The ADVENT of

QUANTUM PHYSICS

NASC 2073
(Modern Physics)

Magnified Gardia cells inside the human small intestine. 2000x magnification via SEM

REYNOLD V. LUNA
Department of Physical Sciences
PUP Manila

Contents

Historical synopsis
Quantum Theory of Light
Particle Nature of Matter

The ARCHITECTS OF MODERN PHYSICS. Including 15 Nobel Laurent in Physics and 3 in Chemistry.
Photograph taken in 5th International Congress of Physics in Solvay Institute in Brussels (1927).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

How would a PHYSICIST write the Biblical story of

CREATION in the beginning of the 20th Century?

Historical Synopsis
Five great scientific revolutions before Quantum Mechanics

Classical Mechanics

Classical
Thermodynamics
Electromagnetic
Theory
Statistical Mechanics
Relativity Theory

Galileo and Newton

Carnot (pioneer), Mayer, Joule, Helmholtz,
Thomson, Clausius, Gibbs and Nernst

Faraday and Maxwell

Clausius, Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs
Einstein

QUANTUM THEORY OF
LIGHT
(Waves behaving as particles)

Review: Waves
Max Planck

EM

waves
Experiments showing waves
exhibit particle properties
Wave-Particle Duality

REVIEW: WAVES

Review: Waves

Wave

A mode of transporting energy from one place to

another without transport of mass

3 kinds of waves

Mechanical waves
Need medium of propagation (e.g. water waves, sound
wave in air)

EM waves

Not requiring a medium (e.g. light waves)

Matter waves

Associated with all matter, with or without medium of

propagation
8

ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES

Electromagnetic Waves
Predicted by James Clerk Maxwell as a
result of accelerating electric charges.
Experimentally confirmed by Heinrich
Hertz.

10

Properties of EM Waves

EM waves are transverse waves

EM waves travel at the speed of light
Ratio of electric field and magnetic field equals the
speed of light: c = E/B
EM waves carry energy as they travel through space
EM waves transport linear and angular momentum, as
well as energy
Speed, frequency and wavelength of EM wave are
related: c = f

11

12

Hertzs Experiments
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave

A schematic diagram of
Hertzs apparatus for
generating and detecting
electromagnetic waves.
The transmitter consists
of two spherical
electrodes connected to
an induction coil, which
provides short voltage
surges to the spheres,
setting up oscillations in
the discharge. The receiver
is a nearby single loop of
wire containing a second
spark gap.
13

Hertzs Experiments

Hertz hypothesized that energy transferred from the

transmitter to receiver is carried in the form of EM
waves.
In a series of experiments, he also showed that the
radiation generated by the transmitter exhibits wave
properties:
interference
diffraction
reflection,
refraction, and
polarization
14

EXPERIMENTS SHOWING
WAVES EXHIBIT
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

15

1.Blackbody Radiation
All bodies emit radiation
continuously whatever their
temperature.
The predominant frequency
(color) depends on the
temperature.
Mostly infrared at room
temperature.
The ability of a body to radiate
is closely related to its ability to
absorb radiation.
At thermal equilibrium the rate
of radiation is equal to the rate
of absorption of a body.

16

Blackbody Radiator

Perfect absorber of incident

radiation, so emitted
radiation is entirely due to
its body
Filled with radiation at
equilibrium
Filled with standing waves at
equilibrium with wavelengths
Examples:

Hole entry point of incident

radiation

Black charcoal
Cavity with a tiny hole
(rectangular box and spherical
container)
17

Blackbody Radiator

Atoms of a body:
Charge oscillator when
hit by radiation trapped
inside

Trapped radiation:
Form incident and
reflected waves

nodes of standing
wave:
b = n (/2)
where: n=1,2,3,
18

Possible Normal mode of oscillation

for a 2D circular membrane

19

Procedure for calculating the number of half wavelengths:

Number of standing waves in space = j (number of half s) ,
depends on the value of
In x-direction, j x

2L

In y-direction, j y

2L

In z-direction, j z

2L

1,2,3,...
1,2,3,...
1,2,3,...

