made in Iran.
19. Inan attemptto increasethe number
of colorsintheirpalettes,twelfth-century
Iranianpottersdeveloped a technique
now knownas mina'i("enameled"),in
whichstablecolorswere stain-paintedin
a lead glaze opacifiedwithtinand, aftera
firstfiring,less stablecolorswere applied
and the objectwas refiredat a lowertem-

perature.Thistechniqueenabled the artistto paintina greatervarietyof colors

withcompletecontrol,lendinga miniaturelikequalityto the designs notfound
on otherpotterytypes. Whetherforpractical or aestheticreasons,this methodwas
relativelyshort-lived.
Figuraldesigns as opposed to stylized
vegetal ones seem to have been preferredby mina'ipainters:some of the vessels withfiguresbear scenes fromthe
Iraniannationalepic, the Shah-nameh
(TheBookof Kings),writtenby the poet
Ferdowsibetween975 and 1010. The
styleof these figuresechoes thatof those
inthe few Persianpaintingson paper
extantfromthis period,and thus mina'i
wareserves to increaseour knowledgeof
paintingof the earlymedievalperiod.

:i

19

19

20. Untilthe second halfof the twelfth

century,ceramistsin differentareas of the
Islamicworldhad notcompletelymasteredthe techniqueof decoratingglazed
objectswithwhatwere oftenquiteelaboratedesigns of a calligraphic,vegetal,
geometric,orfiguralnature.Twelfthcenturypotters,however,began to stainpaintdirectlyontothe compositebody.As
is wellillustratedby the lowersection of
thisSyrianjar,thismethodof underglaze

withfigures,animals,or birds.
Theabstractdecorationon thisjaris
21. Inadditionto underglaze-painted
unusualforthe type, as itreflectsthe influwaredecoratedin blackundera clearor
ence of contemporarymetalworkinthe
turquoiseglaze (figure20), Syriaprolayoutof itsdesign and inthe motifs(speduced underglazepolychromepainted
cificallythe horizontalbands interrupted
wareduringthe second halfof the twelfth by largeroundels).As we have seen
and firsthalfof the thirteenthcentury.
earlier,costliermetalobjectsoftenserved
These pieces are closely relatedto those
as the inspirationforobjects in less
made incontemporaryEgyptand Turkey, expensive media.
allof whichare customarilydecorated

paintingprovideda veryclearimage.

21

20

i .I

te:f

was also highlydeveloped in Iran.This

22. Duringmostof the twelfthand the first
halfof the thirteenthcentury,the central
bowl,producedduringthe earlythirteenth
Anatolia
of
was
ruled
branch
a
of
century,exhibitsgreatlinearand
by
part
tonalvariety.Superimposeddesign netthe Turkic
Seljuksfromtheircapitalat
worksare a commonfeatureon Islamic
Konya.Structuresthatstandto thisday as
wellas those revealedduringexcavations
objectsin manymediaproducedat many
differenttimes;characteristically
attestto the Seljukfondness forcovering
Islamic
motifsinclude the splitpalmetteswith
the wallsof theirbuildingswithtilesarwhichthe bluesix-partdesign terminates.
rangedin geometricpatterns.
Whenthe Mongolsbegan theirsweep
The exteriordecorationand shape of
across Asiaduringthe firstquarterof the
thisvessel, withits highfootand flaring
thirteenthcentury,craftsmenfromthe
wallsthatbreakquitesharplyintheir
countriesintheirpathmigratedto safer,
lowersection,are typicalof ceramicsasmorefinanciallystableareas to work.That
sociated withKashan.
the buildingtileswere producedwiththe
help of importedor migrantcraftsmenis
24. Thisewer witha reticulatedouterwall
evidenced by thishexagonalgrouping,
thatvirtually
masksthe innermostplain
whichprobablycame fromthe palace of
one is also associated withthe Iranian
'Ala'al-DinKay-Qubadh(ruled1219-37)
ceramiccenterof Kashanand belongs
at Konya.Itexhibitsthe technicaland
to a veryraregroupof double-walled
iconographicalinfluenceof Syrianobjects
objectswhose prototypeseems to have
inthe star-shapedunderglaze-painted
tile
been Iraqi.
withthe sphinxand the technicalinfluCharacteristic
of Kashanproduction
ence of Persianmina'iwareon bothtypes
arethe willowpatternabove the footand
of the four-sidedtiles.
thatinsidethe neck. The principaldecora23. Thetechniqueof underglaze-painting tionis a veritablejunglescene incorporat-

23 Is-S

22

l^

ing sphinxes(some of whichstronglyresemble the one on the tilegroupingfrom

Konya[figure22]), harpies,and quadrupeds of severalvarieties,allset againsta
dense vegetal background.The decorationalso includesthe date:A.H.612
(A.D.1215-16).

25. InIranand Turkeythe traditionof

decoraglazed ceramicarchitectural
tion-a traditionthatbegan duringthe
earlymedievalperiodand extended into
the nexttwo periods-was developed to
one of its highestlevels withinthe history
of pottery.ThisTurkishbosse appears to
have been created in muchthe same
manneras the decorationon the outer
wallof the ewer (figure24). The hollow
hemisphereconsists of a cut-outgeometricdesign thatcontainsvegetal motifsin
some of itssections.
Althoughbosses used forarchitectural
decorationwere morecommonlyexecuted in stone, ceramicpieces similarto
thisone are stillin situon buildingsin Konya,accentingthe spandrelsof arches.

01-w

26

26. Inthe latetwelfthand firsthalfof the

thirteenthcenturyinSyria,the lusterpaintingtechniquewas combinedwith
underglazepainting,as itwas also incontemporaryand laterceramicproduction
in Iranand Spain.Thishandleddrinking
vessel witha taperingneck was a popular
ware,of
shape forSyrianluster-painted
whichsome of the characteristicfeatures
are a chocolate-brownlustercombined
withunderglaze-painted
blue,and a
of
coiled
background tightly
spiralsreminiscentof engravedor chased scrollson
contemporarymetalwork.Thearrangementof the variouscalligraphic,geometric,and vegetal designs intoa series of
concentricbands interruptedby medal-

24

lionsalso has abundantmetalprototypes.

