Engineering

For other uses, see Engineering (disambiguation).

Engineering is the application of mathematics,

economics of operation or safety to life and

property.[2][3]

2 History
Main article: History of engineering
Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans

The steam engine, a major driver in the Industrial Revolution, underscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This
beam engine is on display in the Technical University of Madrid.

empirical evidence and scientic, economic, social,

and practical knowledge in order to invent, innovate, design, build, maintain, research, and improve structures, machines, tools, systems, components,
Relief map of the Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by Vauban,
materials, processes and organizations.
the foremost military engineer of his age.

The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, and encompasses a range of more specialized elds of engineerdevised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever,
ing, each with a more specic emphasis on particular arwheel, and pulley. Each of these inventions is essentially
eas of applied science, technology and types of applicaconsistent with the modern denition of engineering.
tion.
The term engineering is derived from the word engineer,
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium,
which itself dates back to 1390, when an engine'er (litmeaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to conerally, one who operates an engine) originally referred
trive, devise.
to a constructor of military engines.[4] In this context,
now obsolete, an engine referred to a military machine,
i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a
1 Denition
catapult). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which
have survived to the present day are military engineering
The American Engineers Council for Professional De- corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
velopment (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET)[1] has deThe word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately
ned engineering as:
deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning
innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever
The creative application of scientic prininvention.[5]
ciples to design or develop structures, maLater, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges
and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term
civil engineering[3] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of
such non-military projects and those involved in the older
discipline of military engineering.

chines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes,

or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with
full cognizance of their design; or to forecast
their behavior under specic operating conditions; all as respects an intended function,
1

2.1

Ancient era

HISTORY

The rst steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery.[12] The development of this device gave rise to the
Industrial Revolution in the coming decades, allowing for
the beginnings of mass production.
With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th
century, the term became more narrowly applied to elds
in which mathematics and science were applied to these
ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the elds then known as the mechanic arts became
incorporated into engineering.

2.3 Modern era

The Ancient Romans built aqueducts to bring a steady supply of

clean fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.

The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the

Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Acropolis and the
Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia
and the Colosseum, Teotihuacn and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great
Wall of China, the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur
and Indian Temples, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and The International Space Station represents a modern engineering
challenge from many disciplines.
military engineers.
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[3]
As one of the ocials of the Pharaoh, Djosr, he probably
designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid
of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around
26302611 BC.[6]

The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish

engineer James Watt gave rise to modern mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and
machine tools during the industrial revolution led to the
rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthAncient Greece developed machines in both civilian and place Britain and abroad.[3]
military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, the rst
known mechanical computer,[7][8] and the mechanical
inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes inventions as
well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of dierential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are
still widely used today in diverse elds such as robotics
and automotive engineering.[9]
Chinese, Greek and Roman armies employed complex
military machines and inventions such as artillery which
was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century
B.C.,[10] the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Structural engineers investigating
Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed.
spacecraft, the Phoenix Mars Lander

NASAs

Mars-bound

John Smeaton was the rst self-proclaimed civil engineer,

and is often regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for
William Gilbert is considered to be the rst electrical en- the design of bridges, canals, harbours and lighthouses.
gineer with his 1600 publication of De Magnete. He He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an emcoined the term "electricity".[11]
inent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone

2.2

Renaissance era

3
Lighthouse (175559) where he pioneered the use of
'hydraulic lime' (a form of mortar which will set under
water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed
blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His
lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled
and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known
as Smeatons Tower. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement, because
he identied the compositional requirements needed to
obtain hydraulicity in lime; work which led ultimately
to the invention of Portland cement.
The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation
of engineer for the rst time with a count of 2,000.[13]
There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the
U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S.
mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890 there were 6,000
engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.[14]

Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern
term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to
the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century
although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been
dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century.
Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely
empirical with some concepts and skills imported from
other branches of engineering.[16]
The rst PhD in engineering (technically, applied science
and engineering) awarded in the United States went to
Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was
also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[17]