2L
1,2,3,...
Arbitrary direction, j

(1)

Number of standing waves = number of points in j space

with coordinates
between j and j + dj

For a spherical shell of thickness dj, volume = 4j dj

1
2
In one octant, volume = 4j dj
8

Number of standing waves:

1
g ( j ) dj 2 4j 2 dj j 2 dj
8

(2)

the factor 2 is for the two perpendicular

directions of polarization

Transform coordinates from j to

Recall:

where c = speed of light

= wavelength
= frequency
Planck radiation

(3)

2L

1, 2, 3, ... ( 1 )

Combi ne (1) a nd (3) :

2 L
j

c
2L
dj
d
c
2L

(4)
(5)

(3)

1
g ( j )dj 2 4j 2 dj j 2 dj
8

(2)

Use (4) and (5) in (2) we get

3
2 L 2 L 8L 2
g ( )d
d 3 d

c
c c

Number of standing waves per unit volume with frequency

between and ( + d)

g ( )d 8 2
G( )d
3 d
3
L
c

(7)

(6)

In Thermodynamics
Each mode of
standing wave
represent a possible
degree of freedom
Equipartition of
Energy Theorem
states that each
degree of freedom
has equal energy

UV catastrophe

Experimental curve is bounded;

average energy is finite.
26

In Thermodynamics

Energy of each standing wave = energy of

the oscillator producing the EM wave.
Energy of the oscillator: from equipartition
of energy:

12 kT

(8)

per degree of freedom per oscillator particle

where k = Boltzmanns constant,
T = Kelvin temperature

An oscillator has 2 degrees of freedom

(oscillates back and forth)
1
2 kT kT
2

(9)

Rayleigh Jeans Formula

8kT 2
u ( )d G ( )d
d
3
c

(10)

u d

UV catastrophe

Rayleigh-Jeans

Assumption of Planck
October 1900

Computation of Average Energy

Integration
(all energy value of radiation
are allowed)

Summation
(only certain energies are
allowed that is DISCRETE
ENERGY VALUES)

Failed to get
Experimental curve

Quantization of
Energy
30

Plancks Quantum Hypothesis

Imagine the walls of a glowing solid to be composed of
billion oscillating electrons with different energies. These
oscillating electrons are allowed only to have certain
discrete energies.

Energy level
Max Planck

E =nhf
n= 1,2,3,

Frequency of emitted or
absorbed light
Plancks constant
( = 6.62559x10-34 Joule-sec)
31

Observed Spectra
Apparatus for measuring single blackbody radiation at single wavelength.

32

Plancks Quantum Hypothesis

To fit the observed
spectrum:
- energies of e-s
could take on only a
limited number of
values
- energies are
"countable
- energies are
quantized

Allowed energy level according to

Plancks original hypothesis.
33

Plancks Radiation Law

Quantizedenergy of Oscillator:

nh

n 1,2,3,...

(11)

where h Planck's constant 6.626 10-34 J s

Energy of EM wave is therefore quantized, and
localized in bundles called photons
Energy of a photon :

E = h

(13)

Using Maxwell Boltzmann distribution:

n / kT
f ( ) e

8h 3d
(14)
u ( )d 3 h / kT
c e
1
Plancks radiation law
(energy per unit volume in frequency range d)

standing wave

Example:
How many photons are present in 1.00-cm3 of
radiation in thermal equilibrium at 1000 K?
What is their average energy?
Solution:
Number of photons per unit volume:

N
n( )d
V 0

number of photons per unit volume with

frequency between and +dv

since u()d = energy per unit volume

and h = energy of a photon
u ( )d
n( )d
h
N
u d
8h 3 d

V
h
hc 3 e h / kT 1

8
3
c

2 d

h / kT

Let

kT

x
h

x h / kT
2

kT 2
v
x
h
2

kT
d
dx
h

kT 2 kT
x
dx
3

2
N 8 h
kT
x
dx
h

3
8
x
x
V
c 0
e 1
hc e 1
3

kT
8
2.404
hc
3
kT
10
N 8V
2.404 2.03 10
hc

totalenergyperunitvol
(b) averageenergyperphoton
no.of photonsperunitvol
3
3 4
8

k 4

T
4

3
h

/
kT
3
3

aT

1 15c h
0
c e

n d
N /V
N /V
N /V

3.73 10

20

J 0.233eV

aT 4
In general,
N /V

Wiens Law of Displacement

Planck' s Radiation Law :
8h d
u ( )d 3 h / kT
c e
1
3

(14)

Express (14) in terms of

dU
Find
0 for max
d

we get
hc
4.965
kT max
hc
3
max T
2.898 10 m K
4.965k
max
kT 0.2014h
(15)
c

Wiens Displacement Law

Example:
Radiation from the Big Bang corresponds to a
blackbody at 2.7 K. Locate the radiation in the EM
spectrum

Sol uti on:

2.898 10 3 mK
max
1.110 3 m 1.1 mm
2.7 K
Mi crowave radi ati on(detectedi n 1964)

Activity:

The temperature of the skin is

approximately 35oC. At what wavelength
does the radiation emitted from the skin
reach its peak?

