B. VOC.

IN AUTOMOTIVE
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
Semester 2

ENGINEERING DRAWING II
PARTICIPANT WORKBOOK

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Contents
Key Teaching3
1. Introduction...3
2. Types of Surfaces..3
3. Methods of Development......5
4. Methods of drawing intersection lines.8
5. Development of surfaces of solids procedure....12

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Development of surfaces
Key Teaching
1.Introduction
In our day-to-day life, we come across a number of objects eg. Tins of round, square or
rectangular shapes, funnels, hoppers, ducts, chimneys, trunk boxes, machine guards,
medicine cartons etc are made of sheets metals and cardboards.
The process of manufacturing these objects involves cutting the flat sheet to the required
size and then folding it to the final shape. The term development refers to the size and
shape of the unfolded sheet or sometimes called as blanks. Development also implies the
geometrical process of finding the size and shape of unfolded sheet. Hence, the
development of surface plays very important role, such that enabling a machine to cut
proper size of the sheet with reference to the development and to fold at proper places
to obtain the required shape of the objects say boilers, boxes, buckets, chimneys,
hoppers, ducts etc.
The development of surfaces can be defined as the unrolling or unfolding of all the
surfaces of the objects on a plane.

2. Types of surfaces
All objects are bounded by geometric surfaces and so developments are made by the
application of basic graphic and developments are made by the application of basic
graphic and geometric principles in co-ordination with mathematics. As a different
shape has to be joined together in many cases, the principles of intersections of solids
are closely related to developments of surfaces.
A geometric surface is formed by the motion of a straight line or curved line, such
surface formed by a straight line is identified (figure1) as ruled surface. It may be plane,
single curved or warped surface. It is ruled surface generated by a straight line moving
with one point along a straight line and another point is parallel with the straight line.

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Figure.1
The surfaces may be classified as follows:
- Solids bounded by plane surfaces. Eg. Cube, prism, pyramids etc. (figure.2)

Figure.2

- Solids bounded by single curved surfaces. It can be unrolled to a plane. Eg. Cylinder,
cone etc. (figure.3)
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Figure.3

Figure.4

3. Methods of development
3.1. Parallel line method (Figure.6.1)
This is method used for such of those object having parallel elements i.e.
developing prisms and single curved surfaces like cylinders, in which all the
edges/generators

of

lateral

surfaces

are

parallel

to

each

other.

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Figure6.1Figure 6.2

3.2. Radial line development (Figure.6.2)

It is used for developing the surfaces of pyramids and also for single curved surfaces likes
cones, having its apex as centre and the slant edges or generators are taken as radius for
drawing its development. Radial line development has the fold lines, coming from a point
which is known as apex.

3.3. Intersection
In the context of engineering drawing, the term intersection refers to the common lines
that are formed when two surfaces meet. In fact every edge of a solid is a line of
intersection. We are more convinced with the line of intersection formed when surfaces
of two solid meet.
Figure.5 shows the few examples of lines of intersection.

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Figure.5
Intersection lines or just intersection are of great important to both for making drawings
for fabrication work.When drawing the views of intersecting solids, lines of intersection
will have to be drawn in order to complete the views. For example, (figure.7) shows a
solid when two cylinders meet at right angles. Without the line of intersection cd, the
view is incomplete. To draw the intersection lines in its correct form, principle of

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projections have to be followed and this will involve extensive geometrical construction.

Figure.7
In fabrication work, especially in sheet metal fabrication accurate intersection lines are a
must for drawing development.
For example, the development of the part2 of Figure.7 is shown in Figure.8. The accuracy
of the fabricated cylinder is much dependent on the accuracy of the curved. To plot the
line cd, intersection line cd (figure.7) has to be drawn accurately.

Figure.8
Depending on the nature of the meeting surfaces, intersection lines may be straight lines
or curves. When both the mating surfaces are flat (plain) intersection will be straight
lines(Figure.5c). If one or both mating surfaces are curved the intersection lines are
curved. (Figure.5a, b&d)

4.Methods of drawing intersection lines

In general intersection lines/curves are drawn by using the method of projection.
By going through the construction in figure, one can appreciate the principle adopted in
drawing the intersection curves. (Figure.7 is a simple example). Our aim here is to draw
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the curve cd (Figure.8), since cd is a curve we have to plot it by finding intermediate

points such as P, P, P. Actually P, P, P etc are the projection points lie on the
intersection. (Ref.Figure.9)

Figure.9
To plot the points required for drawing the intersection curve we can use either the line
method or cutting plane method.
4.1. Line method(Figure.10)

Mark the points 1,2,3 on the circumference of the circle in the side view (preferably
symmetrical)
Project from side view and locate points P;P/P in plan. Now these lines P-3, P-1 and
P-2 are the true lengths of the generators or simply lines drawn from points 3, 1 and 2.
These lines will also from the lengths in the elevation.

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Figure.10
Draw projectors of indefinite lengths from points 1,2,& 3 in the side view towards the
elevation.
To fix the position of the above projectors, draw projectors vertically from points such as
P/P and P to intersect with the corresponding lines in the elevation. Mark the
intersecting points f,f,f and draw the required curve.
Note: The above step was to simply transfer the true length of generators P-1, P-2 from
plan to elevation.
Since we have drawn the projection of generators to get the points f,f,f. This method
is called generator method. This is also called as line method.

4.2. Cutting plane method (Figure.11)

In cutting method, we assume that the cylinders are cut by a series of parallel cutting
planes passing through such points as 3-3, 2-2etc.

In the figure 9, the cylinders are shown after they are cut by a plane passing through 3-3.
The line f3-3 is the same as the generating line f3-3 in the front view of figure and
hence the rest of the procedure is same as that of line method.

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Figure.11
Note: Though both line method and cutting plane method are appearing to be same,
they are conceptually different. While any one method can be followed in many cases,
but cutting plane method is more useful in solving cases in which none of the projections
shows a line view of the surface of a solid.

4.3. Critical point or key point (Figure.12 & 13)

There is no standard shape for intersection curves/lines. The curves/lines may change
direction. The point at the direction changes are referred as critical or key point. While
drawing generator lines or cutting plane, one of the lines/cutting planes should invariably
pass through critical/key point.
Figure 12 shows the point 4 is the critical point, whereas in Figure 13 points m and k are
the critical points.

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5. Development of surfaces of solids procedure

Exercise 5.1
Draw the development of the surfaces of a cube of side 30 mm. ( Figure.1)

Figure.1

Draw the elevation and plan of the cube.

From the front view stretch out (project) the line AA & AA from points b b
horizontally.

Set off AB, BC, CD & DA equal to 30 mm each. ( side of square)

From C& D draw perpendiculars and mark off/CB& DA equals to 30 mm.

Similarly erect perpendiculars from points C&D such that CB&DA equals to 30
mm.

Darken the lines as shown in Figure.1 to get the required development of the cube.

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Exercise 5.2
Draw the development of the surfaces/a rectangular prism of size 40 mm 20 mm and
height 60 mm by parallel line method. (Figure.2)

Draw a rectangle of length equals to the perimeter of the prism. Length =2(l + b) =
120 mm and height equals to the height of prism (60 mm).

Mark AB;BC;CD and DA equals to 40,20,40&20mm respectively.

Draw perpendiculars from the points A,B,C,Dand mark as A,B,C,D.

Draw a rectangle ABCD on AB of size 40 20 mm.

Draw another rectangle CDAB on CD of size to 40 20 mm, the end faces of the
prism. Figure obtained is the development of the total prism.

Figure.2

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EXERCISE 5.3
Draw the development of the lateral of open hexagonal prism of side 20 mm and height
60 mm. (Figure.3)

Figure.3

Draw the elevation and plan of the hexagonal prism.

Project AA& AA from the elevation CC shall be equal to 6 20=120 mm.

On AA set of A1, 1-2, 2-3 etc, equals to the side hexagon.

Through A, 1,2,3 etc, draw vertical lines meet at AA, 1,2,3 etc to complete the
required lateral surface development of the hexagonal prism.

Exercise 5.4
Draw the development of surfaces of the box. (Figure.4)

Assume there is no slope surface and draw the development of cube of side 60
mm as given in Ex. No. 14.1.
Draw lines PQ and RS in the surfaces 1 and 3 in the basic development equivalent the
shape shown in the isometric view of the box.

Similarly join a rectangle of size equal to the surface 7 shown in isometric view with
line RS OR PQ and complete the development after erasing the construction lines.

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Figure.4
Exercise 5.5
Draw the development of a rectangular prism as stated under and as shown in Figure.
Prism is cut by cutting plane at 30,30 mm from base on width side.( Figure.5)

Draw the top view and front view of the rectangular prism.

Mark 30 mm on front view from b(c) to meet the line bb at m

At m make an angle of 30 such that the cutting plane meet the line a-a at n.

Project b, m, n horizontally and mark of AB = 35, BC =15, CD = 35 & DA = 15 mm.

From A,B,C,D,A of the front view, draw vertical lines and mark points 3,4,1,2 & 3.

Draw 1-4 and 2-3 perpendiculars to 1-2 equals to 15 mm and draw CB, & DA,
perpendicular to CD and equals to 15 mm.

Darken the lines throughout the development of the given prism.

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Figure.5

Exercise 5.6
Draw the development of the lateral surface of an open cylindrical drum of dia 30 mm
and height is 60 mm.( Figure.6).

Draw the plan and elevation of the drum as stated.

Project the front view and draw the view to a length of circumference of the base of
the cylinder.

Circumference = D = 30 mm = 94.26 or 94.3

Rectangle thus formed is the development of cylinder.

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Figure.6
Exercise 5.7
Draw the development of a cone of base 60 mm and height 40 mm. (Figure.7)

Draw the plan and elevation of the cone.

Divide the plan circle into number of equals parts (says 12 parts)and mark.
Development is more accurate if the number of equal parts is more.

Project these parts to the base of the cone.

Join these points to the vertex of the cone.

Locate O vertex for the development of cone. Draw an arc from the vertex as centre
and length of slope as radius.

Set divider on the straight distance between two consecutive points on the plan.

Transfer the distance along the arc as many times according to the division on the
plan.

Join points 1 O 1 and complete the development.

This method is only an approximate method. The straight line distance taken is slightly
smaller than the arc length. More accurate method is by calculating actual circumference
and dividing it into number of segments.

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Figure.7
Exercise 5.8
Draw the lateral surface of a truncated cylinder. (figure.8)

Draw the plan and front view of the truncated cylinder.

Divide the circle into any number of equal parts.

Project these points to the front view to form the elements of the surface of the
cylinder.

Draw the length of the development also divide into 12 equal parts as in the plan.

Project the true height of the each element to cut the development of the cylinder.

Join all the points by a smooth curve to obtain the required development.

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Figure.8

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Exercise 5.9
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the cone as positioned. (figure.9)

Figure.9

Draw the views of the cone and cutting plane on it.

Divide the base into any number of equal parts, say 12 and mark them.

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Project the points on to FV and join to the apex.

Mark the points on the cutting plane and draw lines parallel to base, touching the
generator at 1, 2.7. These are the true lengths from 0.

Draw the sector with slope as radius.

Sector angles = Radius of cone 360

Slope length
25 360 = 121
74.33

Mark O and set angle .

Transfer the true lengths on the cone on to the sectors and join by smooth curve.

The area between this curve and the arc is the development of the lateral surface.
Exercise 5.10
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a square pyramid of base 40mm and
vertical height 60mm. (figure.10)

Figure.10

Draw the plan and elevation of the pyramid.

With O as centre in top view and ob as radius, draw an arc to meet the axis at

Project the point 1 to front view to meet the base line at 1.

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Join O 1 which is the true slant length as radius draw an arc and set off the
sides of the pyramid on the arc at A,B,C,D & A.

Join O A, B, C, D, AO which is the required development.

Exercise 5.11
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a hexagonal pyramid of side 20mm and
height 60mm. (figure.11)

Draw the top view and front elevation of the hexagonal pyramid.

With O as centre and slant length as radius draw an arc.

Set off six equal sides (40mm) on the arc at A,B,C,D,E,F& A.

Join O, A,B,C,D,E,F and A O. Complete the lateral surface development of

the pyramid.

