SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN TAMAN

MOLEK

TITLE
NAME
FORM
I/C

: PROBABILITY
: NUR MALINAH BT MOHD NAEM
: 5T2
: 991017-01-5912

TEACHER : MDM TEW LEE YIN

CONTAGE PAGE

PART 1
A) A Short Story Of Probability
A Short History of Probability From Calculus, Volume II by Tom M. Apostol (2nd edition, John
Wiley & Sons, 1969 ): "A gambler's dispute in 1654 led to the creation of a mathematical
theory of probability by two famous French mathematicians, Blaise Pascal and Pierre de
Fermat. Antoine Gombaud, Chevalier de Mr, a French nobleman with an interest in gaming
and gambling questions, called Pascal's attention to an apparent contradiction concerning a
popular dice game. The game consisted in throwing a pair of dice 24 times; the problem was to
decide whether or not to bet even money on the occurrence of at least one "double six" during
the 24 throws. A seemingly well-established gambling rule led de Mr to believe that betting
on a double six in 24 throws would be profitable, but his own calculations indicated just the
opposite. This problem and others posed by de Mr led to an exchange of letters between
Pascal and Fermat in which the fundamental principles of probability theory were formulated
for the first time. Although a few special problems on games of chance had been solved by
some Italian mathematicians in the 15th and 16th centuries, no general theory was developed
before this famous correspondence. The Dutch scientist Christian Huygens, a teacher of
Leibniz, learned of this correspondence and shortly thereafter (in 1657) published the first book
on probability; entitled De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae, it was a treatise on problems associated
with gambling. Because of the inherent appeal of games of chance, probability theory soon
became popular, and the subject developed rapidly during the 18th century. The major
contributors during this period were Jakob Bernoulli (1654-1705) and Abraham de Moivre
(1667-1754). In 1812 Pierre de Laplace (1749-1827) introduced a host of new ideas and
mathematical techniques in his book, Thorie Analytique des Probabilits. Before Laplace,
probability theory was solely concerned with developing a mathematical analysis of games of
chance. Laplace applied probabilistic ideas to many scientific and practical problems. The
theory of errors, actuarial mathematics, and statistical mechanics are examples of some of the
important applications of probability theory developed in the l9th century. Like so many other
branches of mathematics, the development of probability theory has been stimulated by the
variety of its applications. Conversely, each advance in the theory has enlarged the scope of its
influence. Mathematical statistics is one important branch of applied probability; other
applications occur in such widely different fields as genetics, psychology, economics, and

engineering. Many workers have contributed to the theory since Laplace's time; among the
most important are Chebyshev, Markov, von Mises, and Kolmogorov. One of the difficulties in
developing a mathematical theory of probability has been to arrive at a definition of probability
that is precise enough for use in mathematics, yet comprehensive enough to be applicable to a
wide range of phenomena. The search for a widely acceptable definition took nearly three
centuries and was marked by much controversy. The matter was finally resolved in the 20th
century by treating probability theory on an axiomatic basis. In 1933 a monograph by a Russian
mathematician A. Kolmogorov outlined an axiomatic approach that forms the basis for the
modern theory. (Kolmogorov's monograph is available in English translation as Foundations of
Probability Theory, Chelsea, New York, 1950.) Since then the ideas have been refined
somewhat and probability theory is now part of a more general discipline known as measure
theory."

Probability Distributions: Discrete vs. Continuous

All probability distributions can be classified as discrete probability distributions or as continuous
probability distributions, depending on whether they define probabilities associated with discrete
variables or continuous variables.

Discrete vs. Continuous Variables

If a variable can take on any value between two specified values, it is called a continuous variable;
otherwise, it is called a discrete variable.
Some examples will clarify the difference between discrete and continuous variables.

Suppose the fire department mandates that all fire fighters must weigh between 150
and 250 pounds. The weight of a fire fighter would be an example of a continuous variable;
since a fire fighter's weight could take on any value between 150 and 250 pounds.
Suppose we flip a coin and count the number of heads. The number of heads could be
any integer value between 0 and plus infinity. However, it could not be any number
between 0 and plus infinity. We could not, for example, get 2.5 heads. Therefore, the
number of heads must be a discrete variable.
Just like variables, probability distributions can be classified as discrete or continuous.

Discrete Probability Distributions

If a random variable is a discrete variable, its probability distribution is called a discrete probability
distribution.