43

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

8h 3 d
8 3 k 4 4
4
U u d 3 h / kT

aT
3 3
c
e

1
15
c
h
0

8 3 k 4
16
4

7
.
56

10
/
K
where a
15c 3 h 3

R eT 4

universal constant

(16)

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
- Energy radiated per second per unit area (has unit of
intensity)
DEMO

ac
5.670 10 8 W / m 2 K 4
4
e = emissivity, depends on the nature of the radiating surface
e = 0 to 1

polished steel e = 0.07

oxidized copper and brass e = 0.6
matte black paint e = 0.97

Example:
Sunlight falls at the rate of 1.4 kW/m2 on the
earths surface when the sun is directly overhead.
The earths orbital radius is 1.51011 m while the
suns radius is 7.0108 m. Find the temperature of
the suns surface.
Solution:
Intensity = Power/Area = P/A
Power = IA = RA = (1.4x103 W/m2)(4)(1.5x1011 m)2
= 3.96x1026 W
total power radiated by the sun

Radiation from the sun' s surface :

P
P
3.96 x10 26W
7
2
R

6
.
43

10
W
/
m
2
2
8
A 4rs 4 7.0 x10 m

Let e 1
1/ 4

R
T

6.43 10 W / m

8
2

1
5
.
67

10
W
/
m
K

1/ 4

5.8 103 K

What does quantized mean?

Physicists use the word "quantum,"
which means "broken into
increments or parcels," to describe
the physics of very small particles.
This is because certain properties
only take on discrete values.

48

II. Photoelectric Effect

Emission of electron
from a metal surface
caused by an incident
light.

Heinrich Hertz
discoverer

Albert Einstein
provide theoretical
explanation
49

Experimental Set-up

Cesium is the metal

subjected to different
colors and intensity.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

50

Experimental Result

For some colors, there are no emitted electrons

no matter how large is the intensity. Also, for some
colors, there are always emitted electrons no
matter how weak is the light intensity.
51

Observations:
The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is
independent of the intensity of the light.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on
the frequency of light: increases linearly with
frequency.
The intensity increases the number of electrons emitted
per unit time.
Classical view: If the intensity (hence the amplitude of the
electric field) is increased, the electrons should be
accelerated to higher velocities.

Energy of light wave

accdg to classical
physics:
Depends on wave
intensity or wave
amplitude

Implication for light

consisting of different
colors:
Any color, provided the
light intensity (or
amplitude) is large
enough, there must
always be emitted
electrons.

Potassium 2.0 eV needed to

eject electron

53

Einstein Resolution of Paradox

1.

The energy of incident light does not

depend on its intensity but in its
frequency

Ephoton = hf
No matter how weak the intensity of incident light,
provided its frequency is high enough, it can still
liberate electrons
54

Einstein Resolution of Paradox

2.

Energy is instantaneously absorbed in

bundles and not cumulative

Ephoton = wo + mv2 =hf

Where: wo = work function, characteristic of metal;
minimum energy required to free
electrons from metal surface

55

Some Terms:

Threshold frequency, fc

Frequency at which photoemission occurs

Cut-off wavelength
Wavelength above threshold wavelength, c

Photoemission DOES NOT occur if:

Below threshold frequency
Above threshold wavelength

56

Maximum KE
57

Quantum Mechanical View:

Light energy comes in parcels of magnitude h

where is the frequency of light.
This quantum of energy can be transferred
completely to the electron.
The kinetic energy K of the electron is given
as:
(1) K h The photoelectric equation
= work function or binding energy of
electrons; the energy needed to remove
electrons from the metal

depends on the material; independent of frequency

The number of electrons emitted is proportional to

the number of incident quantity (photons)