27. Ataboutthe timeof the collapse of
the Fatimiddynastyin 1171, lusterpaintedwarewas being producedin Iran
as wellas Syria.Whileitseems quitecertainthatmigratingEgyptianpotterswere
responsibleforbringingthe techniqueto
Syria,theirroleinthe appearanceof
warein Iranis less clear.
luster-painted
Certainfeaturescommonto bothwares
supporta connectionbetween Egyptian
and Iranianluster,particularly
thatassociated withthe Persiancityof Rayy.Of
those features,this Iranianfooted bowl
exhibitstwo:a design reservedon the lusterground(inthiscase, an "Islamized"
Pegasus) and a gadroonedrim.

27

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Late

Medieval

Pottery

MID-THIRTEENTH
TOFIFTEENTH
CENTURY

The potteryindustryexhibiteda number

of discernibletrendsduringthis period.It
witnesseda continuationof some of the
ceramictypes seen inthe earlymedieval
period,mostespeciallythe luster-and
wares, and a simplifiunderglaze-painted
cationof certaintechniquesemployedin
the earlierperiod.
Glazedceramicarchitectural
decoration,firstused inthe Islamicworldin ninthcenturyIraq,nowwas refined,reached
itszenith,and began itsdecline.
Duringthe latemedievalperiod,as
earlier,vogues or styles currentin various
areas of the Islamicworldmanifested
decorationas
themselvesinarchitectural
wellas on vessels. Some of these interna-

tionalstylesare explainedby contemporarytextsand inscriptionsindicatingthat

artistsfromIran,namelyfromTabriz,were
workingin Egypt,Syria,and Turkeyat
varioustimesduringthe period.
Latemedievalceramicswere strongly
influencedby FarEastern,mainlyChinese,
iconographyandcolorschemes. Effected
principally
throughthe Mongolinvasions and throughtrade,thisinfluence
breathednew lifeintothe productionof
wareat thistimeand
underglaze-painted
duringthe late Islamicperiod.
28. Thisliddedalbarello,or storagejar,
belongsto a groupof wares knownas

fromthe Persianwordforlapis
lajvardina,
lazuli,lajvard.Because of the survivalof
a treatisewrittenin 1301 by Abu'lQasim
al-Kashani,a memberof a well-known
familyof Kashanpotters,much is known
aboutthe techniqueused to decoratethis
group.Itis relatedto the techniqueused
on mina'iware butemployedonlyoverglaze colors,whichwere fixed by a second firing.The most commonmethodof
applyinggold to such wares was used on
thisvessel: afterred gold was hammered
intoa veryfinesheet and cut intoshapes
withscissors, the individualpieces were
backedwithglue and appliedto the
jarwitha pen or rodand then smoothed
withcotton.
27

29

29. Duringthe earlyand late medieval

periods,the cityof Kashanwas renowned
throughoutPersiaforits luster-painted
tiles,and commissionswere received
fromalloverthe country.Thisexample
probablyserved as a mihrab,or niche
indicatingthe directionof Mecca-the
focal pointof Muslimhouses of worship.
Exceptforthe artist'ssignature,which
is conspicuouslyplaced inthe spandrels,
the moldedepigraphicdecorationis all
Koranic.The last partof Chapter2, Verse
136, "AndGod willsufficeyou against
themand He is the Listener,the Omniscient,"has been used imaginativelyto
formand fillthe arch restingon slender
columns.The architselfis the compound
wordfasayakfikahum("AndHe willsuffice you againstthem");fromithangs a
mosque lamp.A verysimilarmihrabfrom
Kashan,inthe collectionof the GulbenkianFoundation,in Lisbon,bears the
same epigraphicdevice and is dated
A.H.710(A.D. 1310-11).

30. The appearanceof FarEasterniconographyon Islamicworksof artseems

to coincidewiththe spread of Mongol
taste about 1300. Thisbowlis a typical
example of a type of waremade inthe
firsthalfof the fourteenthcenturywith
decorativemotifsthatbetrayChinese influence-here, a proudgoose and lotus
blossoms hiddenamong dense foliage.
Thetechniqueused to decoratethe
bowlwas also employedwithslightvariationon objects made in contemporary
Egyptand Syria.Thecompositewhite
body was covered witha grayengobe
beforethe design was paintedon itwith
a thickwhitefrit.Blackwas then used for
outlinesand cobaltblueforhighlights.
The sharplybreakingwalland T-form
of
the rimare aspects of a shape typicalfor
the period.
31. Chinese influenceduringthis period
was notconfinedto iconography.Chinese celadon-glazedwares were highly
valuedand imitatedin Iranand in Egypt,
althoughtheircolorwas only rarelyduplicated successfully.
The decorationon the interiorof this
bowl-three fishencirclingits baseclosely parallelsthaton the Chinese prototypes.The hemisphericalshape of the
bowl,its low narrowfoot,and the radiating petalpatternsin reliefon the outside
reflectthe shape and exteriordecoration
of the celadon-glazedpetal-backedbowls
fromthe Lung-ch'uankilns.The shape
was foundamong bowlsof variousdecorativetechniquesduringthe latethirteenth
and earlyfourteenthcenturies,especially
in Iran.
28

30

31

29

32. Thevogue forimitatingcontemporary

metalworkdesigns, currentin Syriaduring the earlymedievalperiod,continued
duringthe fourteenthcenturyon some
wares.The
Syrianunderglaze-painted
principaldecorationon thislargejarconsists of a wide band inwhicha groundof
tightlycurledspiralsbears an Arabicinscriptioninthuluthscript:"Lastingglory,
increasingprosperity,and fortuitousdestiny."Unlikethe angularKuficso popular
in decorativeartsof the earlierperiods,
thuluthis a cursivescriptcharacterizedby
tallelegantverticals.Similarwide bands
bearingboldthuluthinscriptionsinlaid
withsilveron a groundof engravedor
chased spirals-all positionedbetween
decorativeborders-were verycommon
on contemporarymetalworkfromSyria
and Egypt.
33. Syrianunderglaze-painted
wares
appearto have had an impacton ceramic
productionas farnorthas SeraiBerke,on
the VolgaRiver,whichserved as the capitalof the GoldenHorde.Because of their
allianceagainstthe Mongolswiththe
Mamluks(whoruledinSyriaand Egypt
until1517)and also the bond betweenthe
GoldenHordeand the Mamluksof a very
activetradein slaves, itis notsurprising
thatartistsinSouthRussiawere influenced by pottery,such as thisexample,
made in Mamlukcenters.The dish has
a characteristically
Mamlukshape, with
roundedand slightlyflaringwallsand
a wideflatrim.The layoutof the border
and the motifswithinit-crosshatching
interrupted
by rectanglesbearingspots
of color-are foundon pieces from
SeraiBerke.