Figure.11

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Exercise 5.12
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the frustum of asquare pyramids as
positioned. (figure.12a)

Draw the front view and plan of the pyramid. (figure.12b) none of lines in
these views show the true length of slant edge.

Transfer OP in plan to xt in front view. Join ot by straight line. Ot is the true

length of slant edge.

With O as centre draw the development of whole pyramid. (Follow the

steps of the exercise 14.10)

With O as centre set off OA, OB, OC, OD&OA equal to OU in front view.

(Figure.12c)

Join AB, BC, CD, DA. Surface bounded by ABCDATSRQP is the development
Figure.12

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Exercise 5.13
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a funnel as positioned. (figure.13)

The parts (A & B) of the funnel are in the shapes of frustum of cones.

Development of cone and frustum of cone are already dealt in earlier exercises.
Follow the pervious procedures an draw the developments of both parts A and B.

Formula for finding angle

= Radius of base cone circle 360

Slant height

Figure.13
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Exercise 5.14
Draw the development of intersecting cylinders of diameter 30mm at 120.(figure.14a).
All the cylindrical pipes are of same diameter and intersecting each at equal angles.
Hence in this case the developments of all the pipes are sane and so the development of
one pipe will represent other pipes.

Draw the plan and elevation of the pipe a and mark the division on the plan.
(figure.14b)

Draw the vertical projectors from the plan to front view to meet the line of
intersection.

Draw horizontal projectors from these points on to the development.

Mark the intersecting points and join with a smooth curve to complete the required

development. (figure.14c)
Figure.14
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Exercise 5.15
Two Square prisms of A & B positioned as sated below intersects each other. Draw the
plan, elevations and show the line of intersection. Prism A is resting on its square base
and its face is at 45 to XY line. (HP) Prism B intersects at 10mm from bases at 45. The
dimensions of prisms are:
- Side 40mm height 60mm (Prism A)
- Side 35mm height 80mm (Prism B)
Draw the top view of 40mm square prism, with its two sides at 45 to (VP) xyline.

Mark the corners as a, b, c & d.

Draw the front view and the end view for the prisms A & B with space in between
and mark the corners as shown.

Draw as square of side 35mm, faces at 45 to the (HP) XY on the end view.

Mark the corners as p, q, r & s as shown.

Draw its projection to the top view and mark the points where the lines meet the
square a, b, c&d as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &6.

Draw the vertical projectors from points 1, 2, 3, & 4 on to the front view.

Draw horizontal projectors from corners p, q, r & s of EV on to the FV

intersecting projection line from TV.

Mark the intersecting points 1, 2, 3, 4, 4&1.

Join the points 1-2, 2-1, 4-3, 3-4 are the lines of intersection. (figure 15)

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Figure.15
Exercise 5.16
The cylinders A & B are positioned as shown; (figure.16) intersects each other at right
angles. Draw the plan, elevation, side view and show the curve of intersection.

Draw the three views of cylinder A as positioned shown. (figure.17)

Draw the side view of the cylinder B, as circle of diameter equals to 40mm, such
that its centre is the mid-point of the axis of cylinder A.

Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and number them.

Draw the front view and top view of cylinder B projecting from the side view of the
horizontal cylinder.

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Figure.16
Note: consider that a number of horizontal section planes passing through the
generators of the horizontal cylinder to cut both cylinders. For all the horizontal sectional
planes, the sectional top view will always be a circle of n diameter. Also the sectional
top views of the vertical cylinder will a circle of m diameter.

Draw series of cutting planes on the end view of cylinder B.

Draw horizontal projectors on to the vertical cylinder (A).

The line 1-1, in top view intersects the circle at p, and q.

Draw vertical projectors from these intersection points P& q to intersect the line
11, in front view at p and q respectively.

Considering the second horizontal plane 2 2 in top view, obtain the corresponding
point in the front view p (p, q) and q.

Repeat the same procedure for other series of section planes passing through
generators; obtain intersection points in front view.

Join the obtained intersection points in the front view by a smooth curve, which is the
curve of intersection of cylinders A & B as stated.
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Exercise 5.17
A thin cylinder of dia 80mm resting vertically is joined to a 40 branch pipe of dia 40mm
as shown in (figure.18). draw the intersection curve of the cylinders. The axes of both the
cylinders are 15mm apart.

Draw outlines of the pipes as shown in (figure.18)

Divide branch pipe surface into a number of equal parts by drawing semi-circle and
mark as 1, 2, 3..6 as shown in (figure.18).

Mark the corresponding points on the top view of the branch pipe projected from
the front view as 1,2,3...7

Draw horizontal projectors from these points on to the front view intersecting the
projection lines from the semi-circle

Mark the intersecting points and join with smooth curve.

Figure.17

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Figure.18
Exercise 5.18
The axis of two cylinders A & B intersect on the centre line at 45 are positioned as shown
in (figure.19). Draw the plan, elevation and the intersection curve.

Draw the given front view of the cylinders as stated in position. (figure.20)

Draw the plane for the given elevation.

Draw the semi-circle of the branch cylinder, divide it into 6 equal parts and number
them

Draw the projectors from these points parallel to the inclined axis of cylinders b.

Mark yhe corresponding points on the top view of the cylinder a by drawing
horizontal projectors from the top view of cylinder B.

Draw vertical projectors from these points to meet the inclined projectors drawn
from the semi-circle of cylinder B.

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Join the intersecting points which is the require curve of intersection. (figure.20)

Note: in this example the curve projected as straight lines.

Figure.19

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Figure.20

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Conventional Representation

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Contents
1. What is conventional representation...35

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Conventional Representation
1. What is Conventional Representation?
When the drawing of a component in its true projection involves a lot of time, its
convention may be used to represent the actual component. Inaddition to time
consumption it is tedious and it does notcontribute to the drawing proportional to the
effort taken to draw. So conventional representations are used which are universally
understood without much technical effort or explanation. And it is also universally
accepted. Images show typical examples of conventional representation of various
machine components used in engineering drawing.

Conventional Representations
Sl
No

Title

Actual Projection

DiagrammaticConventional Representation

Visible screw
threads

Section in
2

External Screw
Thread

Section in
3

Internal Screw
Thread

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10

Tapped hole

Screw Thread
Assembly

Straight
knurling

1Diamond
knurling

Square on
shaft

Holes on
circular pitch

Bearings

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11

12

13

14

Splined shaft

Interrupted
views

Semi-elliptic
leaf spring

Semi-elliptic
leaf spring
with eyes
Cylindrical

15

compression
spring

16

Cylindrical
tension spring

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17

Spur gear

18

Bevel gear

19

Worm gear

20

Worm

21

22

Lug base
support

Shaft assembly

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23

24

Wheel with
solid web

Wheel with
four spokes

Fore
25

shortening
features

Minor
distortion true
26

line of
intersection
disregarded

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Larger
distortion true
27

line of
intersection
shown

Shortened
28

view of long
objects round
solid
Shortened

29

view of long
objects round
tubular
Shortened

30

view of long
objects
rectangular
Shortened
view of long

31

objects
rectangular
wood

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Revolved
32

aligned section
views

Metals like
steel, cast iron,
33

copper,
aluminium &
its alloys
Lead, zinc, tin

34

white metal
..etc

35

Glass

Porcelain,
36

stoneware,
marble,slate
etc
Asbestos,
fibre, felt,
synthetic resin

37

products,
paper, cork,
linoleum,
rubber,
leather, wax,

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insulating &
filling
materials
Water, oil,
38

petrol,
kerosene..etc

39

Wood

40

Concrete

41

42

Concrete
blocks

Brick

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Intersection of Solids

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Contents
1. Introduction to intersection of solids..45
2. Line of Intersection...45
3. Methods of determining the line of intersection between surfaces of two
interpenetrating solids.....46
4. Intersection of two prisms...47
5. Intersection of cylinder and cylinder...52
6. Intersection of cylinder and prism.58
7. Intersection of cone and cylinder..62
8. Intersection of cone and prism......66

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Intersection of Solids
1. Introduction to Intersection of Solids
The intersecting solid surfaces may be two planes or two curved surfaces of solids.
The lateral surface of every solid taken as a whole is a curved surface. This surface
may be made of only curved surface as in case of cylinders, cones etc. or of plane
surfaces as in case of prisms, pyramids etc. in the former case , the problem is said to
be on the intersection of surfaces and in the latter case, it is commonly known as the
problem on interpenetration of solids. It may however, be noted that when two
solids meet or join or interpenetrate, it is the curved surfaces of the two that
intersect each other. The latter problem also is therefore, on the intersection of
surfaces.
In this chapter, we shall learn about the intersection of surfaces as shown below:
1. Line of intersection
2. Methods of determining the line of intersection between surfaces of two
interpenetrating solids
3. Intersection of two prisms
4. Intersection of cylinder and cylinder
5. Intersection of cylinder and prism
6. Intersection of cone and cylinder
7. Intersection of cone and prism
8. Intersection of cone and cone
9. Intersection of sphere and cylinder or prism.

2. Line of intersection
In engineering practice, objects constructed may have constituent parts, the surfaces
of which intersect one another in lines which are called lines of intersection. A dome
fitted on a boiler is one such example. The surface of the dome extends up to the
line of intersection only. For accurate development of the surface of the dome, this
line of intersection must be accurately located and shown in two orthographic views.
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The shape of the hole to be cut in the boiler-shell is also determined from the shape
of the same line of intersection.
Thus, the line of intersection of the two surfaces is a line common to both.lt is
composed of points at which the lines of one surface intersect those on the other
surface. The line of intersection may be straight or curved, depending upon the
nature of intersecting surfaces.
Two plane surfaces (e.g. faces of prisms and pyramids) intersect in a straight line.
The line of intersection between two curved surfaces (e.g. of cylinders and cones) or
between a plane surface and a curved surface is a curve.
When a solid completely penetrates another solid, there will be two lines of
intersection. These lines are, sometimes, called the lines or curves of
interpenetration. The portion of the penetrating solid which lies hidden within the
other solid is shown by dotted lines.

3. Methods of determining the line of intersection between surfaces of two

interpenetrating solids
(1) Line method:A number of lines are drawn on the lateral surface of one of the solids
and in the region of the line of intersection. Points of intersection of these lines with
the surface of the other solid are then located These points will obviously lie on the
required line of intersection. They are more easily located from the view in which the
lateral surface of the second solid appears edgewise (i.e. as a line). The curve drawn
through these points will be the line of intersection.
(2) Cutting-plane method: The two solids are assumed to be cut by a series of cutting
planes. The cutting planes may be vertical (i.e. perpendicular to the H.P.), edgewise
(i.e. perpendicular to the V.P.) or oblique. The cutting planes are so selected as to cut
the surface of one of the solids in straight lines and that of the other in straight lines
or circles. Each method is explained in detail while solving illustrative problems.
Sound knowledge of projections of solids in various positions is quite essential while
dealing with these problems.

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4. Intersection of two prisms

Prisms have plane surfaces as their faces. The line of intersection between the
plane surfaces is obtained by locating the positions of points at which the edges of
one surface intersect the other surface and then joining the points by a straight
line. These points are called vertices (plural of vertex). The line of intersection
between two prisms is therefore a closed figure composed of a number of
suchlines meeting at the vertices.
It is determined by locating the points at which edges of one prism intersect edges
or faces of the other prism and then joining them in correct sequence.
Problem 1.(Fig. 1):A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side, is completely penetrated
by a horizontal square prism, base 35 mm side, so that their axesintersect. The axis of
the horizontal prism is parallelto the V.P.,while thefaces ofthe two prisms are equally
inclined to the V.P. Draw the projections of the solids showing lines of intersection.
(Assume suitable lengths for the prisms.)
i.

Draw the projections of the prisms in the required position. The faces of
thevertical prism are seen as lines in the top view. Hence, let us first locate
thepoints of intersection in that view.

ii.

Lines 1-1 and 3-3 intersect the edge of the vertical prism in points p| and p3
(coinciding with a). Lines 2-2 and 4-4 intersect the faces at p2 and p4
respectively.

iii.

The exact positions of these points along the length of the prism may now be
determined by projecting them on corresponding lines in the front view. For
example, p2 is projected to p'2 on the line 2'2'. Note that p'4 coincides with
p'2.

iv.