Einstein explained Plancks blackbody radiation

law: using corpuscular properties to EM radiation
h = quantum of energy, energy of the photon

photoelectric

Traveling EM waves

(a) Classical view of EM radiation as waves ;

(b) Modern view of EM radiation in bundles
60

Work Function of Selected Metals

Table 1 Photoelectric Work Functions
Metal
Symbol
Work Function, eV
Cesium
Cs
1.9
Potassium
K
2.2
Sodium
Na
2.3
Lithium
Li
2.5
Calcium
Ca
3.2
Copper
Cu
4.7
Silver
Ag
4.7
Platinum
Pt
6.4

61

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
-

a photon (x or g of relatively low energy (< 1 MeV)

transfer all its energy to a tightly bound e- in an inner shell.
The e- is then ejected from the parent atom.
Photon disappears
Almost always the K shell eDominates for the low energy g-rays (~ keV range)
Negative ion

Negative ion

Neutral atom

Positive ion
62

Positive ion

Example:
UV rays of wavelength 350 nm and intensity
I = 1.00 W/m2 are incident on a potassium
surface. (a) Find Kmax (b) If 0.50% of
incident photons produce photoelectrons,
calculate the number of electrons emitted per
second

The Photoelectric Effect

Solution:

hc 1.240x106 eV m
E h

(a)
1.240x106 eV m

3.5eV
9
350x10 m
K max h 3.5eV 2.2eV 1.3eV

IA P / AA 1.00W / m 2 1.00x104 m 2
np

(b)
3.5eV 1.6 x1019 J / eV
h
h

1.76x1014 photons / sec

Current:
I ne xe 1.76 x1014 e1.6 x1019 C / e(0.005)
1.4 x107 A 0.14A

Activity:

What is the kinetic energy and the speed

of an electron ejected from a sodium
surface whose work function is 2.28 eV
when illuminated by light of wavelength
(a) 410 nm, (b) 510 nm?
(1 eV = 1.60 X 10 -19 J)

65

Activity:

In photosynthesis, pigments such as

chlorophyll in plants capture the energy of
sunlight to change CO2 to useful
carbohydrate. About nine photons are
needed to transform one molecule of CO2
to carbohydrate and O2. Assuming light
wavelength is 670 nm (chlorophyll absorbs
most strongly in the range 650 nm to 700
nm), how efficient is the photosynthesis
process? The reverse chemical reaction
releases an energy of 4.9 eV/molecule of
CO2.
66

III. X-ray
A form of EM radiation,
emitted by electron outside
the nucleus
Discovered by Wilhelm
Conrad Roentgen
Types:

Hard X-ray
Highly penetrating
12 to 120 keV

Soft X-ray
0.12 to 12 keV
67

Radiography

68

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

69

Why is wavelength important?

500 Hz

4000 Hz

low frequency means higher wavelength and

higher wavelength can be absorbed if the material is thicker.
70

X-ray Production

Produced when highspeed electrons are

suddenly slowed
down

71

BREMSSTRAHLUNG
If an incoming e- gets close to the nucleus
of a target atom, the strong electric field of
the nucleus will attract the e-, thus changing
direction and speed of the e-.
e-

The loses energy

which will be emitted
as an x-ray photon.

=> bremsstrahlung

X-rays originating from

this process are called
BREMSSTRAHLUNG.
72

hc
h K K
K K1

Shortest wavelength is obtained when K 1 = 0; all

of the electron energy is lost to the target.
hc
K
eV , the accelerating potential
min
min

hc 1.24 10 6

volt m (Duane-Hunt Rule)

eV
V

Example:
Find the shortest wavelength present in the
radiation from an x-ray machine whose
accelerating potential is 50,000 V.
Solution:
min

1.24 10 6
11

2
.
48

10
m 0.0248nm
4
5.00 10 V

This corresponds to the frequency

max

c
min

3.00 108 m / s
19

1
.
21

10
Hz
11
2.48 10 m

Activity:

Medical x-ray machines typically operate

at a potential difference of 1.00 x 105 V.
Calculate the minimum wavelength their
x-ray tubes produce when electrons are
accelerated through this potential
difference.