33

34. Farfromfinelycrafted,thisunderglaze-painteddish is nonethelessimportantinthe historyof Islamicpottery

because a date is incorporatedin its
charmingand quitetypicallyhumblePersian inscription:
"Aslong as the soup is
if
the
bowl
is notso wellmade, let
good,
it be. The year A.H. 779 [A.D. 1377-78].

Thedate permitsus to have precise informationaboutone type of underglazepaintedwareproducedin Iranduringthe

lastquarterof the fourteenthcenturya periodduringwhichverylittleis
knownaboutIran'spotteryproduction.

34

32

31

35. Thiseight-pointedstartilebearstwo
superimposeddesign networks,a popularIslamicdecorativeconvention(see
also figure23). Thelower,finernetwork
is leftunglazed,whilethe upper,bolder
design is glazed turquoiseblue.Thecombinationof glazed and unglazedareas
on a singleobject,be ita tileor a vessel,
is relativelyrare.However,tileswith
glazed and unglazedareas are known
in Iranfromas earlyas the middleof the
eleventhcentury.
Onvessels, the unglazedareas permitted evaporation,whilethe glazed areas

35

32

satisfiedthe Persianpenchantforcolorful
tilesdecodecoration.On architectural
ratedinthismanner,the glazed design
wouldbe emphasizedand thus seen from
a greaterdistance.
decorationcomprisedof
36. Architectural
individualglazed pieces was firstused in
IslamicIraninthe firsthalfof the twelfth
century,when smallmonochromeglazed
tileswere set intothe wallsof buildings
ina verysparse, tentativemanner.This
practicegained momentumquiterapidly,

and by the timethismihrabwas made,

entirewallswere being covered with
mosaictotallyexecuted in smallpieces of
brilliantly
glazed ceramic.The complexity
of such patternsrequiredawesomely
accuratecutting:since every angle influences the whole,the patterncould not be
realizedunless each piece was precisely
cut. Thishighlyexactingphase soon gave
way,forthe most part,to one in which
designs were paintedon largertiles-a
muchquickerand easier way to cover
largesurfaceswithpatternedglazed
ceramics.

36

37. Thedecorationon thisbordertile,

carvedin highreliefand glazed invivid
colors,is no less strikingthanthe decorationon the mihrab,yet itwas considerably
easierto execute. Thistileand the group
to whichitbelongs are characterizedby
deeply carvedvegetal,calligraphic,or
geometricdesigns glazed in one or more
colors.Itis typicalof the glazed ceramic
decorationin Bukharaand
architectural
Samarkandduringthe second halfof the
fourteenthcentury.
38. Less time-consumingstillwas the
techniqueused to execute the design on
thistwelve-pointedstartilefromthe madrasa("theologicalschool")at Khargirdin
Persia (A.H. 848 [A.D. 1444-45]). Before

the variousmotifswere paintedwithcolored glazes, each areato be paintedwas

circumscribedby a thinlineof a greasy
substance mixedwithmanganese, which
preventedthe differentcolorsfromrunningtogether.Whenfired,the grease
burnedawayand lefta darkmatteline
outliningthe motifs.Thistechnique,
knownas cuerdaseca ("burntcord"),
was used earlierinSpain.Italso enjoyed
a greatbutbriefsuccess inTurkeyduring
the firsthalfof the fifteenthcentury,and it
was to become quitepopularin Iranduring the finalperiodto be discussed here.
39. These twotilesare rareexamplesin
Westerncollectionsof the cuerdaseca
techniqueas executed inTurkey.Five
otheridenticaltilesare known,fourinthe
Victoriaand AlbertMuseumin London
and one inthe MadinaCollectionin New
York.Allare slightlybowed, and theyform
a repeatpatternof an arch-and-spandrel
design-indicating that,set side by side,
they once graced a cylindricalobjectof
largediameter.Perhapsthey are from
a decorativebandon the minaretof
a mosque.
Thistechniquewas introducedintoTurkeyfromIranearlyinthe fifteenthcentury.
Thefirstmonumentaltilecycle in Ottoman
Turkeywas executed inthistechniquefor
the GreenMosquein Bursa,whichwas
completedin 1428. The mihrabinthis
mosque bears an inscriptionidentifying
the artistsof the revetmentas "masters
fromTabriz"

34

37

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B:-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ak