An example will make this clear. Suppose you flip a coin two times. This simple statistical
experimentcan have four possible outcomes: HH, HT, TH, and TT. Now, let the random variable X
represent the number of Heads that result from this experiment. The random variable X can only take
on the values 0, 1, or 2, so it is a discrete random variable.
The probability distribution for this statistical experiment appears below.

Number of heads Probability

0
0.25
1
0.50
2
0.25
The above table represents a discrete probability distribution because it relates each value of a discrete
random variable with its probability of occurrence. In subsequent lessons, we will cover the following
discrete probability distributions.

Binomial probability distribution

Hypergeometric probability distribution
Multinomial probability distribution
Negative binomial distribution
Poisson probability distribution

Note: With a discrete probability distribution, each possible value of the discrete random variable can
be associated with a non-zero probability. Thus, a discrete probability distribution can always be
presented in tabular form.

Continuous Probability Distributions

If a random variable is a continuous variable, its probability distribution is called a continuous
probability distribution.
A continuous probability distribution differs from a discrete probability distribution in several ways.

The probability that a continuous random variable will assume a particular value is zero.
As a result, a continuous probability distribution cannot be expressed in tabular form.
Instead, an equation or formula is used to describe a continuous probability distribution.

Most often, the equation used to describe a continuous probability distribution is called a probability
density function. Sometimes, it is referred to as a density function, a PDF, or a pdf. For a
continuous probability distribution, the density function has the following properties:

Since the continuous random variable is defined over a continuous range of values
(called thedomain of the variable), the graph of the density function will also be continuous
over that range.
The area bounded by the curve of the density function and the x-axis is equal to 1,
when computed over the domain of the variable.
The probability that a random variable assumes a value between a and b is equal to the
area under the density function bounded by a and b.
For example, consider the probability density function shown in the graph below. Suppose we wanted to
know the probability that the random variable X was less than or equal to a. The probability that Xis less
than or equal to a is equal to the area under the curve bounded by a and minus infinity - as indicated by
the shaded area.

Note: The shaded area in the graph represents the probability that the random variable X is less than
or equal to a. This is a cumulative probability. However, the probability that X is exactly equal to awould
be zero. A continuous random variable can take on an infinite number of values. The probability that it
will equal a specific value (such as a) is always zero.
In subsequent lessons, we will cover the following continuous probability distributions.

Normal probability distribution

Student's t distribution
Chi-square distribution
F distribution

NAME

MARK

AMIRA MASTURA BINTI

AMIRUDDIN

31

ANG LI YEN

31

EER JUN XIANG

44

HO PEI LI

26

LIM ZHAN ZHAO

35

MUHAMMAD IRMAN BIN

ROSLAN

20

NG WEI JIAN

43

NOOR FATIN NABILA BINTI AZMI

15

NUR AZMINA BINTI NIZAM

18

1
0

NUR MALINAH BINTI MOHD

NAEM

16

1
1

NJRUL KAMALIAH BINTI AB. AZIZ

11

1
2

SEE WEN YEN

18

1
3

TAI CHING XIAN

28

1
4

TUNG SOON CHIEN

56

PART 2
MARK

10 19

CF
5

14.5

72.5

1051.25

20 29

24.5

73.5

1800.75

30 39

34.5

11

103.5

3570.75

40 49

44.5

13

89

3960.5

50 59

54.5

14

54.5

2970.25

Mean=

Mean=
= 393
14
= 28.07

=
= 28

Standard deviation:=

b) i= - 0.63

P(Z-0.63)= 0.2643
Candidates for Pasir Gudang =2589
Probability of candidates more than 20 =(1-0.2643)x2589
=1904.73
=1904

ii- P(ZK)=0.3
P(Z=0.3
=0.524
K=34.82

SUGGESTION
School authorities should have more extra classes after school. This is due to student have extra time to
have a revision or doing exercise for their Additional Mathematic. Consequently, students can reinforce
their weak subject to achieve flying color in their Additional Mathematic.