Draw lines p11, p'2 and p'2p'3. Lines p11p'4 and p'3p'4 coincide with the front
lines. These lines show the line of intersection. Lines q11r'-,qr'2 and q'2 q'3 on
the other side are obtained in the same manner. Note that the lines for the
hidden portion of the edges are shown as dashed lines. The portions p'1 p'3
and q'1q'3 of vertical edges a'a' and c'c' do not exist and hence, must be
removed or kept fainter.

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Fig.1
Problem 2 (Fig. 2):A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side is completely penetrated
by a horizontal square prism, base 35 mm side so that their axes are 6 mm apart. The
axis of the horizontal prism is parallel to the V.P., while the faces of both prisms are
equally inclined to the V.P. Draw the projections of the prisms showing lines of
intersection.
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Fig. 2

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i.

Locate points (on the other side) at which the edgescome outand

also

thetwo points g' and h' at which the edge c'c' is cut.
ii.

Draw lines joining these points. They will be exactly similar to lines p'1 p'2 etc.
on the left-hand side.

Problem 3. (Fig. 3):A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side and height 90 mm has a
face inclined at 30 to the V.P It is completely penetrated by another square prism,
base 38 mm side and axis 100 mm long, faces of which are equally inclined to the V.P.
The axes of the two prisms are parallel to the V.P. and bisect each other at right
angles. Draw the projections showing lines of intersection.

Fig. 3
Adopt the same method as explained in problem 2.
i.

The edges 1-1 and 3-3 enter one face of the vertical prism and come out of its
opposite face.

ii.

Obtain the points (from the top view) at which all edges intersect the faces and
also the four key points (from the side view).

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Note carefully the lines for visible and hidden edges, shown as full lines and dotted
lines respectively.
Although the two axes are intersecting, the visible portions ofthelinesofintersection,
when the penetrating prism enters and comesout differ because thepenetrated
prism has its faces inclined to the V.P.
Lines p'1p'2 and p'2p3 are visible on the left side while q'2g' and q'2h' are visible on the
right side. Edges a'e' and a'f' are partly hidden, while c'g' and h'c' are fully visible.
Fig. 3(b) shows the front view of the vertical prism, when the penetrating prism has
been removed. Note that the edges of the back portions of the hole are partly
visible.
Problem 4. (Fig.4): A square pipe of 50 mm side has a similar branch of 40 mm side.
The axis of the main pipe is vertical and is intersected by the axis of the branch at an
angle of 45. All the faces of both the pipes are equally inclined to the V.P. Draw the
projections of the pipes, showing lines of intersection. Also develop the surfaces of
both the pipes.
The line of intersection between the two pipes is obtained fig.4(i) in the same
manner as shown in problem 16-1. As the axes are intersecting, the edge a'2a' is cut
by the two edges of the branch at points p'-| and p'3. The other two edges of the
branch enter the faces of the main pipe at points p'2 and p'4.
Developments of the surfaces of the two pipes are shown in fig. 4(ii).
Heights of all the points for fig. 16-4(ii) are obtained from the front view e.g. P1A =
p'1 a', P11 = P'11' etc.
The exact position of the point P2 is located from the top view by making AE = ap2
and then erecting a perpendicular at E. The point P4 is similarly located.

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Fig. 4

5. Intersection of cylinder and cylinder

As cylinders have their lateral surfaces curved,the line of intersection between them
will also be curved. Points on this line may be locatedby any one of the two methods.
For plotting an accurate curve, certain critical or key points, at which the curve
changes direction, must alsobe located. These are the points at which outermost or
extreme lines of each cylinder pierce the surface of the other cylinder. In prisms,
vertices are the key points.

Fig. 5 (i)

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Problem 16-8. (fig. 5 (i)): A vertical cylinder of 80 mm diameter is completely

penetrated by another cylinder of 60 mm diameter, their axes bisecting each other
areright angles. Draw their projections showing curves of penetration, assuming the
axis ofthe penetrating cylinder to be parallel to the V.P.

Fig. 5 (ii)
Draw the front view and the top view and show lines for twelve generators in the
horizontal cylinder in both views.
a. Line method:
i.

Mark points p-p2 etc. at which lines 1-1, 2-2 etc. intersect the circle (showing
the

surface of the vertical cylinder) in the top view and project them to p'-

j, p'2 etc. oncorresponding lines 1T, 2'2' etc. in the front view.
ii.

Draw the required curves on both

sides of the

axis through points thus

located.Hidden portions of the curves coincide with the visible portions.

Points p'-j,p'4/p'7 and p'10 are the key points where the curve changes
direction.
b. Cutting-plane method:
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It will be seen that in this problem, there is practically no difference between the line
method and the cutting-plane method. But the latter method proves more useful in
solving problems in which none of the projections shows a line-view of the surface of
a solid. Assume a series of horizontal cutting

planes passing through the lines

on the horizontal cylinder and cutting both cylinders.

Sections of the horizontal cylinder will be rectangles, while those of the vertical
cylinder will always be circles of the same diameter as its own. Points at which sides
of the rectangles intersect the circle will lie on the curve of intersection. For example,
let a horizontal section plane through points 2 and 12 Fig. 5 (i)
In the front view, it will be seen as a line coinciding with the line 2' 2'. The section of
the horizontal cylinder will be a rectangle of width w (i.e. the line 2-12). The section
of the vertical cylinder will be a circle. Points p2 and p12 at which the sides (2-2 and
12-12) of the rectangle cut the circle, lie on the curve. These points are first marked
in the top view [fig. 5 (ii)] and then projected to points p'2 and p'12 on lines 2' 2' and
12'-12 in the front view. Points on the other side of the vertical axis are located in
the same manner.
The problem may also be solved by assuming cutting planes to be vertical and
parallel to both axes. They will be seen as lines in the top view and the side view.
Sections of both cylinders will be rectangles and will be seen in their true sizes in the
front view. Points at which sides of sections of one cylinder intersect sides of
corresponding sections of the other, will lie on the curve of intersection.
Problem 6 (Fig. 6):A cylindrical pipe of 30 mm diameter has a similar branch of the
same size. The axis of the main pipe is vertical and is intersected by that of the branch
at right-angles. Draw the projections of the pipes, assuming suitable lengths, when
the two axes Tie in a plane parallel to the V.P. Develop the surfaces of the two pipes.
Adopt the same method as explained in problem 8. The curve of intersection in the
front view is seen as two straight lines meeting at right-angles Fig.6(i) Developments
of surfaces of the pipes are shown in Fig. 6(ii).

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Fig. 6
Fig. 6(iii) shows in third-angle projection method, projections of the pipes of the
same size joining at right- angles and forming an elbow. Note that the curve of
intersection is seen as a straight line joining the two corners.
Problem 7. (Fig. 7):A vertical cylinder of 80 mm diameter is penetrated by another
cylinder of 60 mm diameter, the axis of which is parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
The two axes are 8 mm apart. Draw the projections showing,

Fig 7 (i)
i.

Obtain the twelve points as in problem 16-8. Two more key points a' which
the extreme line a'a' of the vertical cylinder is cut, must be located. These are
found from the side view.

ii.

Project these points to e' and f on the line a'a'.

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Draw the curve passing through all the points in correct sequence, showing
the

hidden portion by dotted lines. Plot a similar curve on the other side

of the axis.

Fig. 7 (ii)
Problem 8. (Fig. 8): A vertical cylinder of 75 mm diameter is penetrated by another
cylinder of the same size. The axis of the penetrating cylinder is parallel to both the
H.P. and the V.P. and is 9 mm away from the axis of the vertical cylinder. Draw the
projections showing curves of intersection.
As the cylinders are of the same size and their axes are apart, a portion of the
surface of the penetrating cylinder will be outside the vertical cylinder.
i.

Draw the three views and project points of intersection of lines which lie
within the vertical cylinder.

ii.

Project these points to g' and h' on the line b'b' in the front view. Draw a
curve through all the points, showing the hidden portion by dotted lines.

Instead of two separate curves of intersection we have one continuous curve. Note
that there are twelve key points in this curve.

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Fig 8 (i)

Fig 8 (ii)

Problem 9. (Fig. 9):Acylinder of 60 mm diameter, having its axis vertical is penetrated

by anothercylinder of 40 mm diameter. The axis of the penetrating cylinder is
parallelto the V.P. and bisects the axis of the vertical cylinder; making an angle of60
with it. Draw the projections showing curves of intersection.
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Draw the projections of the cylinders in the required position and proceed to locate
the points on curves of intersection as shown in problem 16-8. The back and front
curves will coincide with each other.

Fig 9 (i)

Fig 9 (ii)

6. Intersection of cylinder and prism

Problem 10. (Fig. 10):A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter has a square hole of 30
mm sides cut through it. The axis of the hole is horizontal, parallel to the V.P. and 6
mm away from the axis of the cylinder.The faces of the hole are equally inclined to
the H.P. and the V.P. Draw the projections.

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i.

Draw three views of the cylinder showing the lines for the hole in given
position. Project all the key points, i.e. points of intersection of the edges of
the hole with the surface of the cylinder, viz. p'-j, p'2 etc. and those of the
extreme lines of the cylinder with the surfaces of the hole, viz. e', f etc.
Project a few intermediate points also.

ii.

Draw the required curve through these points on both sides of the axis. Note
that the back portion of the hole is also visible. The curves from p\ to e' and
p'3 to f' bend in opposite directions.

Fig.10
Problem 11 (Fig. 11):A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter is penetrated by a
horizontal square prism, base 40 mm side, the axis of which is parallel to the V.P. and
10 mm away from the axis of the cylinder. A face of the prism makes an angle of 30
with the H.P. Draw their projections, showing curves of intersection.

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Fig. 11
i.

Draw the views in the required position. One longer edge of the prism
will remain outside the cylinder. Project all the key points, viz. points
of intersection of the edges of the prism with the cylinder and those
of the extreme lines of the cylinder with the surface of the prism, as
shown in the figure.

ii.

Obtain accurate shape of the curves, project few more intermediate

points also. These are omitted from the figure. Draw the required
curve of intersection through these points, taking precaution to show
the hidden part by dashed lines.

Problem 12. (Fig. 12):A vertical square prism having its faces equally inclined to the
V.P. is completely penetrated by a horizontal cylinder, the axis of which is parallel to
the V.P. and 6 mm away from that of the prism. Draw the projectionsof the solids
showing curves of intersection. The length of the sides of the base of the prism is 50
mm and the diameter of the cylinder is 40 mm.Fig.12 (i)
Obtain the twelve points as explained in problem 16-10. In addition, project the key
points e' and f' and draw the curves as shown in the figure.

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Fig. 12 (i)

Fig.12 (ii)

Fig. 12 (iii)
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7. Intersection of cone and cylinder

Problem 13.A vertical cone, diameter of base 75 mm and axis 700 mm long, is
completely penetrated by a cylinder of 45 mm diameter. The axis of the cylinder is
parallel to the H.P. and the V.P. and intersects the axis of the cone at a point 28 mm
above the base. Draw the projections of the solids showing curves of intersection.
a. Cutting-plane method (Fig 13 and Fig 14)
i.

Draw lines dividing the surface of the cylinder into twelve equal parts.

ii.

Assume a horizontal cutting plane passing through say, point 2 (Fig. 13). The
section of the cylinder will be a rectangle of width w (i.e. the line 2-12), while
that of the cone will be a circle of diameter ee. These two sections intersect
at points p2 and p12. These sections are clearly indicated in the top view by
the rectangle 2-2-12-12 and the circle of diameter ee (Fig. 14).

In the front view, the cutting plane is seen as a line coinciding with 2'2'. Points p2
and p12 when projected on the line 2' 2' (with which the line 12'-12' coincides) will
give a point p'2 (with which p'12 will coincide).Then p'2 and p'12 are the points on
the curve of intersection.
iii.

To obtain the points systematically, draw circles with centre o and diameters
dd, ee, ff etc. cutting lines through 1, 2 and 12, 3 and 11 etc. at points p1l, p2
and P12, p3 and p11etc.

iv.

Project these points to the corresponding lines in the front view. Two more
key points at which the curve changes direction must also be located. Their
positions are determined from the side view. They are the points of nearest
approach viz. m" and n" at which, lines drawn from the centre of the circle
(i.e. the axis of the cylinder) and perpendicular to the extreme generators of
the cone, cut the circle.