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7777T~~~~~~~

40. Fifteenth-century
Syrianand Egyptian
underglaze-paintedwareis handsomely
representedby these two hexagonaltiles.
The Syrianexample(below)bears a backgrounddesign of tightlycoiled spirals
and a motifof a liddedewer on a stand,
of whicha numberof Mamlukmetalexamplesexistas wellas a few ceramicones.
The decorationis very Islamic,unlikethat
of the Egyptiantile(above),whichbetrays
its dependence on Chinese models.
Althoughno Iranianprototypesfor
these tilessurvive,they musthave existed;a religiouscomplexin Damascus
decoratedwithmorethanthirteenhundred hexagonalunderglaze-paintedtiles
also bears a rectangularone withthe signatureof an artistfromthe Iraniancity
of Tabriz.Itseems quitecertainthatthis
particularartistsubsequentlymoved to
Cairo,since several bowls bearinghis
signatureare knownto have been made
there.Similarhexagonaltilesalso exist in
Turkey;since ceramistsfromTabrizare
knownto have been workingthereat the
time,itis safe to suggest thatthe Turkish
artists.
tileswere also made by Tabrizi
Thusitappears thatinthe earlyyears
of the fifteenthcentury,Iranianceramists
moved westwardand establishedtheir
imprinton the ceramicproductionof at
leastthreecountries,an imprintthatwas
to be feltformanyyears to come.
41. Thishemisphericalbowl belongs to
a series of wares made fromthe second
halfof the fifteenththroughthe seventeenthcenturyand now knownas Kubatchi,fromthe name of the town inthe
Caucasuswhere manyof these pieces
were foundinthe nineteenthcentury.This
bowlis one of a rareearlygroup inthe seriescharacterizedby a design of ogee
panels encirclinga centralroundel-all of
whichbearvegetal motifs-reserved on
a blackgrounddistinguishedby incised,
spiraldesigns. A brilliant
predominantly
turquoiseglaze covers the entirebowl.
Thefourknowndated pieces of thisgroup
rangefrom1469 to 1495. Theyconstitute
ceramic
the onlythree-dimensional
be
can
that
securelyplaced in
objects
Iran.
fifteenth-century

41

36

^.....

l?Su

|;n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

]s^?lS~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

?^^H~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

42. Ourknowledgeconcerningthe
Muslimworld'sproductionof threedimensionalpotterypieces duringthe
fifteenthcenturyremainstentative,except
forthose thatbelong to a dated group
(such as figure41) and those signed by
an artistwhose dates are ascertainable.
Theshape of thisewer is identicalto
thatof a groupof metalewers scatteredin
variouscollectionsthroughoutthe world;
a numberof these ewers are dated. Since
ceramicobjectstend to imitatemetalones,
itcan be concludedthatthisewer was
producedlaterthanthe metalexamples,
notearlierthanthe second halfof the
fifteenthcentury.The determinationof its
place of manufactureis moredifficult.The
shape is reminiscentof Iranianmetalwork;
the ewer'svegetal decorationand the
qualityof its glaze are closely paralleledin
a bowl(inthe collectionof the Louvre)
whose foot bears the information"madein
Damascus";and the crenelateddesign
aroundthe base of its neck is verysimilar
to designs foundon earlyTurkish
wares
fromIsnik.
43. The luster-painted
wareof Nasrid
Spain ultimatelyowes itsexistence to
the objects producedinthattechnique
in ninth-century
Baghdad. MovingwestwardfromBaghdad,firstto whatis now
Tunisiaand then to Algeria,the technique
appeared subsequentlyin lateeleventhcenturySpain,where itgave riseto an
importantcenterin Malaga.Production
inthiscityled directlyto the so-called
Hispano-Moresqueluster-paintedwares.
Amongthe productsof thislaterand longrecognizedgroupis this rareeight-pointed
startile,whose overallgrapevinepattern
withnaturalistic
leaves and bunches of
fruitstillbetraysthe classicalheritageof
Islamicart.
44. Thisdeep dish, or brasero,whichwas
made slightlylaterthanthe eight-pointed
startile,bears witnessto the long Islamic
traditionbehindits production.Itsmajor
motifs-the cobalt-bluepalmettetree, the
pseudo-Kuficdesigns inthe cartouches
surroundingthe centralroundel,and the
tightlycoiled spiralson the wideflatrimare alldrawnfromthe Islamicrepertoire.

38

xx

)9 ??

44

39

45

40

Late

Pottery

CENTURY
SIXTEENTH
TOSEVENTEENTH

Some of the finestpotteryever produced

inthe Islamicworldwas made between
about 1490 and 1700 inthe OttomanTurkish cityof Isnik(ancientNicaea).Theinfluence of thisimportantproductioncenter
on ceramicobjectsmade in seventeenthcenturyIranappearsto have been strong.
Egyptand Syria,now provincesof
the OttomanEmpire,were also active
areas, butthey seem
ceramic-producing
to have manufacturedmainlycopies of
objectsmade inTurkeyorto have continued the ceramictraditioncurrentinthose
countriesduringthe precedingperiod.
TheothermajorIslamicpowerat this
time,the Mughals,made no new contributionsto the ceramicindustry.
Mostof the manydifferentpotterytypes
made duringthisperiodexhibita continuationof the decorativetechniquesalready
perfectedduringearlierperiodsor a revival of them,althoughincertaincases these
techniquesare combinedin new ways.
Thisperiodof continuityand renaissance

also saw the accelerationof the declineof

the industry.Bythe end of thisperiod,
Islamicceramicproductionhad totally
lost itsvitality.
45. Earthenware
ceramicswere made
in Isnikas earlyas the second halfof the
fourteenthcentury,butitwas not until
aboutone hundredyears laterthatthis
centerbegan to manufacturepotterywith
a compositebody.The earliestcompositebodiedwaremade in Isnikwas distinguished by an underglaze-paintedblue
decorationon a whiteground.
Amongthe principalcharacteristicsof
thisware,knownas "Abrahamof Kutahya"(afterthe artistwhose signatureappearedon onlyone piece), are ornately
contouredpanelswithsmall,highlydetailedvegetal patterns,likethose on the
interiorof thisbowl.Thedecorationwithin
the panels,inwhitesilhouettedon a blue
ground,contrastswiththe same design,
in blueon a whiteground,executed on a
largerscale and in a broaderstyleon

the exteriorof the bowl.