75

X-ray Diffraction
Incident
waves

Scattered
waves

Figure 1 Mechanism of scattering

Unscattered
waves

 E field of EM wave polarizes the atom creating

a dipole.
The dipole oscillates with same frequency as
that of the EM wave.
The oscillating dipole radiates Em waves in all
direction resulting to
scattered spherical waves
This is how x-rays are scattered from crystals

Incident
x-rays

Scattered
x-rays

II

Path difference between I and II = 2dsin

Condition for maximum (constructive)
interference:
2dsin = n where n = 1, 2, 3, ..

Crystal
planes

Bragg's Law:
Path difference between rays:
Because AB = BC eq. (2) becomes,
Substituting eq. (3) in eq. (4) we have,

n = 2d sin (1)
n = AB +BC (2).
AB = d sin
(3).
n = 2AB (4)
n = 2 d sin , (1)

Example:
The smallest angle for the scattering of X-rays of
wavelength 0.30 nm from a KCl crystal at an
0
angle of 28.4 .
Solution:

n 1 0.30 109 m
10
d

3
.
15

10
m 31.5 nm
0
sin
sin 28.4

IV. Compton Effect

Scattering of incident x-rays (EM waves)

by an electron.

Compton Shift Formula:

where:
= 0.00243 nm

81

COMPTON SCATTERING
An elastic collision between a photon and an
e- in which only part of the photon energy is
transferred to the e-.
the e- may be ejected
the photon (w/ reduced E) is scattered
dominates at gamma-ray energies ~ 1MeV

Scattered photon

negative ion
Negative ion

Neutral atom

positive ion

Positive ion

82

Compton Effect

83

For comparison
Albert Einstein (1905)
To explain photoelectric effect:
light has to be consisted of separate
particles (photons).

Arthur Holly Compton

In his theory of x-ray scattering, showed that:
Photons behave like particles which do
not only have discrete energy but also
discrete momentum.

84

Example:
X-rays of wavelength 0.140
nm are scattered from a
very thin slice of carbon.
What will be the
wavelengths of X-rays
scattered at
A. 0o
B. 45o
C. 90o
D. 135o

85

V. Pair Production
When a gphoton ( w/ E 1.022 MeV) passes close to a high-Z
nucleus, the photon interacts w/ the Coulomb field of the
nucleus, gets absorbed, and a positron-e- pair each having some
K.E. is produced.

the positron
eventually combines
w/ an e-

The 2 particles
annihilate each
other converting
mass back to E
thus producing two
0.511 MeV g-rays
travelling in
opposite direction

electron

E = 0.511 MeV
+

positron

electron

E = 0.511 MeV
86

Principles obeyed:
(1) Conservation of charge
(2) Conservation of energy
(3) Conservation of momentum
(1) neutral photon (+e) + (-e) = zero net
charge

(2) h E _ + E+ m0c 2 + K _ + m0c 2 + K +

K _ + K + + 2m0c 2
m0 c 2 0.511MeV

Minimum photon energy required

when K _+ K + 0 is

2m0 c 2 1.02MeV

max

hc
1.240 10 6 eV m

1.02MeV
1.02MeV
1.2 10 12 m

Pair Annihilation: Opposite of

pair production
+
-e +e g+g

Example:
Example: An electron an a positron are moving sisde
by side in the +x-direction at 0.500c when they
annihilate each other. Two photons are produced that
move along the x-axis.
(a) Do both photons move in the +x-direction?
(b) What is the energy of each photon?
Solution:
(a) Conservation of momentum: the photons move off
in opposite directions relative to the CM (center of
mass) system to conserve momentum, as well as
in the Lab system since v< c.
(b) Let P1 be in the + x-direction and P2 be in the
x-direction.

Conservation of Momentum:
Final momentum = Initial Momentum
P1 P2 2mv 2gm0v

2m0c 2 v / c 2
1 v 2 c 2

20.511MeV 0.500c c 2
1 0.500

0.590MeV / c

Conservation of Energy:
Final energy = Initial Energy

p1c + p2c 2mc 2gm0c

2

20.511MeV
1 0.500

p1 + p2 1.180MeV / c

2m0c 2
1 v 2 c 2

1.180MeV

We add these two results and solve for p1 and p2

p1 p 2 + p1 + p2 2p1
0.590MeV / c + 1.180MeV / c
p1 0.885MeV / c

p 2 p1 + p 2 p1 0.295MeV / c

The photon energies are

E 1 p1c 0.885MeV
E 2 p 2 c 0.295MeV

Activity:
A.