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Fig. 13

Fig. 14
v.

Project these points to m' and n' in the front view and to m and n in the top
view on the corresponding lines. Draw curves through these points in both
the views. The back curve in the front view will coincide with the front curve.

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In the top view a part of the curve will lie hidden and hence, it will be dotted.
Draw similar curves on the right-hand side of the axis of the cone.
a. Line method (Fig. 15): The surface of the cylinder is seen as a circle in the side
view.

Fig. 15
i.

Hence, draw a number of lines (representing generators of the cone) o"1",

o"2" etc. in the region of the circle and symmetrical on both sides of the axis.
Points where these lines intersect the circle, lie on the curve of intersection.

ii.

To project them in the front and top views, first project the lines in both the
views and then, locate the positions of

these points on them. Let us

take the line o"3" in the side view. Locate its position o3 in the top view as
shown and project its front view o'3'. Project points a" and 6" to points a' and
b' on o'3' and from there, to a and b on o3.
iii.

Project all points in the same manner and draw the required curves through
them. This method is a type of cutting-plane method in which cutting planes
pass through the apex and are parallel to the axis of the cylinder.

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Problem 16. (Fig. 16):A vertical cone, base 80 mm diameter; axis 100 m~ long, is
penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of 40 mm diameter, the axis of which is 25 mm
above the base of the cone, parallel to the V.P. and 6 mm away from the axis of the
cone. Draw the projections, showing curves of intersection.

Fig. 16
Draw the three views of the solids.
i.

Assuming a horizontal cutting plane through the line 2'2'/ draw a circle in the
top view with centre o and diameter ee, cutting lines 2-2 and 12-12 at points
p2 and p12.

ii.

Project these points to p'2 and p'12 on the line 2'2 (with which 12'-12
coincides). Obtain other points and the key points b' and c' in the same
manner and draw the curves as shown. As the axes do not intersect, the back
curves in the front view are different from the front curves.

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8. Intersection of Cone and Prism

Problem 17. (Fig. 17):Draw an equilateral triangle of 100 mm side with one side
horizontal. Draw a square of 35 mm side in its centre with its sides inclined at 45 to
the base of the triangle. The figure shows the front view of a cone standing on its
base on the ground and having a square hole cut through it. Draw three views of the
cone.

Fig. 17
i.

Project the top and side views from thegiven view. Assume the cone as cut by
a horizontal cutting plane passingthrough points a'. The section of the cone
will be a circle of diameter bb. The hole will be cut in two straight lines
through points a' and perpendicular to the V.P.

ii.

Therefore, with centre o (the apex in thetop view) and diameter bb, drawa
circle cutting the projectors through a' at points a. Assume additional cutting
planes, particularly those which pass through corners of the square and find
other points. Draw curves through these points.

The method of locating points a" in the side view is clearly indicated by construction
lines. Obtain all points in the same manner.
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Problem 18. (Fig. 18):A vertical cone, base 80 mm diameter and axis 90 mm long, is
penetrated by a square prism of base 35 mm side. The axis of the prism is parallel to
and 12 mm away from that of cone. Draw the projections when the plane containing
the two axes is parallel to the V.P. and the faces of the prism are equally inclined to
the V.P.

Fig. 18

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Fig. 18 (ii)Fig. 19Fig. 20

Adopt the same method as shown in problem 21.
Fig. 19 and fig. 20 show two views of a cone having a square hole cir through it. The
axes of the cone and the hole are vertical and 12 mm apart. The faces of the hole are
equally inclined to the V.P. In fig. 18, the vertical plan-e containing the two axes is
perpendicular to the V.P., while in fig. 19 it s inclined at 45 to the V.P.
Problem 21. (Fig. 21):A vertical cone, base 90 mm diameter and axis 90 mm long, is
penetrated by another cone of base 75 mm diameter and height 100 mm. The axes of
the two cones bisect each other at right-angles. Draw the front view showing curves
of intersection, when the axis of the penetrating cone is parallel to the V.P.

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Fig. 21
i.

Assume a horizontal cutting plane coinciding with a line a'd'. The section of
the vertical cone will be a circle of diameter ee. The section of the horizontal
cone will be a hyperbola. The width of the hyperbola at the point a' will be
equal to twice the length of the line a'1'; that at the point b' will be twice b'2'
etc.

ii.

In the top view, mark points on the projector through a' and symmetrical on
both sides of the horizontal axis, so that 1-1 = twice a'1'. Similarly, mark
points on the projector through b' so that 2-2 = twice b'2' etc. Draw the
hyperbola through the points thus obtained.

iii.

Draw a circle with centre o and radius c'e', cutting the hyperbola at points p1
and q1. Project p1 to p'1and q1 to q'1 on the cutting-plane line a'd'.

Then p1q1, p11 and q11, are the points on the curves in the two views. Similarly,
assume additional sections, preferably at equal distances on both sides of the axis
(so that the sections will be the same). Draw the hyperbolas and circles in the top
view and determine the points of intersection. Draw curves in both the views and on
both sides of the vertical axis. The curves can be determined in the same manner
even when the axes do not intersect.
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Sectional Views

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Contents
1. Introduction to sectional views..72
2. Types of Sections..74
3. Hatching Techniques..78

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Sectional Views
Key Teaching

1. Introduction to sectional Views

Invisible features of an object are shown by dotted lines in their projected views. But
when such features are too many, these lines make the views more complicated and
difficult to interpret. In such cases it is customary to imagine the object as being cut
through or sectioned by planes. The part of the object between the cutting plane and
the observer is assumed to be removed and the view is then shown in section.
In the normal Orthographic views (plan, elevation and side
view), the internal details, their features and relative positions
which cannot be seen are shown by dotted lines.

When there are too many dotted lines as in the drawing it is

difficult to conceive the details of the object.

For example in the object shown in figure the hole is

invisible in the elevation and side view. Hence it is
represented by dotted lines .In such cases, details can be
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shown clearly and reading of drawing can be made easier by resorting to what are known as
Sectional views.

For obtaining sectional views an object tit is

assumed to be cut by an imaginary plane called
cutting plane. The part between the cutting plane
and the observer is assumed as removed to reveal
the internal details. Then the projection of part left
out is projected/ drawn as usual and the view thus
made is the sectional view shown.

Hatching means filling the surface with equidistant parallel lines.

It may be recalled that the object whose

internal details are to be drawn are
assumed as cut by an imaginary cutting
plane passing through them. The part between the cutting plane and the observer is
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assumed as removed and the surfaces cut are shown by the inclined parallel lines called
section lines. The cutting planes are normally indicated by two capital letters i.e. A-A, B-B
etc.

Types of sections

2.

Depending upon the details to be revealed the position of cutting plane can have
various orientations. According to the orientation of cutting planes, sectional views
are classified as:

Full-section

Half-section

Section through two or more parallel planes

Section on contiguous planes

Section on two intersecting planes

Removed section

Revolved section

Local or broken section.

2.1 Full-section:
The component is cut by a straight cutting plane is
divided into two parts. The part between the cutting
plane and the observer is assumed as removed and
the view of the cut surface will be a full-section.
Where the location of a single cutting plane is
obvious, no indication of its position is required.
Where the locations is not obvious or where it is
necessary to distinguish between several cutting
planes, the cutting planes shall be indicated
bymeans of thin chain line, thick at ends and change

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of direction.

Cutting planes are normally parallel to VP and sometime to HP or oblique also.

2.2 Half section:

When a component is symmetrical it is not necessary to draw
a full sectional view. In such case one half of the view is
drawn in section and the other half is shown as normal view.
Thus in one view we show both the external and internal
details. For half section, the cutting plane removes 1 /4th of
the part.

2.3 Off-set section:

When the features of the component/ object are not in one
line a full-section or half-section does not reveal all the
internal details. In such cases, the cutting plane is off-set.
The resulting sectional view is very much like a full-section
expecting that the hatch area will not be in the same plane.
In the sectional view in hatching line is staggered to indicate
the change of plane.

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2.4 Section in contiguous planes:

Certain components such as are bent offset at different
position. In such cases the cutting plane follow the
contour of the part. Here the sectional view is more like
a full- section even though the cutting plane is not a
single plane.

2.5 Section in two intersecting planes:

To reveal the details of the slots and holes in the part,
we will need sectional views along two planes meeting
at an angle. Strictly speaking we have to draw different
views for both the section planes. However in such
cases the view on one plane is rotated to align with the
other plane and view for boththe cutting planes are
shown in one view. In the viewon cutting planes OY is
rotated to align with the view
on OX

Note: Certain parts like arms, webs are notsectioned. The cutting plane is assumed as
passing just outside parallel to it.

2.6 Revolved section:

The sectioning methods discussed so far may not be sufficient
to reveal the certain features of a part.
For example the crane hook has varying cross-sections and
this cannot be shown by any one of the sectional methods
described earlier.

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In such cases sections are taken at the desired position and the sectional view is drawn after
as if thecut face is revolved as shown at P and Q in the figure.
Note:The outline of the revolved sections shall be drawn in continuous thin outline.

2.7 Removed sections:

When the space does not permit to show the
revolved section or it will be more clear if shown
outside. The removed sections may be placed
either near to and connected with the views by a
.chain, thin line or in a different position and
identified in the conventional manner.

2.8 Local or Broken section:

It often happens that only a partial section of a
view is needed to expose the internal details.
Such a section is limited by a break line and it is
called as a local or broken or part section.

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3. Hatching Techniques

Hatching angle

Hatching assemblies

Hatching area in different parallel planes

Dimensioning within the hatched area

Hatching large areas

Omission of hatching lines.

3.1 Hatching angle:

Hatching is used formaking the sections evident.
Hatching linesare thin lines and are usually drawn
at an angle45 to the horizontal and fill in the
entire area undersection. But, depending upon the
orientationof the area to be hatched the hatching
lines may be horizontal,vertical or any convenient
angle.

3.2 Hatching Assemblies:

While hatchingmatingparts of an assembly hatching
lines are drawn in different direction.

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3.3 Hatching large areas:

In the case of large areas, the hatching may be limited to a
zone following the contour of the hatched area.

3.4Hatching areas in different parallel planes:

Where sections of the same part in parallel planes
(offset) are shown side by side, the hatching lines
should be similarly spaced, but offset along the dividing
line between the sections.

3.5 Dimensioning within the hatched

area:
Hatching may be interrupted for dimensioning, if it is not
possible

to

place

these

outside

the

hatching.

3.6Hatching large areas:

In the case of large areas, the hatching may be limited to a
zone following the contour of the hatched area.

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Missing views

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Contents
1. Introduction to missing views....82

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Missing Views

1.0

Introduction to missing views

Most of the students in manufacturing find it difficult to visualize an object from
orthographic views. To overcome these difficulties assume the object as basic
geometrical solids such as prism, cylinder, pyramids, cone and so on. It is impossible to
determine whether the shape is addition or the deletion absorbing only one view.
Therefore, the each orthographic view of an object must be referred systematically
back and forth. Sound knowledge of projections of points, lines, planes and solid is
required in solving the problems of missing views or missing lines.
In orthographic views, if a line or lines are not drawn in
order to test the understanding of students, such lines
are known as missing lines. Similarly if amongst the
three views, only two views are given then third view
will be known as missing views.

One front-view represents six different types of objects

whose top-views are different as shown. Similarly, a
point may represent a corner or an edge. A line may
represent an edge or a surface.

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Two circles as shown may either represent additions

(projections) or holes or both. Thus every point and every
line in an orthographic view has a meaning.

The meaning of each point or line should be interrupted by systematically referring back
and forth from one view to the other. Simultaneously the shape of the object as a
whole should be visualized.
Practice in reading a drawing can be had by either projecting one or more views from
the given views or by converting one or both the given views into sectional views.
The following procedure can be adopted in order to identify missing lines or missing
views.
1) From the given orthographic view try to visualize an object and prepare a
pictorial view.