Thejewel-likequalityof the colors may
be attributedpartiallyto the thinwash of
whitebody materialappliedoverthe raw
bodyto serve as a surfaceforthe decoration.Thistechnicalfeaturewas common
to allwares made in Isnik.
46. A variantof the "Abrahamof Kutahya"
type, representedby thissmallmosque
lamp,is characterizedby a groundcompletelycovered withdelicatespiraling
stems bearingsmallflowers.Thismotif
serves as the backdropfortwo beautifully
executed Arabicinscriptions:"Power
belongsto God,the One"(repeatedthree
timeson the body of the object)and (on
the flaringuppersection)"thereis no hero
no swordexcept dho-l-faqar
except 'AIT;
['All'ssword]"
Duringthisperiodin Turkey,pottery
continuedto imitatemetalworkin shape
as wellas in design. Thislamp,however,
is one of a numbermade at thistimethat
have a glass prototype.
41

; "I
--j

'R

A,3

'-';'

,,~wares
j

*/K^,)&,>^~*2SW
'

......._..._ _
47

48

47. "Abrahamof Kutahya"ware soon

gave way to thatwithmorevarieddesigns and morecolors.This"Damascus"
type, so called because originallyitwas
thoughtto have been made inthatcity,incorporatedin itsdecorationcobaltblue,
lightblue,turquoise,manganese purple,
sage green, and a greenish blackforoutlines.Amongthe productsof this polychromegroupare the finestceramic
ever producedinthe kilnsof Isnik.
Likemanypieces of "Damascus"ware,
thisdish has a symmetricalcomposition
stylizedtulipsseen radiatingfromthe
centralrosetteand in clustersinthe border,wherethey alternatewitha favorite
Turkish
motifof closed crescents, were
to become very popularduringthe last
phase of Isnikproduction.
48. Likethe polychromeluster-painted
wareof seven hundredyears earlier,the
"Damascus"underglaze-paintedpolychromegroup,althoughexceedingly
beautiful,did notsurviveverylong. Itwas
at least partlya matterof economics that
caused the Isnikkilnsto begin turningout
tilesand vessels withanotherpolychrome
colorscheme. Ofthe threetypes of ceramicsproducedin Isnik,the "Rhodian"
.type,. namedforthe Islandof Rhodes,
......
whereitwas thoughtto have been manufactured,was developed lastand existed
the longest(fromabout1555 untilabout
1700).The predominantnew coloradded
to the palettewas a "sealing-wax"red,
whichwas appliedso thicklythatitstood
in relief.The most populardesigns on
"Rhodian"
warewere floweringplants,
the bluebell,hyacinth,carnaparticularly
tion,rose, and tulip,manyof whichare
quiterealistically
depicted on this panel.
Duringthisthirdand finalphase of Isnik
potterymanufacture,the interiorsof both
religiousand secular buildingswere covered withtilessuch as these, givingthem
a veryairybutsumptuousappearance.
49. Byfarthe mostoutstandingIsnik
"Rhodian"
wares were the tiles.The vessels were of lesser importanceand their
designs merelyabbreviatedversionsof
the magnificentlycomposed tiledecorations.One smalland raresubgroupof
"Rhodian"
ceramicsappears notto have
had any counterpartinthe tileindustry.
Thisdish,whose principaldesign is a
single blossomwithradiatingpetals,is
typicalof thisware,in whichchocolatebrown,salmon-pink,or a warmblue
opaque glaze was used as the ground
fora slip-painteddesign. The last-named
colormay have laterechoes insome
Iranianproducts,such as the kalianillustratedin figure59.
43

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::-5

,i ~l

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!~,~l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~,,
,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~?
$~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i,,1
k:i: Bii:-:"r:a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~g

~,i~,~!~'~'~'~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~i

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

izi~I??

r?-~~~~~~~~~~ii

~'i~??~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
9~~~

51

50. Thispanelof six tilesis a handsomely

paintedexampleof the Syrianversionof
ware.Thedecorationof paral"Rhodian"
lel undulatingvines withhybridblossoms
and bunchesof grapes thatmoreclosely
resembleflowersthanfruitis an adaptationof similardesigns foundinTurkish
tilepanelsand textiles.Cobaltblue,turquoise, purple,and green, allwithblack
outlines,werethe preferredcolors.
51. ThisEgyptianpanelfroma mosque
illustratesthe continuationof the ceramic
traditionfollowingthe Ottomanconquest
of thatcountryand is proofof how little
the politicalchange affectedartisticproduction.Itsboldcursiveinscriptionreads:
"TheweakservantKayunibnAbdallah,
the sinful,the one in need of God'smercy,
foundedthisblessed mosque. Itwas
builtinthe year1000 [A.D.1591-92]"Ifthe
date of manufacturewere notincorpo-

ratedin itsdecorationand ifthe arabesque design inthe spandrelsdid not

exhibitstrongOttomaninfluence,itwould
be temptingto place thispanelwithinthe
Mamlukperiodsince a numberof similar
tilesonce graced and stilldecorate
r _l_

"
'J-

__

_ 1

i_ .i .
_- -_
_lC &L
_:- A
- __
A __,
DUllaingsOTmis perioa in aliro oaay.

52. Likea numberof ceramicobjects

producedin Isnikduringthe sixteenth
century,this Iraniandish combines Far
Easternand Islamicmotifsin its underglaze-painteddecoration.The borderdesign is a corruptionof the wave pattern
foundon fifteenth-century
blue-and-white
Mingporcelain,and the design inthe
cavettois an encircledand beribboned
variationof a fairlycommonelementon
Chineseblue-and-white
sixteenth-century
and polychromewares.Thecentral
design of a benignlionin a landscape is,
however,purelyIslamic.

The dish is a very rareexampleof a

dated sixteenth-century
Persianceramic
object:A.H.975 (A.D. 1567-68) appears
on itsexteriorwall.

53. The stronginfluencethatChinese

blue-and-whiteporcelainbegan to exert
on Islamicceramicsinthe latefourteenth
centurypersistedforat leastthe nexttwo
hundredand fiftyyears. The artistof this
large Persiandish selected and adapted
elementsof Chinese blue-and-white
porcelainof variousdates forhis decoration-such as the design on the cavetto,
the dragons,and the concentricwave
pattern.The "tasselmark"on the foot of
the dish, in imitationof a Chinese reign
mark,or nien-hao,suggests a seventeenth-centurydate because itis very
similarto marksfoundon otherIranian
bowlsattributedto thistime.