Only a decade after the successful ights by the Wright

brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft
that were used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to
There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied provide fundamental background science continued by
mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, and no combining theoretical physics with experiments.
chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany es- In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the rst
tablished technical universities earlier.[15]
search engine was built by computer engineer Alan EmThe early stages of electrical engineering included the ex- tage.
periments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and
the invention of the electric motor in 1872. The the- 3 Main branches of engineering
oretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwells equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave
rise to the eld of electronics. The later inventions of the Main article: List of engineering branches
vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the de- For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of engivelopment of electronics to such an extent that electrical neering#Branches of engineering.
and electronics engineers currently outnumber their col- Engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken
leagues of any other engineering specialty.[3] Chemical
engineering developed in the late nineteenth century.[3]
Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials
and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale
production of chemicals was such that a new industry
was created, dedicated to the development and large scale
manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[3]
The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these
chemical plants and processes.[3]

The design of a modern auditorium involves many branches of

engineering, including acoustics, architecture and civil engineering.

The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland

down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with diering areas of engineering work.
Although initially an engineer will usually be trained in
a specic discipline, throughout an engineers career the
engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked
in several of the outlined areas. Engineering is often char-

METHODOLOGY

New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional

elds and form new branches for example Earth Systems Engineering and Management involves a wide range
of subject areas including anthropology, engineering
studies, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. A
new or emerging area of application will commonly be
dened temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given
sub-eld warrants classication as a new branch. One
key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the
new eld.

Hoover Dam

For each of these elds there exists considerable overlap,

especially in the areas of the application of fundamental
sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry,
and mathematics.

acterized as having four main branches:[18][19][20]

Chemical engineering The application of physics, 4 Practice
chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and
scale, such as petroleum rening, microfabrication, those licensed to do so may have more formal desigfermentation, and biomolecule production.
nations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engi Civil engineering The design and construction neer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur or European Enof public and private works, such as infrastructure gineer, Designated Engineering Representative. In the
(airports, roads, railways, water supply and treat- UK many trades are called Engineer including gas,
telephone, photocopy, maintenance, plumber-heating,
ment etc.), bridges, dams, and buildings.
drainage, sanitary, auto mechanic, TV, Refrigerator,
Electrical engineering The design, study and electrician, washing machine, TV antenna installer (satelmanufacture of various electrical and electronic lite) and many others.
systems, such as electrical circuits, generators,
motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices,
electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical 5 Methodology
bers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems,
telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and
Engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as
electronics.
physics to nd suitable solutions to problems or to make
Mechanical engineering The design and manu- improvements to the status quo. More than ever, engifacture of physical or mechanical systems, such neers are now required to have knowledge of relevant scias power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft ences for their design projects. As a result, they keep on
products, weapon systems, transportation prod- learning new material throughout their career.
ucts, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic If multiple options exist, engineers weigh dierent design
chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation choices on their merits and choose the solution that best
equipment, manufacturing, and mechatronics.
matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of
Beyond these four, a number of other branches
are recognized. Historically, naval engineering and
mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering elds sometimes included as major branches
are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, Instrumentation and control,
aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, petroleum,
systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural,
biosystems, biomedical,[21] geological, textile, industrial,
materials,[22] and nuclear[23] engineering. These and
other branches of engineering are represented in the 36
Licensed Member institutions of the UK Engineering
Council.

the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the

constraints on a design in order to produce a successful
result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements.
Constraints may include available resources, physical,
imaginative or technical limitations, exibility for future
modications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productivity,
and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specications for the limits within which a
viable object or system may be produced and operated.
A general methodology and epistemology of engineering can be inferred from the historical case studies and

5.2

Computer use

5
test potential solutions.
Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers
must evaluate the dierent design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a
large number of patents, suggested that compromises are
at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at
a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the
core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their
designs will perform to their specications prior to
full-scale production. They use, among other things:
prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests,
nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that
products will perform as expected.

Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from

many elds, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic
and chemical processes. The blades, rotor and stator as well as
the steam cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized.

Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs

that will perform as well as expected and will not cause
unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce
the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the
safety factor, the less ecient the design may be.

The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering, and can help the product designer in evaluating
his or her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest value after disasters, such as bridge
collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the
comments provided by Walter Vincenti.[24] Though Vin- cause or causes of the failure.
centis case studies are from the domain of aeronautical
engineering, his conclusions can be transferred into many
other branches of engineering, too.

5.2 Computer use

According to Billy Vaughn Koen, the "engineering method

is the use of heuristics to cause the best change in
a poorly understood situation within the available resources. Koen argues that the denition of what makes
one an engineer should not be based on what he produces,
but rather how he goes about it.[25]

5.1

Problem solving

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the
utilization of mathematics and science.

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics,

logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit
knowledge to nd suitable solutions to a problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem
allows them to analyze it (sometimes denitively), and to

A computer simulation of high velocity air ow around a Space

Shuttle orbiter during re-entry. Solutions to the ow require
modelling of the combined eects of uid ow and the heat
equations.

As with all modern scientic and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications
(computer-aided technologies) specically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fun-

6 SOCIAL CONTEXT

damental physical processes, which can be solved using

numerical methods.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession
is computer-aided design (CAD) software like CATIA,
Autodesk Inventor, DSS SolidWorks or Pro Engineer
which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with
digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as nite
element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be
analyzed without having to make expensive and timeconsuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for
aws; assess t and assembly; study ergonomics; and
to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems
such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels,
uid ows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of
all this information is generally organized with the use of
product data management software.[26]
There are also many tools to support specic engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing process management software for Robotic Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.
production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board
(PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers;
the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extracMRO applications for maintenance management; and
tion of oil. In response, some western engineering comAEC software for civil engineering.
panies have enacted serious corporate and social responIn recent years the use of computer software to aid the sibility policies.
development of goods has collectively come to be known
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human
as product lifecycle management (PLM).[27]
development.[28] Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a
very small engineering capacity which results in many
African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of
6 Social context
the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sucient engineering capacity to develop infrasThe engineering profession engages in a wide range of actructure and sustainable technological development.[29]
tivities, from large collaboration at the societal level, and
also smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering All overseas development and relief NGOs make considprojects are obligated to some sort of nancing agency: erable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and
a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few development scenarios. A number of charitable organitypes of engineering that are minimally constrained by zations aim to use engineering directly for the good of
such issues are pro bono engineering and open-design en- mankind:
gineering.
Engineers Without Borders
By its very nature engineering has interconnections with
society, culture and human behavior. Every product or
Engineers Against Poverty
construction used by modern society is inuenced by en Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
gineering. The results of engineering activity inuence
changes to the environment, society and economies, and
Engineers for a Sustainable World
its application brings with it a responsibility and pub Engineering for Change
lic safety. Many engineering societies have established
codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members
Engineering Ministries International[30]
and inform the public at large.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Ex- Engineering companies in many established economies
amples from dierent engineering disciplines include the are facing signicant challenges with regard to the numdevelopment of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, ber of professional engineers being trained, compared

7.1

Science

7
Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of
materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and
classication criteria to analyze and communicate observations.
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks,
such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes nd themselves exploring
new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely engineering scientists.
In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know
It,[37] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research
has a character dierent from that of scientic research.
First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics
or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.

Radar, GPS, lidar, ... are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacle avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007 DARPA
Urban Challenge)

with the number retiring. This problem is very prominent

in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low
status.[31] There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues[32] It
is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an
image crisis,[33] rather than it being fundamentally an
unattractive career. Much work is needed to avoid huge
problems in the UK and other western economies.

7
7.1

Relationships with other disciplines

Science
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers
create the world that has never been.
Theodore von Krmn[34][35][36]

Christopher Cassidy of NASA works on the Capillary Flow Experiment aboard the International Space Station.

Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the

NavierStokes equations to describe aerodynamic ow
over an aircraft, or the use of Miners rule to calculate
fatigue damage. Second, engineering research employs
many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientic research, one example being the method of parameter variation.
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics:

Engineers, Scientists and Technicians works on target positioner

inside National Ignition Facility (NIF) target chamber.

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science.

Engineering is quite dierent from science.

Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers
try to make things that do not exist in nature.
Engineers stress innovation and invention. To
embody an invention the engineer must put his
idea in concrete terms, and design something
that people can use. That something can be a
complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a
method, a computing program, an innovative
experiment, a new solution to a problem, or
an improvement on what already exists. Since
a design has to be realistic and functional, it
must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data dened. In the past engineers
working on new designs found that they did not

RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES

have all the required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited
by insucient scientic knowledge. Thus they
studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they had to add to
the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus
engineering sciences were born.[38]
Although engineering solutions make use of scientic
principles, engineers must also take into account safety,
eciency, economy, reliability and constructability or
ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and
legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.

7.2

Medicine and biology

Genetically engineered mice expressing green uorescent protein,

which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is wildtype.

nicantly alter the function of the human body through

articial devices such as, for example, brain implants
and pacemakers.[40][41] The elds of bionics and medical
bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants
pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human
body as a biological machine worth studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing
biology with technology. This has led to elds such as
articial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and
robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.[42][43]
Both elds provide solutions to real world problems. This
often requires moving forward before phenomena are
completely understood in a more rigorous scientic sense
and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge
is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body.
The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.[44]

Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.[39] He is also known
for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.

The heart for example functions much like a pump,[45]

the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[46] the
brain produces electrical signals etc.[47] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application
of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the eld of biomedical engineering that uses
concepts developed in both disciplines.

Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for
The study of the human body, albeit from dierent direc- engineering, such as systems modeling and computational
tions and for dierent purposes, is an important common analysis, to the description of biological systems.[44]
link between medicine and some engineering disciplines.
Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through 7.3 Art
the use of technology.
Modern medicine can replace several of the bodys func- There are connections between engineering and art;[48]
tions through the use of articial organs and can sig- they are direct in some elds, for example, architecture,

9
landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the ology coupled with political science principles. Financial
extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included engineering has similarly borrowed the term.
in a universitys Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in
others.[48][49][50][51]
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an ex- 8 See also
hibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design.[52]
Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to Main article: Outline of engineering
have been deliberately artistic.[53] At the University of
South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant
with the National Science Foundation, has developed a Lists
course that connects art and engineering.[49][54]
Among famous historical gures, Leonardo da Vinci is a
well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime
example of the nexus between art and engineering.[39][55]

List of engineering topics

List of engineers
Engineering society

7.4

Business Engineering and Engineering

Management

List of aerospace engineering topics

List of basic chemical engineering topics

Business Engineering deals with the relationship between

List of electrical engineering topics
professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and change management. Engineering manage List of genetic engineering topics
ment is a specialized eld of management concerned with
List of mechanical engineering topics
the engineering sector. The demand for managementfocused engineers (or from the opposite perspective,
List of nanoengineering topics
managers with an understanding of engineering), has
resulted in the development of specialized engineering
List of software engineering topics
management degrees that develop the knowledge and
skills needed for these roles. During an engineering man- Glossaries
agement course, students will develop industrial engineering skills, knowledge and expertise, alongside knowl Glossary of engineering
edge of business administration, management techniques,
and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change
Glossary of areas of mathematics
management must have in depth knowledge of the appli Glossary of biology
cation of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as
Glossary of chemistry
certied management consultants in the very specialized
eld of management consulting applied to the engineer Glossary of physics
ing sector. This work often deals with large scale complex business transformation or Business process manageRelated subjects
ment initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil
and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage,
Controversies over the term Engineer
electrical & electronics, power distribution & generation,
utilities and transportation systems. This combination
Design
of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change man Earthquake engineering
agement expertise enables professional engineers who are
Engineer
also qualied as management consultants to lead major
business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are
Engineering economics
typically sponsored by C-level executives.
Engineering education