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2) From pictorial view, prepare orthographic views and compare with given views.
Read carefully each line in each view and find out corresponding projection from
another view.
a. When a line is perpendicular to a plane, its projections that plane is point, while
its projection on the other plane is a line equal to its true length.
b. When a line is inclined to both the planes (horizontal and vertical plane), its
projection are shorter than the true length in both the plane and inclinations to
xy line are greater than true inclinations.
c. When a line is parallel to a plane, its projection on that plane will show its true
length and true inclination with the other plane.
d. When a plane is perpendicular to a reference (principal planes H.P. and V.P.)
plane, its projection on that plane is a straight line
e. When a plane is parallel to a reference plane, its projection on that plane shows
its true shape and size.
f. When a plane is perpendicular to one of the reference plane and inclined to the
other, its inclination is shown by the angle which its projection on the [lane to
which it is perpendicular, makes with xy line. Its projection on the plane to which
it is inclined is smaller than the plane itself.
3) Remember that each line is one view represents a plane in another view
depending upon the position of the plane with reference to the plane of
projection. When a line is observed in any two views, it will be plane in third
view.
Study

carefully

following

examples

of

missing lines or missing views.

(I). In the example two views are given.

Draw its missing view and show missing
lines.
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(I). Answer

II). In the example below two views are given. Draw its missing view and show missing lines.

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(II). Answer

(III). In the example below two views are given. Draw its missing view and show missing lines
along with its pictorial view.
(III). Answer

(IV). In
the
example below two views are given. Draw
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its missing view and show missing lines along with its pictorial view.

(IV). Answer

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Exercise:1. Draw the missing views for the sketches shown below, show missing lines along
with its pictorial views.

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Exercise: 2. Draw the missing views for the sketches shown below, show missing lines along
with its pictorial views.

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Auxiliary Views

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Contents
1. Auxiliary views..92
2. Projection of points on auxiliary planes..94
3. Step by step procedure to draw auxiliary views......97
4. Projection of lines on auxiliary planes..99
5. Point view of the line.....101
6. Point view of the line parallel to one plane and inclined to the other....102
7. Point view of a line inclined to both HP and VP...103
8. Shortest distance between two lines.....107
9. Shortest distance between two parallel lines.108
10. Shortest distance between two skew lines.109

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Auxiliary Views
1.

Auxiliary Views

1.0

Need
Sometimes none of the three principal orthographic views of an object show the
different edges and faces of an object in their true sizes, since these edges and
faces of not parallel to any one of the three principal plaints of projection. In order
to show such edges and faces in their size, it becomes necessary to set up
additional plaints of projection other than the three principal plains, in positions
which will shown them in true sizes. Obviously if an edge or face is to be shown in
true sizes, it should be parallel theto the plane of projection. Hence the additional
plains are set up so as to be parallel to the edges and faces which should be shown
in true sizes. These additional planes which are set up the object of obtaining the
true sizes are called auxiliary planes. The views projected on these auxiliary planes
are called auxiliary views.

The auxiliary view method may be adopted for,

To find the true length of a line

To find a line as a point
To project a plane surface or a lamina as a line
To find the true size and shape of plane surfaces

1.1. Types of auxiliary planes

Usually the auxiliary planes are set up such that they are parallel to the edge or
plane which is to be shown in true size and perpendicular to any one of the three
principal planes should be perpendicular, obviously depends on the shape of the
object whose edge or face is to be shown in true size.

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If the auxiliary plane selected is perpendicular to HP and inclined to be VP, the

views of the object projected on the auxiliary plane is called auxiliary front view and
the auxiliary plane called auxiliary vertical plane and the denoted as AVP.
If the auxiliary plane is perpendicular to VP inclined to be HP, the view of the object
projected on the auxiliary plane called auxiliary top view and the auxiliary plane is
called the auxiliary inclined plane and denoted as AIP.

1.2. Auxiliary Vertical Plane

An auxiliary vertical plane placed in the first quadrant with its surface perpendicular to
HP and inclined at

to VP. The object is to be placed in the space inbetween HP, VP and

AVP. The AVP intersects HP along X1 Y1 line. The direction of sight to project the
auxiliary front view will be normal to the AVP. After obtaining the top view,front view
and auxiliary front view on the HP, VP and AVP. The HP with AVP being held
perpendicular to it, are rotated so as to be inplane with that of VP, and then the AVP is
rotated aboutX1 Y1 so as to be inplane with that of HP.

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1.3. Auxiliary Inclined Plane

An auxiliary inclined plane placed in the first quadrant with its surface
perpendicular to VP and inclined at 0 to HP. The object is to be placed in the space
between HP, VP and ATP. The AIP intersects the VP along X1 Y1line between HP, VP
and ATP. The AIP intersects the VP along X1 Y1. The direction of sightto project the
auxiliary top view will be normal to the AIP. After obtaining the top view, front view
and auxiliary top on HP, VPand AIP, the HP is rotated about XY line and AIP is
rotated about X1 Y1 line independently so as to be inplane with that of VP.

2. Projections of Points on Auxiliary Planes

2.1. Projection on AVP
A point P situated in first quadrant is shown in Fig. 11.3A. An auxiliary vertical plane
AVP, is setup perpendicular to HP and inclined at O to VP as shown in Fig. 11.3A.
The point P is projected on VP. HP and AVP. p' is the projection on VP. p is the
projection on HP and PJ ' is the projection on AVP. Since the point P is at a height m
above the HP. both p' and p, are at a height m above XY and X1Y1 lines respectively.
Fig. 11.3B shows the HP along with the AVP placed at 90 to it is rotated about the
XY line to make it inplane with that of VP.After the HP lies inplane with VP, the AIP
is rotated about X,Y, line, so that it becomes inplane with that of HP and VP. Fig.
11.3Cshows the positions of HP. and AVP when they are inplane with VP.

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It is seen in Fig. 11.3C both p and p' lie on a vertical projector perpendicular to XY
line, and p and p' lie on a projector perpendicular to XJYJ line. The X, Y, line is itself
inclined at to XY line.

Orthographic Projections: Fig. 11.3D

Draw the AY line and mark pand p'the top and front views of the point P. Since AVP
is inclined at to VP, draw X1Y1 line inclined at to the AY line at any convenient
distance from p. Since the point P is at a height m above HP, the auxiliary .front view
p11 will also be at a distance m above X1Y1 line. Therefore mark p11 by measuring
o1p11= op' = m on the projector drawn from p perpendicular to X1Y1line.

2.2. Projection on AIP

A point P situated in the first quadrant is shown in Fig. 11.4A. An auxiliary inclined
plane AIP is set up perpendicular to VP and inclined at 0 to HP as shown in Fig. 11.4B.
The point P is projected on VP, HP and AIP. p' is the projection on VP, p is the
projection on HP and p1 is theprojection on AIP. Since the point P is at a distance n
infront of VP. both p and p, are at a distance nfrom XYand X1Y1line respectively.
Fig. 11.4B showsthe rotation of HP about XYline to make them inplane with that of
VP. The AIP is held in thesame position.
Fig. I 1.4C shows the position of HP andAIPwhen they are inplane with VP.
It is seen in Fig. I I.4C. p both and p; lie on a vertical projector perpendicular to the
XV' line, and p'and p, lie on a projector perpendicular to X1Y1 line is itself inclined at 0
to XY line.
Orthographic Projections: Fig. I 1.4D
Draw XY line and mark pand p'the top and front views of the point P. Since AIP is
inclined at 0 to HP. drawX1Y1line inclined at 0 to the XY line at any convenient
distance from p'. Since the point P is at a distance n infront of VP, the auxiliary top
view p - will be at a distance nfrom X1Y1line. Therefore mark p, by measuring o1p1=
op = n. on the projector drawn from p perpendicular to X1Y1line.

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3. Step by Step Procedure to draw Auxiliary Views

Auxiliary Front View
1) Draw the top and front views
2) Draw X, Y, line inclined at (the inclination of AVP with VP) to XY line.
3) Draw the projectors through the top views of the points perpendicular to X1 Y1
line.
4) The auxiliary front view of a point is obtained by stepping off a distance from X1
Y1 line equal to the distance of the front view of the given point from the XY line.

Auxiliary Top View

1) Draw X1 Y1 line inclined at 0 (the inclination of AIP with HP ) to XY line.
2) Draw the projectors through the front views of the points perpendicular to X1 Y1
line.
3) The auxiliary top view of a point is obtained by stepping off a distance from X1
Yi line equal to the distance of the top view of the given point from the XY line.

Problem 1
A point is 30 mm above the HP and 40 mm in front of VP. Draw an auxiliary front view of
the given point on an AVP inclined at 300 to VP.

Solution: Fig. 11.5

Draw a and a', the top and front views of the given point A Since the point should be
projected on A VP which is inclined at 30" to VP, draw X1Y1the line of intersection of HP
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and AVP inclined at 30 to the XY line at any convenient distance from a. As explained in
Art. 11.5.1, to project the view on A VP, the distance of the front view of the point from
the AYline should be stepped off from the X, 7, line.
Therefore draw a projector line through a perpendicular to X,Y, line. On this projector
line measure o a11= oa1 = 30 mm from X/Y/ line. a11 is the auxiliary front view of the
point.

Problem 2
A point is 20 mm above HP and 35 mm infront of VP. Draw its projections on HP, VP and
AIP which is inclined at 40 to HP.

Solution: Fig. 11.6

Draw p and p', the top and front views of the given point P. Since the point should be
projected on AIP, which is inclined at 40 to HP, draw X/V', the line of intersection of VP
and AIP inclined at 40 to the XY line at any convenient distance from p. As explained in
Art. 11.5.2 to project the view on AIP, the distance of the top view of the point from the
XY line. Therefore draw a projector line through p' perpendicular to the X,Yi line. On this
projector line, measure o1p1 = op = 35 mmfrom the X1Y1 line, p1 is the auxiliary top view
of the given point P.

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4. Projection of Lines on Auxiliary Planes

The problems on projection of lines inclined to both the planes may be solved by the
auxiliary plane method. In this method, the line is placed parallel to both HP and VP, two
auxiliary planes are setup, one of the auxiliary planes will be perpendicular to VP and
inclined at 0to HP, i.e., AIP, and the other will be perpendicular to HP and inclined at
or to VP. This method is explained in the following two problems.

Problem 3
Draw the projections of a line 75 mm long inclined at 30 to HP and its top view appears
to be inclined at 60 to VP. One of the ends of the line is 45 mm above HP and 60 mm in
front of VP. Draw its projections by the auxiliary plane method.

Solution: Fig. 11.7

Draw the top and front views of one of the ends, say A, 45 mm above HP and 60 mm
infront of VP. Assume that the line is parallel to both HP and VP. a,b, and a11b11are the
top and front views of the line when it is placed parallel to both HP and VP. Since the
line is to be inclined at 30 to HP, setup on AIP inclined at 30 to HP and perpendicular to
VP.
Draw X1Y1 line inclined at 30 to XY line at any convenient distance from it. To project an
auxiliary top view on AIP, draw projectors from a/and b\ perpendicular to X,Y, line, and
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on them step off la, = 3a and 2b,= 4b from X,Y, line. Connect ab which is the auxiliary top
view. Since the top view of the line appears inclined to VP at 60, draw X2Y2 line inclined
at 60 to ab at any convenient distance from it. Draw the projectors from a and b
perpendicular to X2Y2 and on them step off 5a' = 3a'j and 6b' = 4b'. Connect a'b' which
will be the auxiliary front view.

Problem 4
A line AB 60 mm long has one of its extremities 30 mm infront of VP and 20 mm above
HP. The line is inclined at 30 to HP and 45 to VP. Draw the projections of the line by the
auxiliary plane method.