B.

What is the minimum energy of a

photon that can produce an electronpositron pair?
What is this photons wavelength?

93

PHOTON ABSORPTION
Three ways in which EM photons interact with
matter.
1. Photoelectric effect (light)
h K e
2. Compton scattering (x-rays)
h K e + h1
3. Pair production (gamma rays)
h K +e + K e + 2m 0 c 2

Energy(photoelectric)<Energy(Compton)<Energy(Pair production)
Threshold between Compton scattering and Pair
production is around 1.02 MeV with crossover of 4 MeV for
heavier elements and 10 MeV for the lighter elements.
Thus the gamma rays from radioactive decay effects
Compton scattering instead of pair production (energy
below the crossover)

Let I = intensity; rate the which x- or gammaray transports energy per unit cross-sectional
area of the beam.
-dI/I = fractional loss in energy when the beam
passes through a thickness dx of an absorber.
(1) dI dx
I

= linear attenuation coefficient

Integrating (1) gives

(2)

I I 0 e x

rewrite (2) as I e x I 0 e x ln I 0 x
I0
I
I
(3)

lnI 0 I
x

Example:
The linear attenuation coefficient for 2.0-MeV
-1
gamma rays in water is 4.9 m .
(a) Find the relative intensity of a beam of 2.0-MeV
gamma rays after it has passed through 10 cm of
water.
(b) How far must such a beam travel in water before
its intensity is reduced to 1 percent of its original
value?

Solution:
(a) x = (4.9 m )(0.10 m) = 0.49
I
e x e 0.49 0.61
I0
(b) since I /I0 = 0.01 or I0 / I = 100
lnI 0 I ln100
x

0.94m
1

4.9m
-1

Photons and Gravity

Photon mass
(4)

p h
m 2
v c

h h
since for the photon, p
and v c

Falling photon
Energy gained = KEf = mgH where H = height fallen
Energy Conservation:
Final photon energy = Initial photon energy + increase in
energy
h 1 h + mgH
h
h h + 2 gH
c
gH
1
(1) h h + 1 + 2
c

Example:
Find the change in the frequency of a photon
of red light whose original frequency is 7.3 x
1014 Hz when it falls through 22.5 m.
Solution:
gH
2
c
9.8m / s 2 22.5m 7.3 x1014 Hz

8
2 2
3.0 x10 m / s
1.8Hz
1

Gravitational Red Shift

The frequency of light from a star decreases as the
light moves towards the earth.
Potential energy at suns surface:

GM
GM h
PE
m
2
R
R c
Total energy

GM h
GM
E h + PE h
2 h1
2
R c
Rc

Energy at a large distance from the sun

Final energy = Initial energy

GM
h h1
2
Rc
1

1
GM
1
2

Rc
Gravitational Red shift
(6)

1
1 GM

1
2

c R

E h1

WAVE PARTICLE
DUALITY:
A Hint in Optics

105

Wave-Particle Duality of Nature in

the Atomic Scale
Depending upon the experiment
performed, matter sometimes show wave
properties and sometimes particle
properties, but not both (particle and
waves) at the same time
In contrast, in the ordinary scale
particle only particle properties
wave only wave properties
106

Wave-Particle Duality

Light has a dual nature

sometimes it behaves like a particle,

sometimes it behaves like a wave.

107

PARTICLE NATURE OF
MATTER
(Particles behaving as waves)

Atomic

Nature of Matter
Composition of Atom
Model of Atom
Bohr Atom
Bohr Correspondence Principle
Frank-Hertz Experiment
108

ATOMIC NATURE OF
MATTER

109

Atomic Nature of Matter

People have long asked

"What is the world

made of?"

"What holds it
together?"

110

What is the World Made of?

People have come to realize that the

matter of the world is made from a few
fundamental building blocks of nature.

By fundamental building blocks we mean

objects that are simple and
structureless -- not made of anything
smaller.
111

Even in ancient times, people

sought to organize the
world around them into
fundamental elements,such
as earth, air, fire, and
water.

Today we know that there is something more

fundamental than earth, water, air, and fire...

112

It was believed that all matter was made of particles

called atoms and by definition atoms were the
smallest bits of matter that could exist.