PART 3
i)

ii)when 3p.m sales activities reach its peak and 3600 of customers at
that time
iii) 500 of customer at the canteen Day at 7.30p.m
iv)11.06a.m and 6.54p.m

PART 4
A = the future value of the investment/loan, including interest
P = the principal investment amount (the initial deposit or loan amount)
r = the annual interest rate (decimal)

n = the number of times that interest is compounded per year

t = the number of years the money is invested or borrowed for
What is Compound Interest?
The concept of compound interest is that interest is added back to the
principal sum so that interest is earned on that added interest during the
next compounding period

B) Method one- Compound Interest

Year One
= RM1051.16
Year Two
= RM1630.52
Year Three
= RM2239.52

Method Two- Geometric progression

Total Interest after 3Years
a=Rm1000
r=1.05
n=4
=(1000)
=1157.63---------------A

Total Deposit After 3Years

a=RM500
r=1.05
n=1,2,3
Year One
First year no deposit
Year Two
=Rm500x

=Rm525
Year Three
=RM500x
=RM551.25
Total=RM525+RM551.25
=Rm1076.25----------------B
Total amount of the money accumulated in the education savings
=A +B
=RM1157.63+ Rm1076.25
=RM2233.88
Linear Programming

Linear programming (LP; also called linear optimization) is a method to achieve the best outcome (such
as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose requirements are represented by linear
relationships. Linear programming is a special case of mathematical programming (mathematical
optimization).
More formally, linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective function, subject
to linear equality and linear inequality constraints. Its feasible region is a convex polytope, which is a set
defined as the intersection of finitely many half spaces, each of which is defined by a linear inequality. Its
objective function is a real-valued affine (linear) function defined on this polyhedron. A linear
programming algorithm finds a point in the polyhedron where this function has the smallest (or largest)
value if such a point exists.
Linear programs are problems that can be expressed in canonical form as
where x represents
the
vector
of
variables
(to
be
determined), c and b are vectors
of
(known)coefficients, A is a (known) matrix of coefficients, and is the matrix transpose. The expression to
be maximized or minimized is called the objective function (cTx in this case). The
inequalities Ax b and x 0 are the constraints which specify a convex polytope over which the objective
function is to be optimized. In this context, two vectors are comparable when they have the same
dimensions. If every entry in the first is less-than or equal-to the corresponding entry in the second then we
can say the first vector is less-than or equal-to the second vector.
Linear programming can be applied to various fields of study. It is widely used in business and economics,
and is also utilized for some engineering problems. Industries that use linear programming models include
transportation, energy, telecommunications, and manufacturing. It has proved useful in modeling diverse
types of problems in planning, routing, scheduling, assignment, and design.
linear programming is a widely used field of optimization for several reasons. Many practical problems
in operations research can be expressed as linear programming problems. Certain special cases of linear
programming, such as network flow problems and multi commodity flow problems are considered important
enough to have generated much research on specialized algorithms for their solution. A number of
algorithms for other types of optimization problems work by solving LP problems as sub-problems.
Historically, ideas from linear programming have inspired many of the central concepts of optimization
theory, such as duality, decomposition, and the importance of convexity and its generalizations. Likewise,
linear programming is heavily used in microeconomics and company management, such as planning,

production, transportation, technology and other issues. Although the modern management issues are
ever-changing, most companies would like to maximize profits or minimize costs with limited resources.
Therefore, many issues can be characterized as linear programming problems.

B)i.)
Food
P
Q
Quantity
MAX/MIN

Protein
24
8
96

1)24x +8y 96
3x +y 12
2)8X +16y 80
x +2y 10
3)48x +32y 288
3x + 2y 18
4)10x + 10y 100
x + y 10
Equation
x
3x + y 12
0
4
x + 2y 10
0
10
3x + 2y 18
0
6
x + y 10
0
10

y
12
0
5
0
3
0
10
0

Fat
8
16
80

Calcium
48
32
288

Fiber
10
20
100

Graph

ii.3x + 5y = k
Plot
3x + 5y = 15
If x=0, y=3
x=5, y=0
The cheapest eat food =3(4) + 5(3)

=RM27

The most expensive cat food = 3(1) + 5(9)

= RM 48

Reflection
Project Additional Mathematic had helped me to understand more about statistics, sprinkles
binomial, probability and linear inequalities. One of the even, enable to draft schedules by
Microsoft excel that is something new for me.

In the progress of this project, a lot of mistakes I had made. Waste time and didnt produce
any results because I am learner. But I learned to be more patience, endurance is result of
anger. However, what we did in our daily life and teach us how to be strong and not to give
up.
After finished this project, I would like to thanks my parents who helping in my project. I also
didnt forget to thanks my Additional Mathematic teacher and to all my classmates, direct and
indirect for their useful information for this project.