Solution: Fig. 11.8

Let A be the one of the extremities of the line AB at distance 30 mm infront of VP and 20
mm above HP. Mark a, and a\ the top and front views of the extremity A.
Initially the line is assumed to be parallel to both HP and VP. a1b1 and a11b11are the
projections of the line in this position. Then instead of rotating the line so as to make it

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inclined to both the planes, an AIP is setup at an angle 0, which the line is supposed to
make with HP and the auxiliary top view is projected on it.
To Draw the Auxiliary Top View on AIP
Draw X,Y, line inclined at 0 30 to the AY line. Mark AIP and VP. Project the auxiliary top
view ab as explained previously. The projections ab on the AIP and a11b11on the VPare
the auxiliary top view and the front view of the line when it is inclined at Oto HP and
parallel to VP.
Since the line is inclined, at to VP, to project the auxiliary front view an AVP inclined at
to VPshould be setup.
To Draw the Auxiliary Front View on AlP
Already the line is inclined at to AlP and parallel to VP. further if the line is to be
inclined at to VP,an AVP inclined at to the line should be setup. But we know that
when a line is inclined to both the planes, the projections of the line will not be inclined
at true inclination to XY line, they will be at apparent inclinations with the XY line.
Therefore X2Y2 the line of intersection of AlP and AVPcannot be drawn at to ab. The
apparent inclination of ab with the X2Y2line should be found out. To find through a,
draw ab2 equal to 60 mm, the true length of AB inclined , at = 45 to ab. Through b2
draw the locus of B parallel to X1Y1 line. With centre a and radius ab strike an arc to
intersect the locus of B at b3. Connect ab3 and measure its inclination with ab. Now
draw the X2Y2 line inclined at to ab. Mark AVP and AlP on either side of X2Y2. Project
the auxiliary front view a'b', ab and a'b' are the required projections.

5. Point View of the Line

A line projects itself as a point, called the point view, on a plane perpendicular to it. Thus
to obtain the point view of a line at least one of the planes of projection must be
perpendicular v to the line. If the line is not perpendicular to any one of the three
principal planes of projection, an auxiliary plane perpendicular to the line should be
setup and the projection- of the line on it will be the point view of the line.
If the line is parallel to both HP and VP the point view is obtained on PP. If the line is
parallel to one and inclined to other, and also if the line is inclined to both the planes, on
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none of the three principal *planes of projection the point view is obtained. Thus the
point view is to be obtained for the latter two cases on the auxiliary planes.

6. Point View of a Line parallel to one plane and inclined to the other

A line AB parallel to VP and inclined to HP is shown pictorially in Fig. 11.9A. ab and a'b'
are the top and front views of the AB. Since the line is not perpendicular to either VP or
HP, an auxiliary plane perpendicular to the line is setup at any convenient distance from
the line. The line AB projects as a point a, (b,) with the end B coinciding with the end A.
The HP is rotated about XV line so that it becomes inplane with that of VP. The AIP is
rotated about X1Y1 line so that it becomes inplane with that of VP.
To draw the Point View of the Line in orthographic projections: Fig. 11.9
Draw ab and a'b' the top and front views of the given line. Since the line AB is parallel to
VP, the front viewis in true length. As seen pictorially in Fig. 11.9A, X1Y1 is at any
convenient distance from b'. Since the line AB is at a distance a'A = b'B infront of the VP.
the top view ab is at a distance la = a' A = 2b = b'B from XY, and the auxiliary view a/(bi)
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is also at a distance la = 2b from X,Y, as shown in Fig. 11.9A. Therefore in Fig. 11.9C,
mark the point view a,(b,) on the projector line drawn through b' at a distance la = 2b
from the X1Y1line.
Therefore it may be summarized from the above discussion, that to obtain the point
view of a line, project an auxiliary view for the true length view of the line on an auxiliary
plane which is perpendicular to the true length view of the line.

7. Point View of a Line inclined to both HP and VP

A line AB inclined to both the HP and VP is shown pictorially in Fig. 11.10, ab and a'b' are
the top and the front views of the line AB. Since the line is inclined to both the planes,
neither the top view nor the front view of the line will be in true length. Hence an
auxiliary plane is set up parallel to the line to show it in true length and then another
auxiliary' plane is set up perpendicular it to show it as a point.

First Auxiliary Plane

The first auxiliary plane is set up so as to be parallel to the line AB and perpendicular to
HP at any convenient distance from the line AB. a'1b'1 is the projection of the line AB on
the first auxiliary plane. Since the first auxiliary plane is set up parallel to the given line
AB, its
projection a'1b'1 will be in true length. Let X1 Y1 be the line of intersection of HP and the
first auxiliary plane.

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Second Auxiliary Plane

The second auxiliary plane is set up perpendicular to the line AB so as to obtain the point
view of a line AB at any convenient distance from the end A of the line AB. a1(b1) is the
point projection of the line AB on the second auxiliary plane. Let X2Y2 be the line of
intersection of the second auxiliary plane and the first auxiliary plane.
To obtain the orthographic projections, all the planes of projection should lie in same
plane as that of the VP. The second auxiliary plane (AIP) is rotated about X1 Y1 so as to lie
inplane with that of first auxiliary plane (AVP). The HP is rotated so as to lie inplane with
that of VP.
The AVP with AIP lying on it is rotated about X, Y, so that it lies inplane with that of HP
which is already inplane with that of HP. as shown in Fig. 11.10.
To Draw the Point View of the Line in the orthographic projections: Fig. 11. IOC
Draw the XKline, and obtain ab and a'b', the top and front views of theline AB.Since
aband a'b'are not parallel to the XY line, neither of them are in true length.
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Therefore the first auxiliary plane should be set up parallel to the line AB to project it in
true length on the first auxiliary plane.Therefore draw X, Y, parallel to ab and at any
convenient distance from it.
Note X1Y1line is drawn above the top view ab in Fig. 11.IOC, because the AVP is setup
behind the line AB, The A VP may be setup infront of AB, inwhich case X, Y, line is drawn
below the top view ab. '
As seen pictorially in Fig. 11.10A, 3a'1 = aA = la' and 4b'1 = bB = 2b'. Therefore in Fig.
11:1OC at a and b erect perpendiculars to ab and step off 3a'1 = la' on the perpendicular
drawn at a, and 4b', = 2b'on the perpendicular drawn at b. Connect a'1b1 which will be in
true length.

Now to project the point view of the line AB, set up the second auxiliary plane
perpendicular to the line AB, i.e., perpendicular to the true length view of the line AB.
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Therefore the second auxiliary plane should be set up perpendicular to a',b'1. Therefore
draw X2Y2 perpendicular to a',b', at any convenient distance from b'1i.
As seen pictorially in Fig. 11.1 OA, 5b1(a1) = b'1B = a'1A. But b'1B = 4b and '= 3a.Therefore
51b1(a1) = 4b = 3a. In Fig. 11.10C measure 5b,(a,) = 3a = 4b.5b1(d1) will be the point view
of the given line AB.

6 Conclusions
The following conclusion may be drawn from the above discussion.
When the point view of a line inclined to both the planes is required, two auxiliary
planes should be set up. The first auxiliary plane is set up either parallel to the top view
of the front view of the line to project the line in true length on it. The second auxiliary
plane is set up perpendicular to the true length view which is projected on the first
auxiliary plane. The projection obtained on the second auxiliary plane will be the
required point view of the given line.

Problem 5
A line AB whose top and front views are inclined at 30 and 20 to the XY line
respectively.' The end A is 15 mm above HP and 40 mm infront of VP. The distance
between the end projectors when measured parallel to the XY line is 50 mm. Draw the
projections of the line AB on the auxiliary planes so that in the final view it appears as a
point. Find the inclination of these auxiliary planes with XY line and true length of AB.

Solution: Fig. 11.11

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Draw a'b' and ab the top and front views of the line using the given data. Draw X1Y1 line
parallel to ab at any convenient distance from it. Draw perpendicular to ab at a and b.
Measure 3a'1 = la' on the perpendicular drawn at a, and 4b'1= 2b' on the perpendicular
drawn at b. Connect a'1 b'1 which will be equal to the true length of the line AB. Draw
X2Y2 perpendicular to a'1 b'1at any convenient distance from b'1. The point view of the
line is marked by measuring 5b1 (a1) = 3a = 4b. Measure the inclination of X1Y1 and X2Y2
lines with the XY line.

8. Shortest Distance between Two Lines

Two lines may be parallel, or intersecting, or non-parallel and non-intersecting. When
the lines are intersecting, the point of intersection lies on both the lines and hence these
lines have no shortest distance line between them. Non-parallel and non-intersecting
lines are called Skew Lines. The parallel lines and the skew lines have a Shortest Distance
Line between them. The shortest distance between the two lines is the shortest
perpendicular drawn to the two lines.

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9. Shortest Distance between Two Parallel Lines

The shortest distance between two parallel lines is equal to the length of the
perpendicular drawn between them. If it's true length is to be measured, then the two
given parallel lines should be shown in their true lengths in one of the orthographic
views. If none of the orthographic views show the given lines in their true lengths, an
additional auxiliary plane parallel to the two given lines should be set up to show them
in their true lengths on it. Even the auxiliary view which shows the lines in their true
lengths may not show the perpendicular distance between them in true length. Hence
another auxiliary plane perpendicular to the two given lines should be set up. Then the
lines appear as points on this plane and the distance between these points will be the
shortest distance between them.
In Fig. 11.12 the projections of a pair of parallel lines AB and PQ are shown, ab and a'b'
are the top and front views of the line AB. pq and p'q' are the top and front views of the
line PQ. Since the top and front views of the lines are not inclined to the XY line, the top
view or the front view show the lines in their true lengths. To show these lines in their
true lengths, an auxiliary plane parallel to the two given lines should be set up parallel to
the line either in top view or in front view. In this case the auxiliary plane is set up so as
to be parallel to the two given lines in top view. Draw X1Yi line parallel to ab and pq at
any convenient distance from them. Through the points a, b, p and q draw projector
lines perpendicular to X1 Y1line. Measure la ' = 5a', along the projector drawn through a
from the X1Y1 line, and 2b' = 6b'1 along the projector drawn through b from the X1V1 line.
Connect a'b'1 which will be equal to the true length of the line AB. Similarly by
measuring 3p' = 7p'1and 4q' = 8q'1obtain P'q'1 the length of the line PQ.The line AB and
PQ are shown in their true lengths, and now an another auxiliary plane perpendicular to
the two given lines should be set up to show their point views on it.

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Draw X2Y2 perpendicular to q'b'1 and p'1q'1 and at any convenient distancefrom them.
Produce a'1b'1and p'q'1. Measure a5 = b6 = 9b, along a'1b'1produced from X2Y2. Connect
q1b1, the required shortest distance between the lines AB and PQ, in its true length.

10. Shortest Distance between Two Skew Lines

Since the skew lines are non-parallel and non-intersecting there will be only one
perpendicular between them, as the shortest distance line. To obtain the true length of
the shortest distance line, one of the skew lines may be shown as a point by selecting
two auxiliary planes. The first auxiliary plane is set up parallel to one of the skew lines
selected either in the top view or front view. Then the second auxiliary plane is set up
perpendicular to the skew line selected to project the skew line as a point on it. The
perpendicular drawn from the point view to the other skew line will be the shortest
distance line.

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In Fig. 11.13 the projections of two skew lines AB and PQ are shown, ab and a'b' are the
top and front views of the line AB.pq and p'q' are the top and front views of the line PQ.
One of the two skew lines should be shown first in its true length and then as a point.
Therefore select any one of the two skew lines, say for example PQ. To show PQ in true
length, selectan auxiliary, plane parallel to it either in the top view in the front view. The
auxiliary plane is set up parallel to PQ in the top view, therefore draw X, Y) line parallel
to pq at any convenient distance from it. Project ab and pq on this new auxiliary plane as
explained in the previous case of parallel lines to get p'1q'1 and a'1b'1 Since, .the X1Y1 line
is parallel to pq, its projection p'1q'1 will be equal to the true length of PQ. Now by
selecting

another auxiliary plane, p'1q'1should be shown as a point. Draw X2Y2

perpendicular to p'1q'1 and at any convenient distance from it. Project a'1b'1 also on this
second auxiliary plane to get a1b1The view p'1q'1 is projected as a point q1(p1) on it. The

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perpendicular drawn from q1 to a1b1 is the shortest distance between them. m1n1 is the
perpendicular drawn from q1(p1) to a1b1.
To show the shortest distance line on the top and front views, proceed as follows.
Project n back to get n'1 on a'1b' From n'1 draw a perpendicular to p'1q'1to get m\ on it.
The points n' and m'1 are projected to the top view to get the points n on ab and pq
respectively. The points n and m are projected to the front view to. get n' and m' on a'b'
and p'q' respectively, mn and m'n' are the projections of the shortest distance line.