7.5

Other elds

In political science, the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and political engineering, which deal with forming
political and social structures using engineering method-

Engineering education research

Engineers Without Borders
Forensic engineering
Global Engineering Education

10

Industrial design
Infrastructure
Mathematics
Open hardware
Reverse engineering
Science
Science and technology
Structural failure
Sustainable engineering
Women in engineering
Planned obsolescence

References

[1] ABET History

[2] Engineers Council for Professional Development.
(1947). Canons of ethics for engineers
[3] Engineers Council for Professional Development denition on Encyclopdia Britannica (Includes Britannica article on Engineering)
[4] Oxford English Dictionary
[5] Origin: 12501300; ME engin < AF, OF < L ingenium nature, innate quality, esp. mental power, hence
a clever invention, equiv. to in- + -genium, equiv. to
gen- begetting; Source: Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2006.
[6] Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2005, p. 159
[7] "The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project", The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 200707-01 Quote: The Antikythera Mechanism is now understood to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena and operates as a complex mechanical computer which tracks
the cycles of the Solar System.
[8] Wilford, John. (July 31, 2008). Discovering How Greeks
Computed in 100 B.C.. New York Times.
[9] Wright, M T. (2005). Epicyclic Gearing and the Antikythera Mechanism, part 2. Antiquarian Horology. 29
(1 (September 2005)): 5460.
[10] Britannica on Greek civilization in the 5th century Military technology Quote: The 7th century, by contrast, had
witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction of
the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic instruments of war in the 5th. and But it was the development of artillery that opened an epoch, and this invention
did not predate the 4th century. It was rst heard of in the
context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in the time of
Dionysius I of Syracuse.

REFERENCES

[11] Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CDROM, version 2.5.

[12] Jenkins, Rhys (1936). Links in the History of Engineering
and Technology from Tudor Times. Ayer Publishing. p.
66. ISBN 0-8369-2167-4.
[13] Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1997), A Social History of American Technology, New York: Oxford University Press, p.
138, ISBN 0-19-504605-6
[14] Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power
in the United States, 17301930, Vol. 2: Steam Power.
Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
[15] Williams, Trevor I. A Short History of Twentieth Century
Technology. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN
978-0198581598.
[16] Van Every, Kermit E. (1986). Aeronautical engineering. Encyclopedia Americana. 1. Grolier Incorporated.
p. 226.
[17] Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs
the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 1881987-11-6.
[18] Journal of the British Nuclear Energy Society: Volume
1 British Nuclear Energy Society 1962 Snippet view
Quote: In most universities it should be possible to cover
the main branches of engineering, i.e. civil, mechanical,
electrical and chemical engineering in this way. More specialised elds of engineering application, of which nuclear
power is ...
[19] The Engineering Profession by Sir James Hamilton, UK
Engineering Council Quote: The Civilingenior degree
encompasses the main branches of engineering civil,
mechanical, electrical, chemical. (From the Internet
Archive)
[20] Indu Ramchandani (2000). Students Britannica India,7vol.Set. Popular Prakashan. p. 146. ISBN 978-085229-761-2. Retrieved 23 March 2013. BRANCHES
There are traditionally four primary engineering disciplines: civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical.
[21] Bronzino JD, ed., The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-2121-2
[22] Bensaude-Vincent, Bernadette (March 2001). The
construction of a discipline: Materials science in
the United States. Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences.
31 (2): 223248.
doi:10.1525/hsps.2001.31.2.223.
[23] http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/nuclear/nuceng.
pdf
[24] Vincenti, Walter G. (1993-02-01). What Engineers Know
and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
0-8018-4588-2.
[25] Koen, Billy Vaughn (2013). Discussion of The Method (1
ed.). New York Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 8.
ISBN 0-19-515599-8. Retrieved 23 July 2015.