: Greek root word for the atom,

atomos means that which cannot be divided

113

Democritus and Leucippus

Speculated that unchanging substratum of the world was
atoms in motion

Lavoisier and his wife

Established the conservation of matter

Dalton
Perceived the atomicity of nature in the law of multiple
proportions of compound

Avogadro
Postulated that all pure gases at the same pressure and
temperature have same number of molecules per unit
volume

Maxwell
Showed with his kinetic molecular theory of gases how
macroscopic quantities (e.g. pressure and temperature)
could be derived from averages over distribution of
molecular properties
114

COMPOSITION OF
ATOM

115

Is the atom fundamental?

Some PRIMARY DISCOVERIES showed

that atom is composed of light, negatively
charged particles orbiting a heavy,
positively charged nucleus

116

Faradays Law of Electrolysis (1833)

117

Example:

How many grams of barium and chlorine

will you get if you pass a current of 10 A
through a molten BaCl2 for 1 hour?
Barium has a molar mass of 137 g and
valence of 2. Chlorine has a molar mass of
35.5 g and valence of 1.

118

JJ Thomsons Charge-to-mass ratio

of electron (1897)

where: E =electric field

B = magnetic field
r = radius of curvature
e/m = 1.76 x 1011 C/kg
119

Millikans Oil Drop Experiment

(1909)

e = 1.6 X 10-19 C
120

Rutherfords Alpha Scattering

Experiment (1913)
Bombarded a thin metal foil with positively
charged alpha particles.

Alpha scattering experiment

121

If atoms were permeable,

neutral balls, then the alpha
particles should simply pass
through the gold foil and strike
the back of the screen.

But much to everyone's

surprise, some of the alpha
particles were deflected at large
angles to the foil; some even hit
the screen in front of the foil!
Obviously some other
explanation was needed.

122

Since some of the positive

alpha particles were
substantially deflected,
Rutherford concluded that
there must be something
inside an atom for the alpha
particles to bounce off, that
is small, dense, and positively
charged: the nucleus.

123

MODELS OF ATOM

124

Dalton Model (1803)

From the ancient Greek Philosopher
(Democritus, 530 B.C.) to the time of John Dalton
in the early 1800s:

Atom

John Dalton

Atom is the ultimate

indivisible constituent
of matter
that which cannot be
divided.
125

Thomsons Model
Plum Pudding Model
1897 J.J. Thomson discovered the
electron (negatively charged)

Since the atom is

electrically neutral,
Thomson (1910)
proposed:
Atom is a solid ball of positive
material and the negative
electrons are distributed
throughout the heavier,
positively charged jelly, much
like raisins embedded in a
positively charged pudding.

Atoms are not the

smallest particle of
matter.
126

Rutherford Model of the

Atom (1911)
Atom - has a tiny, dense,
positively charged core
called a nucleus, in which
nearly all the mass is
concentrated, around
which the light, negative
constituents, called
electrons, revolve
around in orbits at some
distance, much like
planets revolving around
the Sun.
The Planetary Model of the Atom
127

Rutherford model cannot be reconciled with

theories of electrodynamics at that time
Why are (-) e-s not attracted by
electrostatic forces closer and
closer to the (+) nucleus ?
Wellbecause e-s revolve
around nucleus at such high
speed that centrifugal force
balances the electrostatic
force.
But accdg. to the laws of
electrodynamics, these
accelerated e-s would have to
continuously radiate energy
in the form of
electromagnetic (EM) waves.

and if so, the e-s would lose

energy and would therefore slow
down and be attracted to the
nucleus. This would result in the
collapse of the atom.
128

Atomic Spectra
Electric discharge excite the atoms to
higher energy levels
De-excitation of electrons release em
radiation
EM radiation is concentrated at a number
of discrete wavelengths called a line
(image of slit)

Kirchhoff and Bunsen Experiment

130

Emission Spectra
An element, when excited by an
electrical potential gives off light. The
emitted light, when passed through a
prism, is separated into its constituent
wavelengths. The wavelengths are then
recorded on light sensitive film.