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Joints & Assembly

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Contents
1. Introduction to joints..114
2. Joints and Assembly techniques....114
3. Circlips..178
4. Collars...182
5. Riveted joints...183
6. Rolled steel sections....192
7. Couplings..193
8. Clutches.203

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Joints & Assembly

11.

Introduction to Joints
Joints are the connecting elements between shafts that are most of the time
collinear in axis or whose axes are disturbed either in one plane or in both the
planes.

12.

Joint / Assembly Techniques

In machine shop assembly / joints various methods are used for securing
components together. A few of the common methods are:
1) Dowelling
2) Pinning
3) Staking
4) Brazing/hard soldering
5) Using of adhesives.
6) Using Bolts, studs, Nuts & Washers
7) Machine Screws
8) Cotter
9) Keys & Splines
10) Riveting
11) Couplings
12) Clutches

12.1. Dowelling

Figure 1
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This is used for accurate positioning of two or more parts.

This allows the parts to be separated and relocated in position. Different types
of dowels are used depending on the type of assembly.The components
dowelled are always fixed with retaining screws in the assembly.

12.2. Pinning
This is also a method of locating and securing components together. Pins are of
different types.

12.2.1.

Cylindrical pins
Cylindrical pins are available with different types of,
ends
tolerances
surface quality
material
Cylindrical pins are also available in un-hardened and hardened conditions.Unhardened cylindrical pins are of three types. (Fig 2)

Fig. 2

Chamfered and rounded end

Chamfered end

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Square end

They are useful in general assembly work.

Hardened cylindrical pins/dowel pins are made of highgrade steel and are
finished by grinding. (Fig 3) Thesepins can withstand higher shearing force.
These pinsare used in precision assemblies like jigs and fixturesand other tool
making works.

Fig 3
In tool assemblies the parts will be fixed by screws or bolts, (Fig 4) and are
located by using cylindrical pins.

Fig 4
Hardened cylindrical pins are available with dimensional tolerance m6.
Un-hardened and hardened cylindrical pins are made to fit in the holes finished
by standard reamers.
Cylindrical pins are designated by name, nominal diameter, tolerance on
diameter, nominal length and the number of B.I.S. Standard.

Example
A cylindrical pin of nominal diameter 10 mm, tolerance h8 and nominal length
20 mm shall be designated as-Cylindrical pin 10h 8x20 IS:2393.
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NOTE
The I.S. number refers to un-hardened cylindrical pins. Cylindrical pins are also
referred to as dowel pins.

12.2.2.

Taper pins
Taper pins of different types are used in assembly work.

Fig 5
Taper pins allow for frequent dismantling and the assembling of components
without disturbing the precise nature of location. They are used to transmit
small torques. (Fig 5)
Taper pins are of three types. (Fig 6)

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Fig 6
Type A - taper pins with a surface finish of N6.
Type B - taper pins with a surface finish of N7.
Type C - split taper pins with a surface finish of N7.
All taper pins have a taper of 1:50 and are finished with a dimensional tolerance
of h10.
Taper pin types A & B assembly are shown in Fig 7a& type C is shown in Fig 8.

Fig 7

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Fig 8

12.2.3.

Split Taper Pin

In the case of split taper pins the split end can be slightly opened to ensure a
more positive locking.
Taper pins are designated by name, type (A, B or C) nominal diameter, nominal
length and number of the standard.
Examples
1. A taper pin of Type A of nominal diameter 10 mm and nominal length 50 mm
shall be designated as - Taper pin A10 x 50 IS:6688.
2. A split taper pin of nominal diameter 10 mm and nominal length of 60 mm
shall be designated as - Split taper pin C10 x 60 IS: 6688.
The nominal diameter in the case of taper pins is the diameter at the small end
of the taper,

Fig 9
Threaded taper pins are available for:
locking the pins and preventing loosening due to vibration (Fig 9)

Assisting in drawing the pins out of the blind holes. (Fig 10)
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Fig 10

Fig 11
Threaded taper pins with internal threads are also available (Fig 11) which also
helps to pull out the taper pin from the locating hole.

12.2.4.

Grooved pins

Fig 12
These pins have three slots rolled on the outer surface. The sides of the
grooves/slots bulge out. The holes in which slotted pins are used are not finished
by reaming. Grooved pins are available as straight pins and tapered pins (Fig 12).
These are used in assemblies which are not dismantled frequently and where
high accuracy is not required.(Fig 13)

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Fig 13
Fig 14
Grooved pins with heads are also used in assembly involving small
components. (Fig 14)

12.2.5.

Spring pins (Fig 15)

Spring pins are used for locating assemblies with wide tolerance in the
corresponding holes. These pins are manufactured from flat steel bands and
rolled to form a cylindrical shape. These springs will stay tight in the fitting hole
because of the spring action.

Fig 15

12.3. Peening
When parts are to be assembled together this is onethis is one method of
assembly. Basically this is similar to riveting.

Figure 16
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12.4. Staking (Figs 17)

This is a method of retaining parts in an assembly in which a portion or all of a
component is forced to flow on the other component. This increases the
efficiency of the fit.

Fig 17

12.5. Brazing and hard soldering (Figs 18)

This is a process of joining metals by fusing a layer of non-ferrous metal between
the surfaces to be joined.The alloy used for brazing is known as spelter
(combination of copper and zinc).

Fig 18
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12.6. Adhesives (Fig 19)

The adhesives commonly used are epoxy adhesives. This adhesive gives a strong
bond between materials to be assembled. This is not affected by moderate
moisture or heat. It is usually supplied in two containers/tubes. One is resin and
the other is the hardener.

Fig 19
12.7. Bolts, Studs, Nuts & Washers

Fig 20
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These are generally used to clamp two parts together. Bolts are fitted in situations
where spanners can be used for the tightening on the bolt head to prevent the bolt
from turning when tightening the nut.
When bolts and nuts are used, if the thread is damaged, a new bolt and nut can
be used. But in the case of a screw directly fitted to the component, if the
threads are damaged the component may need extensive repair or replacement.
Depending on the type of application different types of bolts are used.

12.7.1.

Bolts with clearance hole (Fig 21)

Fig 21
This is the most common type of fastening arrangement using bolts. The size of
the hole is slightly larger than the bolt (clearance hole).Slight misalignment in
the matching hole will not affect the assembly.

12.7.2.

Body fit bolt (Fig 22)

Fig 22
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This type of bolt assembly is used when the relative movement between the
work pieces has to be prevented. The diameter of the threaded portion is
slightly smaller than the shank diameter of the bolt.The bolt shank and the hole
are accurately machined for achieving perfect mating.

12.7.3.

Anti-fatigue bolt (Fig 23)

Fig 23
This type of bolt is used when the assembly is subjected to alternating load
conditions continuously. Connecting- rod big ends in engine assembly are
examples of this application.The shank diameter is in contact with the hole in a
few places and the other portions are relieved to give clearances.

12.8. Studs (Fig 24)

Fig 24
It is only a cylindrical shank having threads on both ends, with the plain portion
in between. One end is shorter, that is screwed into the machine body called
Metal end. Theotherend longer one which takes nut is called Nut end. (Fig
25a) Some studs have a collar called collar studs". (Fig25c) Studs are screwed
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into the metal end, using double (lock nut) nut method. After removing the nuts,
the other part with plain hole is placed in position and nuts are screwed on to
the nut end. (Fig 25b)

Fig 25
There are three types of studs:
Type A - recommended for use in steel; metal end length = 1 d.
Type B - recommended for use in cast iron; metal end length = 1.5d.
Type C - recommended for use in aluminum, metal end length = 2 d
M4, M8, M12, M16 &M20 are available. Lengths 25 mm to 200 according to dia.
Designation stud B M24 x 200 IS:1862.
Studs are used in assemblies which are to be separated frequently.
Studs have two threaded ends. The threaded end which is fitted on the casting
has coarse threads whilethe other end which takes the nut has fine threads.
This variation in the thread pitch allows the fine thread or the nut end to strip,
when excessively tightened, thus preventing damage to the casting. The
threaded ends of studs may have difference in pitches, hand of thread and
length of the threaded portion.
Designation of bolts as per B.I.S. specifications
Hexagon head bolts are designated by name, thread size, nominal length,
property class and number of the Indian Standard.
Example

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A hexagon head bolt of size M10, nominal length 60 mm and property class 4.8
is designated as
Hexagon head bolt M10 x 40 - 4.8 - IS:1363.
Explanation about property class.
The part of the specification 4.8 above indicates the property class (mechanical
properties). In this case it is made of steel with a minimum tensile strength = 40
kgf/ mm and having a ratio of minimum yield stress to minimum tensile strength
of 0.8.
NOTE
Indian Standard bolts and screws are made of three product grades. A,B,& C, A
being precision bolts, and the others of lesser grades of accuracy and finish.
While there are many parameters given in the B.I.S. specification, the
designation need not cover all the aspects and it actually depends on the
functional requirement of the bolt or other threaded fasteners.
FOR MORE DETAILS ON DESIGNATION SYSTEM REFER TO IS: 1367 (PART XVI)
1979.

12.9. Nuts and washers

Nut is a metallic piece of definite shape with threaded (screwed) hole on the
centre of the face. It is used on the end of the bolt/screw to hold the parts in
position.
Nuts are known by theirshape or their cross-section. The most commonly used
forms are hexagonal and square. Nuts are specified by the shape of the nut and
the nominal dia of bolt/screw on which they are used. (Fig 26)

Fig 26
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Fig 27

12.9.1.

Hexagonal nut (Fig 27):

It is made of hexagonal bar with a screwed/threaded hole in the centre. To avoid
the damaging of the corners on the face, they are chamfered at 30, with
reference to the base. Theoretically the thickness of the nut is equal to the
diameter of the bolt and corner to corner is 2d i.e., twice the diameter of the
bolt.
The actual sizes are specified in IS:1363,1364, 3138.
Thin hexnuts are available IS:1364 (Part-4).

12.9.2.

Square nut (Fig 28):

It is made out of square bar. Side of the square is equal to 1.5d + 3 mm and
radius of the chamfer is 2d. Sizes are from M6 to M39.
IS:2585 lays down the standard sizes available.
For drawing purposes, the following sizes of the nut are considered.

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Bolt nom. dia = d Thickness of nut T = d Width across Flats W = 1.5d + 3mm
Angle of chamfer = 30
Radius of chamfer arc = 2d (approx.)

Fig 28

12.9.3.

Special Nuts
Collared nut: It is a regular hexagon nut with a washer face. It avoids cutting
groove on the metal while tightening and also can be used on comparatively
larger holes. It is available from M8 to M36 IS:7795-1975. (Fig 29)

Fig 29

12.9.4.

Cap nut:
It is also a hexagonal nut, the hole covered by a cylindrical flat cap. It protects
the end of the bolt from corrosion and leakages of oils through the threads.
Figure shows the nut. It has a cavity of 0.25 d and end metal thickness 0.25d. (Fig
30a)

12.9.5.

Domenut(as per BIS) Domenut:

It is a hexagonal nut with blind hole having hemispherical top end. Its use is
same as above. Dome nut is available from M6 to M34 IS;2687

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It is made of steel, brass or aluminum. Steel nuts may be from rolled, forged or
extruded. Nuts of sizes M24 and above. (Fig 30b)

Fig 30

12.9.6. Capstan nut or cylindrical nut:

It has six blind holeequi-spaced on the circumference. The diameter and depth
of the hole is equal to0.2d. Diameter of the nut is 1.8d. A hook spanner is used
to operate. (Fig 31)

Fig 31
12.9.7. Ring nut:
Its diameter is 1.8 d and thickness is 0.5 d. The thickness is reduced to 0.3d, by
0.1 d from both the faces forming 1.5d cylindrical faces. Six slots of 0.2d width

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are milled on the circumference to the depth of 0.15d. Special spanner is used to
operate the nut. (Fig 32) These areused in pairs, one nut acting as a lock nut.

Fig 32

12.9.8.

Domed Cap nut (IS:7790):

Fig 33
Hexagon nut with a hemi-spherical top. Its function is similar to cap nut. It is
available in 11 sizes from M6 to M24 diameter bolts/screw. They are made of
steel, brass or aluminum alloy. It prevents corrosion and leakage of fluids from
the threads. (Fig 33)

12.10. Washer:
It is a cylindrical thin disc with a hole in the centre. Washer helps to provide
smooth bearing surface between the nut and the part on which it is used. There
by it prevents the nut corners from cutting into the metal. (Fig 34)

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Fig 34
There are plain washers (IS:2016:5370) and spring washers (IS:6755,3063,6735).