11

[26] Arbe, Katrina (2001-05-07). PDM: Not Just for the Big
Boys Anymore. ThomasNet.
[27] Arbe, Katrina (2003-05-22). The Latest Chapter in
CAD Software Evaluation. ThomasNet.
[28] PDF on Human Development
[29] MDG info pdf
[30] Home page for EMI
[31] http://www.engineeringuk.com/About_us/

[43] IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology: Both general

and technical articles on current technologies and methods
used in biomedical and clinical engineering ...
[44] Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical
Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and
medicine in pdf: quote1: Systems Biology is an emerging
methodology that has yet to be dened quote2: It applies
the concepts of systems engineering to the study of complex biological systems through iteration between computational and/or mathematical modelling and experimentation.

[32] http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/policy/
[45] Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The
why-does-it-matter-why-are-engineering-skills-important
heart as a pump
[33] http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/
the-era-foundation-report.html
[34] Rosakis, Ares Chair, Division of Engineering and Applied Science. Chairs Message, Caltech.. Retrieved 15
October 2011.
[35] Ryschkewitsch, M.G. NASA Chief Engineer. Improving
the capability to Engineer Complex Systems Broadening
the Conversation on the Art and Science of Systems Engineering (PDF). p. 8 of 21. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
[36] American Society for Engineering Education (1970).
Engineering education. 60. American Society for Engineering Education. p. 467. The great engineer Theodore
von Karman once said, Scientists study the world as it
is, engineers create the world that never has been. Today, more than ever, the engineer must create a world that
never has been ...
[37] Vincenti, Walter G. (1993). What Engineers Know and
How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical
History. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-80183974-2.
[38] Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, YC Fung
and P. Tong. World Scientic. 2001.
[39] Bjerklie, David. The Art of Renaissance Engineering.
MITs Technology Review Jan./Feb.1998: 54-9. Article
explores the concept of the artist-engineer, an individual
who used his artistic talent in engineering. Quote from article: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of artist-engineer"dom, Quote2: It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the
most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer,
progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoretician. (Bjerklie 58)
[40] Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M.
McGee and G. Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University
[41] IEEE technical paper: Foreign parts (electronic body implants).by Evans-Pughe, C. quote from summary: Feeling
threatened by cyborgs?
[42] Institute of Medicine and Engineering: Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME) is to stimulate fundamental research
at the interface between biomedicine and engineering/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative
applications in biomedical research and clinical practice.

[46] Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers

[47] UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of
brains electrical storm during a seizure
[48] Lehigh University project: We wanted to use this project
to demonstrate the relationship between art and architecture and engineering
[49] National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering:
Professor uses the ne arts to broaden students engineering perspectives
[50] MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James
Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of
the British Design Council, James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of
Art in 1970.
[51] University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive
Arts and Engineering
[52] Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASAs
Aeronautical Research
[53] Princeton U: Robert Maillarts Bridges: The Art of Engineering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious
of the aesthetic implications ...
[54] quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers..
[55] Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper

10 Further reading
Blockley, David (2012). Engineering: a very short
introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-957869-6.
Dorf, Richard, ed. (2005). The Engineering Handbook (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 0-84931586-7.
Billington, David P. (1996-06-05). The Innovators:
The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern. Wiley; New Ed edition. ISBN 0-471-14026-0.

12

11

Petroski, Henry (1992-03-31). To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-73416-3.
Petroski, Henry (1994-02-01). The Evolution of
Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks
and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to be as
They are. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-74039-2.
Lord, Charles R. (2000-08-15). Guide to Information Sources in Engineering. Libraries Unlimited.
doi:10.1336/1563086999. ISBN 1-56308-699-9.
Vincenti, Walter G. (1993-02-01). What Engineers
Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies
from Aeronautical History. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4588-2.
Hill, Donald R. (1973-12-31) [1206]. The Book of
Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitb
f ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya. Pakistan Hijara
Council. ISBN 969-8016-25-2.

11

External links

National Society of Professional Engineers position

statement on Licensure and Qualications for Practice
National Academy of Engineering (NAE)
American Society for Engineering Education
(ASEE)
The US Library of Congress Engineering in History
bibliography
Engineering videos at a secondary school level.
History of engineering bibliography at University of
Minnesota

EXTERNAL LINKS

13

12
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