45

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~54 ~~~~~~~~~~freshment
55

46

54. Thisdish belongs to the final,polywares (see

chrometype of "Kubatchi"
figure41). Itsunderglazestain-and
and paletteof blue,turslip-painting,
quoise, green, yellow,and red, with
blackoutlines,may indicatethat "Rhodian"wareexertedan influenceon the
characteristictechniqueand color
scheme of these polychrome"Kubatchi"pieces. Mostof the figuresincorporatedinthe designs of bothdishes
and tilesinthisgroupappearto be
verysimilarto those foundin miniature
and monumentalpaintingsexecuted
in Isfahanduringthe reignof Shah
'Abb5s 1(1589-1628).
55. Some of the buildingsconstructed
in Isfahanduringthe reignof Shah
'Abbas Iwere decoratedwithtiles
such as these, whichwere executed in
the cuerdaseca technique(see figures
38, 39).
Europeans,who were presentin relativelylarge numbersat his court,are
oftenrepresentedinfashionsof the
tiles,the
day.Onthis panelof thirty-two
gentlemanin Europeandress appears
to be a merchantattemptingto sell
fabricto the womanrecliningon pillows.An Iraniangentlemankneels by
the tree at her left,and three servants
attendthe group, bringingliquidreand dishes of fruit.

:4~I:

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wI

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r.

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..
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.,

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56

56. Anothertype of waremade in

Iranthatappearsto
seventeenth-century
have been influencedby ceramicsfrom
the Isnikkilnsis a groupwhose principal
decoration,as seen on thisdish,consists
of small,delicatedesigns, some of which
are framedby ornatelycontouredpanels,
alternatingwithlarger,broaderdesignsnot unlikethe combinationon "Abraham
of Kutahya"ware.The use of underglaze
stain-and slip-painting
togetheris found
and polychrome"Kuon both"Rhodian"
batchi"ware,and the delicatearabesque
design inthe cavettois incisedthrough
the blackslipinthe same manneras the
secondarydesigns on the early"Kubatchi"bowl(figure41).

48

Itis likelythatthe Iraniancenterthat

producedthe "Kubatchi"
pieces transmitted Turkish
influenceto the laterPersian
potteryindustry.
57. Ithas been suggested thatthe inspirationto decorate potterywithpainteddesigns came to Chinafromthe MiddleEast
as didthe cobaltore forthe earliestblueand-whiteporcelain.Thus,in Islamic
ceramicssuch as thisdish,whichbetrays
the influenceof Chinese blue-and-white
ware,the circlehas been completed.
Thedesigns foundon the type of ware
representedby thislargedish are more
faithfulto theirChineseoriginalsthan
those of the type discussed infigure56.

Theyare outlinedwithan intenseblack;

the blue has a decidedlyviolethue and is
appliedin varyingthicknesses.The rim
of thisvessel bears an inciseddesign, a
decorativefeaturefoundon plates made
forexportduringthe late Mingperiod.
58. Thisbowlillustratesthe revivalof the
incisedwarecommonintwelfth-century
Iran(see figure13). Itmay have developed fromthe type justdiscussed, as that
largedish bears a similarlyexecuted
design on its rim.The decorationon this
bowlof tangentpetalshapes circumscribing lotusblossoms is so deeply incised
thatitpermitslightto shine throughthe
vessel's walls.

57
58

49

59. AnothertechniquepopularintwelfthcenturyIranand revivedat thistimewas

fritcarving(see figure16).The rarestas
wellas the most beautifulobjectsexhibiting thistechniquewere made by applying
to the entirevessel a thicklayerof fritthat,
when dry,was carvedwitha design
throughto the whitecompositebody and
subsequentlycovered witha transparent
glaze. The blueof the friton thiskalian,
or waterpipe, is reminiscentof the color
on a raretype made inthe kilnsof Isnik
(figure49). (Themetalattachmentsto
thiskalianare lateradditions.)

,,:..50

50

59

60. Lusterpaintingwas also revivedduringthe late Islamicperiod.Thiscarafe

was covered witha clearglaze and its
alternatelobes stainedblue.Afteran inilandtialfiring,the copper luster-painted
scape design was executed. The graceful
elegance of the bottle'sshape is enhanced by the lobularformand the subtle
blueshadingof the lobes, whichboth
emphasizethe verticalityof the object.
Such shapes were popularinthisperiod;
a similarbottlecan be seen inthe foregroundof the tilepanelinfigure55.

c":