The position of the

lines relative to one
another changes from
element to element

131

Hydrogen Spectrum

Spacing of lines (in wavelengths) decreases with

decreasing wavelength and converges to a limit at
36,456 nm; series of lines converges to a series
limit
1885 Balmer
n = 3 H;
n = 4 H ;
etc
Rydberg used wave number k instead of
Balmer formula
n = 3, 4, ,5,
RH = Rydberg constant = 10,967,757.6 1.2 /m
132

Hydrogen Series of Spectral Lines

Discoverer (Year)
Lyman (1916)

Wavelength ranges
Ultraviolet

Balmer (1885)

Near UV and Visible

Paschen (1908)

Infrared

Brackett (1922)

Infrared

Pfund (1924)

Infrared

Formulas
1 1
k RH 2 2
1 n
1
1
k RH 2 2
n
2
1
1
k RH 2 2
n
3
1
1
k RH 2 2
n
4
1
1
k RH 2 2
n
5

n = 2, 3, 4,
n = 3, 4, 5,
n = 4, 5, 6,
n = 5, 6, 7,
n = 6, 7, 8,,

133

Emission spectra of some elements and compounds

In fact, every elements has its own emission spectrum.

In essence, the emission spectrum is a fingerprint of the element

that generates it.
134

BOHR MODEL OF ATOM

135

Bohr Model
Niels Bohr

n=2

n=1

-electrons travel in
defined circular
orbits around the
nucleus.

There are certain definite electron orbits which are

stable, or allowed; When e-s are in these orbits, they are
exempt from the rule that e-s revolving in orbits
continuously radiate energy.
136

Electrons can jump from one orbit to another by emitting or absorbing

energy.

hf
Radiation
emitted

Energy
absorbed

hf

- an electron jumping from orbit n = 3 to orbit n = 2, emitting a

photon of red light with an energy of 1.89 eV.
137

Bohrs Postulates
1. Electrons move about the nucleus in circular
orbits determined by Coulombs and
Newtons laws.
2. Instead of the infinity of orbits which would
be possible in classical mechanics, it is only
possible for an electron to move in an orbit
for which its orbital angular momentum L is
an integral multiple of .
L = mevr = n
n = 1,2,3,
138

Bohrs Postulate
3. Despite the fact that it is constantly
accelerating, an electron moving in such an
allowed orbit does not radiate
electromagnetic energy, thus, its total energy E
remains constant.
4. Electromagnetic radiation is emitted if an
electron, initially moving in an orbit of total
energy Ei, discontinuously changes its motion
so that it moves in an orbit of total energy Ef .
hf = Einitial Efinal
139

Consequences of Bohrs Postulates

Quantized Orbits
rn = n2ao/Z
Quantized Energies
E = -13.6 Z2/n2 (eV)
where:
a = 0.0529 nm (Bohr radius)
Z = atomic number
n = energy level
140

Analysis
+Ze, nuclear charge
M, nuclear mass
-e, electron charge
m, electron mass
Condition of mechanical stability
(1)
Angular momentum
L = mvr = n

n = 1,2,3, (2)

Contd
Combining (1) and (2)

n = 1,2,3, (3)
rn = n2a0 = 5.292 x 10-11 m
a0 = Bohr radius

(4)

n = 1,2,3, (5)

Contd
Potential Energy
(6)
Kinetic Energy
(7)
since
and

Contd
Total Energy
(8)
Substituting r from (3) to (8), we get
n = 1,2,3, (9)
For Hydrogen atom, Z = 1
n = 1,2,3, (10)

Hydrogen energy level diagram

The atom remains
electrically neutral

Hydrogen atom
145

Frequency of Emitted Radiation

(10)
(11)

Correction for finite mass:

Characteristic X-ray Spectra and

Atomic Number
By examining the characteristic
x-ray spectra of the chemical
elements, Moseley proved the
fundamental significance of the
atomic number. We can derive
the empirical Moseley relation

from the structure of the atom

proposed by Rutherford,
together with Bohrs model of
hydrogen-like energy levels.

147

Correspondence between Siegbahn

and IUPAC notations

148

Franck-Hertz Experiment

Direct experimental evidence of the quantized energy of

atom. This experiment shows that mercury atoms can only
accept discrete amount of energy from a bombarding
electron beam.
149

Bohr Model was a great success for calculating the

frequencies of the lines in the emission spectrum of
Hydrogen. Unfortunately it does not work for
Helium or other more complex atoms.

The failures of the Bohr model led to the

New Quantum Mechanics, which remains
our dominant world view.

150

HOW WOULD A PHYSICIST WRITE

THE BIBLICAL STORY OF
CREATION NOWADAYS?

151

152