51

Credits
1. EWER.Earthenware,
appliedand inciseddecoration.Iraq,1st half8thcentury.H. 133/4in.(35 cm.).Gift
of V.EveritMacy,1930(30.112.48)
2. EWER.Earthenware,
moldedand applieddecoration,glazed.Iran,1sthalf8thcentury.H. 141/2in.(36.8
cm.).Giftof RichardEttinghausen,1978 (1978.549.2)
3. DISH.Earthenware,
moldedinreliefand glazed.
Iraq,9thcentury.Diam.67/8 in.(17.5 cm.). Rogers
Fund,1953 (53.110)
4. JAR.Earthenware,
Iraq,
glazedand stain-painted.
9thcentury.H.81/2in.(21.6 cm.). RogersFund,1932
(32.149)
5. DISH.Earthenware,
glazedand luster-painted.
Iraq,9thcentury.Diam.15 in.(38.1 cm.).Fletcher
Fund,1976 (1976.309)
6. BOWL.Earthenware,
glazedand luster-painted.
Iraq,10thcentury.Diam.95/i6in.(23.7 cm.).Giftof
EdwinBinney,3rd,and Purchase,RichardS. Perkins
Gift,1977 (1977.126)
7. BOWL.Earthenware,
glazedand luster-painted.
Egypt,2nd half10thcentury.Diam. 7 in.(17.8 cm.).
1963
(63.16.3)
RogersFund,
8. BOWL.Earthenware,
whiteengobe, incised,coloredandcolorlessglazes. Iran,Nishapur,9th-early
10thcentury.Diam.101/4in.(26 cm.).Excavationsof
Museumof Art.RogersFund,1938
TheMetropolitan
(38.40.137)
whiteengobe, slip-painted,
9. BOWL.Earthenware,
incisedand glazed.Iranor Transoxiana,
Nishapuror
Samarkand,10thcentury.Diam.18 in.(45.7 cm.).
RogersFund,1965 (65.106.2)
10. CUP.Earthenware.
Iran,Nishapur,10thcentury.
H.31/8in.(8 cm.).Excavationsof TheMetropolitan
Museumof Art.RogersFund,1940(40.170.43)
11, BOWL.Earthenware,
glazedand luster-painted.
Egypt,c. 1000.Signedby Muslim.Diam.10 in.(25.4
1963
cm.).Giftof Mr.and Mrs.CharlesK.Wilkinson,
(63.178.1)
12. BASIN.Compositebody,glazedand lusterpainted.Syria,mid-i2thcentury.Diam.117/8in.(30.1
cm.).Giftof HabibAnavian,1975(1975.40)
BOWL.Compositebody,incisedand
13. FOOTED
glazed.Iran,12thcentury.H.35/8in.(9.2 cm.). Harris
BrisbaneDickFund,1963 (63.159.2)
14. SIXTILES.Compositebody,carvedand glazed.
Syria,12th-13thcentury.67 x 7 in.(170.2 x 17.8 cm.).
Giftof OttoH. Kahn,1910 (10.56.1)
moldedand glazed.Afghani15. TILE.Earthenware,
stan,Ghazni,12th-13thcentury.H. 51/8in.(13 cm.).
Giftof Marjorie
Schwarz,inmemoryof HerbertF.and
DorothyC. Schwarz,1975 (1975.193.1)
16. CUPCompositebody,underglazefrit-painted.
Iran,2nd half12thcentury.Max.diam.55/8in.(14.3
cm.).Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest,1967
(67.104)
incisedinchamplevetech17. BOWL.Earthenware,
nique,whiteengobe, paintedand glazed. Iran,2nd
half12th-13thcentury.Diam.10 in.(25.4 cm.).Giftof
EdwardC. Moore,Jr.,1927 (27.13.3)
18. DISH.Compositebody,carved,coloredand colorlessglazes.Syria,2nd half12thcentury.Diam.77/8
in.(20 cm.).Purchase,Giftsin memoryof Richard
1979 (1979.210)
Ettinghausen,
19. BOWL.Compositebody,stain-and overglaze
paintedand gilded.Iran,late12th-early13thcentury.
Diam.73/4in.(19.7 cm.). HenryG. LeberthonCollection
Giftof Mr.and Mrs.A. WallaceChauncey,1957
(57.61.16)
20. JAR.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
Syria,late12th-early13thcentury.H.9/2 in.(21.4
cm.).Bequestof HoraceHavemeyer,1956,
H.O. HavemeyerCollection(56.185.16)
21. JAR.Compositebody,underglazeslip(?)-and
stain-painted.
Syria,late12th-1st half13thcentury.H.
93/4in.(24.8 cm.).RogersFund,1923 (23.162.1)
22. TILEASSEMBLAGE.
Compositebody,over1sthalf13th
glaze paintedand leafgilded.Turkey,
century.Diam.815/16in.(22.7 cm.).Giftof Mr.and
Mrs.JackA. Josephson, 1976 (1976.245)
23. BOWL.
Compositebody,underglazeslip(?)-and
Iran,Kashan,early13thcentury.Diam.
stain-painted.
83/4 in.(22.2 cm.). Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer
Bequest,
1964 (64.256)

52

24. EWER.Compositebody,underglazepaintedand
incised(glazepartially
stainedcobalt),withpierced
outershell.Iran,Kashan,datedA.H.612/A.D.121516. H.8 in.(20.3 cm.). FletcherFund,1932 (32.52.1)
25. BOSSE.Compositebody,molded,carvedand
13thcentury.Diam.53/4in.(14.6 cm.).
glazed.Turkey,
Anonymousgift,1974 (1974.370.12)
26. EWER.Compositebody,underglaze-and lusterpainted.Syria,late12th-1st half13thcentury.H. 73/8
in.(18.7 cm.).Giftof HoraceHavemeyer,1948
(48.113.15)
27. BOWL.Compositebody,glazedand lusterpainted.Iran,late12th-early13thcentury.Diam.8 in.
(20.3 cm.).RogersFund,1916(16.87)
28. JARWITHCOVER.
Compositebody,overglaze
paintedand leaf-gilded.Iran,2nd half13th-14thcen143/4
in.
H.
with
cover
(37.5 cm.). HenryG.
tury.
LeberthonCollection,Giftof Mr.and Mrs.A. Wallace
Chauncey,1957 (57.61.12)
29. TILENICHE.Compositebody,glazed,stain-and
Iran,Kashan,early14thcentury.
luster-painted.
Signedby Hasanibn'AliibnAnmadBabuyeh,the
builder.RogersFund,1909 (09.87)
30. JAR.Compositebody,underglazepainted.
Syria,14thcentury.H. 111/4in.(28.6 cm.).Giftof
HoraceHavemeyer,1941 (41.165.45)
31. BOWL.Compositebody,applied(?)decoration
and glazed.Iran,1st half14thcentury.Diam.111/4in.
(28.6 cm.).Giftof Mrs.HoraceHavemeyerinmemory
of herhusband,1959 (59.60)
32. JAR.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
Syria,14thcentury.H. 131/4in.(33.6 cm.).EdwardC.
MooreCollection,Bequestof EdwardC. Moore,1891
(91.1.130)
33. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
Syria,14thcentury.Diam.91/4in.(23.3 cm.).The
Friendsofthe IslamicDepartmentFund,1971
(1971.21)
34. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
Iran,lastquarter14thcentury.Diam.1113/6 in.(30
cm.).Purchase,AnonymousGift,1970 (1970.28)
carvedand partially
35. TILE.Earthenware,
glazed.
Iran,13thcentury.Diam.11 /4 in.Giftof CharlesB.
Hoyt,1932 (32.41.1)
36. MIHRAB.
Compositebody,glazed,sawed to
shape and assembledas mosaic.Iran,c. 1354. H. 11
ft.3 in.(342.9 cm.).HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1939
(39.20)
37. TILE.Compositebody,carvedand glazed.
GreaterIran,2nd half14thcentury.W.13 in.(33.5
cm.).Purchase,WalterD. BingerGift,1972 (1972.88)
38. TILE.Compositebody,glaze-painted.Iran,2nd
quarter15thcentury.Diam.151/4in.(38.7 cm.).Giftof
PhilipM.Lydig,1917(17.143.1)
39. TWOTILES.Earthenware,
glaze-painted.Turkey,
2nd quarter15thcentury.H. 18 in.(45.7 cm.).Rogers
1908
Fund,
(08.185)
40. TWOTILES.Compositebody,underglaze
painted.Egypt,2nd half15thcenturyand Syria,1st
half15thcentury.W.7/2 in.(19.1 cm.)and 65/8in.
(16.8 cm.) RogersFund(67.69.4);Sourceunknown
(X228.1)
41. BOWL.Compositebody,underglazepainted
and incised.Iran,2nd half15thcentury.Diam.123/8
in.(31.4 cm.). Mr.and Mrs.IsaacD. FletcherCollection,Bequestof IsaacD. Fletcher,1917 (17.120.70)
42. EWER.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
Provenanceunknown,15thcentury.H. 51/2in.(14
cm.). RogersFund,1969 (69.13)
43. TILE.Earthenware,
glaze and luster-painted.
Spain,late14th-early15thcentury.W.93/4in.(24.8
cm.).Giftof HoraceHavemeyer,1941 (41.165.41)
44. DEEPDISH(BRASERO).
Earthenware,
glazed,
stain-and luster-painted.
Spain,c. 1430. Diam.
17 3/4in.(45.1 cm.).TheCloistersCollection,1956
(56.171.162)
45. BOWL.Compositebody,opaquewhiteglaze,
Isnik,1stquarter16th
underglaze-painted.
Turkey,
century.Diam.10 in.(25.4 cm.).RogersFund,1932
(32.34)

46. MOSQUELAMP.
Compositebody,opaquewith
Isnik,1stquarter
Turkey,
glaze, underglaze-painted.
16thcentury.H.65/8in.(16.8 cm.). HarrisBrisbane
DickFund,1959 (59.69.3)
47. DISH.Compositebody,opaquewhiteglaze, unIsnik,mid-16thcentury.
derglazepainted.Turkey,
Diam.113/4in.(29.8 cm.). Bequestof Benjamin
Altman,1913 (14.40.732)
48. TILEPANEL.Compositebody,opaquewhite
Turkey,
glaze, underglazeslip-and stain-painted.
Isnik,2nd half16thcentury.473/4x 471/2in.
(121.3 x 120.6 cm.).Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.2083)

49. DISH.Compositebody,opaque blueglaze, unIsnik,lastquarter16th

Turkey,
derglazeslip-painted.
century.Diam.121/16in.(30.6 cm.).TheFriendsof the
IslamicDepartmentFund,1970(1970.30)
50. TILEPANEL.
Compositebody,underglaze
painted.Syria,2nd half16thcentury.33 x 22 in.
(83.8 x 55.9 cm.).RogersFund,1922(22.185.13a-f)
51. TILEPANEL.Compositebody,underglaze
painted.Egypt,lastdecade 16thcentury.L.631/4in.
1958
(160.6 cm.). Bequestof Agnes MilesCarpenter,
(58.90.1a-g)
52. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
Iran,datedA.H.975/A.D.1567-68.Diam.127/8in.
(32.7 cm.). HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1968 (68.42)
53. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
Iran,17thcentury.Diam.171/4in.(43.8 cm.).Harris
BrisbaneDickFund,1965 (65.109.2)
54. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted.
NorthwestIran,early17thcentury.Diam.137/8in.
(35.2 cm.).Mr.and Mrs.IsaacD. FletcherCollection,
Bequestof IsaacD. Fletcher,1917(17.120.56)
55. TILEPANEL.Compositebody,glaze-painted.
Iran,1stquarter17thcentury.L.78 in.(198.1 cm.).
RogersFund,1903 (03.9c)
56. DISH.Compositebody,underglazeslip(?)-and
incised.Iran,17thcentury.Diam.
stain-painted,
141/4in.(36.2 cm.).EdwardC. MooreCollection,
Bequestof EdwardC. Moore,1891 (91.1.92)
57. DISH.Compositebody,incisedand underglaze
painted.Iran,1st half17thcentury.Diam.171/2in.
(44.5 cm.).RogersFund,1924(24.47.4)
58. BOWL.Compositebody,incisedand glazed.
Iran,2nd half17thcenturyor later.Diam.77/8in.(20
1911 (11.137.1)
R.Valentiner,
cm.).Giftof William
carved
59. KALIAN.
Compositebody,frit-painted,
and glazed. Iran,17thcentury.H.83/4in.(22.2 cm.).
FletcherFund,1975(1975.61.3)
60. BOTTLE.
Compositebody,glazed(partially
stainedblue)and lusterpainted.Iran,2nd half17th
century.H. 113/4in.(29.8 cm.).TheodoreM.Davis
Collection,Bequestof TheodoreM.Davis,1915
(30.95.157)

622
632-661
661-750
749-1258
756-1031
909-1171
819-1005
977-1186
1038-1194
1077-1307
1256-1353
1226-1502
1230-1492
1250-1517
1342-1924
1370-1506
1501-1732
1526-1858
1779-1924

CHRONOLOGY
Flight(Hegira)ofthe prophet
Muhammad
fromMecca,markingthe
beginningof Islamichistory
TheFourOrthodoxor RightlyGuided
Caliphs
TheUmayyadCaliphs
TheAbbasidCaliphs
TheSpanishUmayyads
TheFatimids
TheSamanids
TheGhaznavids
TheSeljuqs
TheRumSeljuqs
TheIl-Khans(Mongols)
TheGoldenHorde(Mongols)
TheNasrids
TheMamluks
TheOttomans
TheTimurids
TheSafavids
TheMughals
TheQajars

Inside back cover: Detailof Egyptiantilepanel

(figure51).

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