Plain washers are available from basic hole size 4 to 155 mm dia to suit
bolt/screw size from M 1.6 to M 150 mm. One face is chamfered at 45c- While
spring washer exerts pressure on the nut tightening and keeps the thread
gripped on the thread.

12.11. Screws
Grub screws are comparatively smaller in dia and short in length. They are made
of hardened steel used for holding two parts in position eg., a collar pulley, or
gear on a shaft.
On driving it into position, it produces a clamping force, resists relative motion
between the assembled parts. The grub screws are fully cylindrical, on one end
they are provided with hexagonal socket or screwdriver slot. On the other end
they are formed into different points. (Fig 35)
Hexagonal socket grub screws or screw driver slot are of following types .IS:
6094 (Fig 35)

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They are namely as follows:

Flat point (FP)
Cone point (TP)
Full dog point (FDP)
Halfdogpoint(HDP)
Cup point (CP)
Conical point

Fig 35
These are designated by the shape of their ends. These are available in sizes M3,
M4, M5, M6, M8, M10, M12, M16, M20, M 24, Max. length 60 mm. These are
operated by using hex. bent key (Allen key).
Slotted grub screws as per IS:2388 are designated by letters. (Fig 36)

Fig 36
Type A-Flat end
Type C-Conical end
Type E - Cylindrical dog point
Type G-Tapered dog point
Type J-Cup point
Type K-Oval point
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12.11.1.

Setscrews (Not as perBIS):

These screws are operated by screw drivers or a spanner. Theyareavailable in
different sizes M1 to M24. The lengths vary according to dia.
Function of a set screw is same as that of grub screw. The set screw has different
form of head
1) cup or round head
2) square head
3) cylindrical or cheese head
4) fillister head
5) countersunk head
6) rounded countersunk head
7) square head with collar.
Fig 37 shows the above

Fig 37
Screws are specified by designating the head, diameter; length and IS.No and
property class.

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12.11.2.

Hexagonal socket head cap screw (IS:2269):

These are available from M1.6 to M36 {16 sizes), length 2.3 mm to 200mm
depending upon the dia. It has the advantage over the other set screws, its
hexagonal socket head flushes in the metal, so the head does not project
outside.
They are used on machine tables and on assemblies. (Fig 38) It is operated with
an alien key.

12.11.3.

Designation:
A hexagonal socket cap screw of size M12 length 60 mm property class 12.9 shall
be designated asHexagonal socket head cap screw M12x60-12.9-IS:2269.

Fig 38

12.12. Locking devices:

There are different types which are used to prevent nuts from getting loose on
machines subjected to vibrations or impacts.The most commonly used device is
a lock nut. It is an additional nut called Lock nut engaged on the other. The
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thickness of lock nut may be 0.6 d to 0.8 d; d being the diameter of the bolt. The
top nut when tightly engaged on the nut, it prevents the nut becoming loose.
(Fig 39)

Fig 39

12.12.1.

Split Pin:
It is made of semi circular steel wires (IS:549) bent through 180, forming a
spherical head. It is passed through the split pin holes in the bolt/screw ends and
the ends are opened backwards. There by it locks the nuts in their position. They
are available in 16 sizes, 0.6 mm to 20 mm depending upon the bolt dia 2.5 to
170 mm dia. (Fig 40)

Fig 40

12.12.2.

Slotted nut IS:2232:

It is a hexagonal nut with slots of width 0.25 d cut on the top end of the nut
through the opposite faces. A split pin is inserted through the slot in the hole
drilled on the bolt end in line with the slot. The splitend of the pin is opened
securing the nut. The width of the slot is 0.25 d and 0.3 d deep, split pin dia is 0.2
d. (Fig 41)

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Fig41
12.12.3.

Castle nut IS: 2232:

It is similar to slotted nut with semi circular end slots cut on the cylindrical part
called castle, on the nut. A split pin is passed through and locks the nut. (Fig
42)

Fig42
The above are available in grades A,B& C sizes M4 to M100.

12.12.4.

Sawn nut or Wiles nut:

It is a normal hexagonal nut cut halfway through one of its corners. The width of
the slot is 0.. 15d located at 0.2 d from top of the nut. A tapped hole is cuton the
nutas shown. A setscrew when tightened atthe top thin part of nut slightly
bends, there by pressing on the threads. This prevents the slackening of nut. (Fig
43)

Fig 43

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12.12.5.

Simmonds lock nut:

The hexagonal nut has a closed cavity on
one end and a fiber ring is fitted inside it.
The internal dia meter of afiber ring is
slightly less than the core diameter. When
the nut is screwed down, bolt end cuts
thread on the fiber ring.
The fiber ring gives greater grip over the bolt threads and prevents slackening
the nut. (Fig 44)

Fig 44

12.12.6.

Penn, ring or grooved nut:

A part of the nut is turned round with a round groove. When the bolt hole is very
close to the edge, a counter bored hole is provided. The dog point of setscrew,
through the tapped hole, sits on to the groove. When screwed in, the nut is
prevented from getting loosened. (Fig 45)
Fig 45
The same nut can be locked as shown in Fig 123 with a collar when it is away
from edge.

12.12.7.

Locking by Locking plate or stop plate:

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A plate with grooves to suit the nut is placed on the nut and screwed down to
the body with a screw

Fig 46

12.12.8.

Locking by screw:
A screw fixed by the side of the face prevents movement of the nut. (Fig 47)

Fig 47
Apart from the methods mentioned above, spring washers, single coiled or
double coiled washer are used to lock the nuts. By tightening the nut, the nut
presses the spring and deform. This exerts pressure on the nut, prevents
rotation of nut, when tightened in position.

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12.12.9.

Locking by wire:
Screw ends have holes through which wire is passed after the nuts are screwed
down. Wire prevents nuts coming off.

12.12.10. Hexagonal weld nuts (Fig 48)

Fig 48
These are nuts used on welding on plate works. These nuts have:
a spigot ring which fits in the hole of the plate
Three projections to provide a uniform contact on the
surface that is to be welded
a hole countersunk on one end to protect the thread during welding.

12.12.11. Round nuts

Round nuts of different types are available for special applications.
Slotted round nut (Fig 49)
Slotted round nut for hook wrench (Fig 50)
Round nut with set pin holes on sides (Fig 51)
Round nut with holes in face

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Fig 49

Fig 50

Fig 51

12.13. Locking devices for nuts

Nuts used along with bolts in assembly may loosen due to vibration. Different
types of nut-locking devices are used depending on the severity of the condition
in which -fastener is used. The following are the most commonly used types.

12.13.1.

Lock-nut
A thin nut with both faces machined is placed below a nut in the assembly. (Fig
52) Both nuts are tightened over the bolt one after the other. Then using two

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spannerspressure is exerted on both nuts by turning in opposite directions. Both

nuts are held together by friction.

Fig 52

12.13.2.

Self-locking nut (Simmonds nut)

Fig 53
This is a special nut with a nylon or fiber ring insert placed in the upper part of
the nut. The internal diameter of the ring is smaller than the core diameter of
the bolt thread. The nut while tightening cuts its own thread on the nylon insert.
This provides a positive grip and prevents the nut from loosening due to
vibration. (Fig 53)

12.13.3.

Wire lock
This is a method of locking a number of screws and bolts in an assembly. In this
method a soft steel wire is inserted (Fig 54) and twisted.

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Fig 54

12.13.4.

Sawn nut (Wiles nut)

Fig 55
In this type of locking, a slot is cut half way across the nut. A screw is fitted with
a clearance hole on the top part and matching thread on the lower part of the
nut. (Fig 55) Tightening of the nut provides positive locking for the .

12.13.5.

Slotted and castle nut with split pin

The position of the nut can be locked using a split pin
Split pins are designated by the nominal size, nominal length, the number of the
Indian Standard and the materials (for materials other than steel only).
The nominal size is the diameter of the hole for receiving the split pins.
The nominal length is the distance from the underside of the eye to the end of
the short leg. (Fig 56)

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Fig 56
Split pins are used for locking slotted nuts, castle nuts hexagonal nuts, clevis pins
etc. and are used in different ways. (Fig 57)

Fig 57

12.13.6.

Grooved nut (Penning nut)

This is a hexagonal nut with the lower part made cylindrical on the cylindrical
surface. There is a recessed groove in which a set screw is used to lock the nut.
(Fig 58)

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Fig 58

12.13.7.

Locking plate
For preventing the nut from loosening locking plates are fixed on the outside of
the hexagon nut. (Fig 59)

Fig 59

12.13.8.

Lock-washers with lug

In this arrangement of locking a hole is drilled for accommodating the lug. (Fig

60)
Fig 60
The movement of the nut is prevented by folding the washer against the nut.

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12.13.9.

Tab washers (Fig 61)

Fig 61
Tab washers can be used for locking the nuts which are located near an edge or
corner.

12.13.10. Spring washers (Fig 62)

Fig 62
Spring washers are available with a single or a double coil. These are placed
under a nut in the assembly as washers. The stiff resistance offered by the
washer against the surface of the nuts serves to prevent loosening.
NOTE
The use of toothed lock-washers has been dealt with already in Ex-No. 15 1st
Year.
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12.14. Machine Screws

Machine screws are used when a nut cannot be used inthe assembly, and the
component in the assembly has athreaded hole to receive the screw. (Fig 63 &
64)

12.14.1.

Types of machine screws

1. Hexagon head screws
2. Hexagon socket head cap screws
3. Square head end screws
These are heavy duty screws.

Fig 63

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Fig 64

12.15. Cotter/cotter joint

Cotter is a rectangular wedge with taper on one side of the width, thickness
being same. It is used to connect shafts, with reciprocating motion only. The
ends of the shafts to be joined are formed into socket and spigot. A rectangular
slot at right angle to the axis is made with taper on one side to suit the cotter.
The socket and spigot are aligned and the cotter is driven in locking them
together. (Fig 65)

Fig 65

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Fig 66

Fig 67
Two cotters are used to join shafts with a sleeve. The enlarged shaft ends with
slots are placed facing each other in a sleeve with slots. (Fig 67) On driving the
cotters, with a bearing surface on the sleeve, the tapered or slope surface of the
cotters pull the shafts closer. The clearance on the sleeve and shafts allow the
variation of cotters width to certain extent.
Cotter is also used to connect square or rectangular members. Fig 68 shows a
strap joint with a gib and cotter. One end of the member is made as fork end
which takes theendofthe other membertopreventtheforkend getting bend while
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driving the cotter a gib is placed. Fig 69 shows the bending effect on the fork end
and how the gibs are made use of. Single gib is used for cotterwith slope on one
side. Two gibs are used if the cotter has slope on both sides

Fig 68

Fig 69
Use of pin in connecting shafts: Similar to the cotter, cylindrical pin is also used
in connecting shafts. One end of the shaft is made as Fork (fork end) with holes
and the end of the other shaft is formed as eye end. (Fig 70) The eye end fits into
the fork end, holes being in one line. A collared cylindrical pin with a small hole is
inserted into the eye and fork. The pin is held in position using a coller and a
small taper pin or split pin.

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Fig 70

12.16. Keys and Splines

Keys and splines are used for transmitting torque from a rotating shaft to a
hub/wheel or from a hub/wheel to the shaft. (Fig 71).

Fig 71
Keys of different types and splines are used depending on the requirements of
transmission.
12.16.1.

Keys
Key is a metallic piece of wedge inserted between a shaft and hub, parallel to
the axis of shaft. It is proportionate to the shaft dia.
The key prevents relative motion between a shaft and hub of the mating parts.
The key sits in a groove in the shaft called key seat and key way in the hub

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both parallel to the shaft axis. Key seat on the shaft is normally produced by
milling a key way in the hub by slotting. Fig 72 shows key, key seat, key way, hub
and assembly.

Fig 72

Keys are classified according to their relative position of the shaft and the crosssection.According to their position with reference to shaft, there are two types:
sunk keys
saddle keys

12.16.2.

Keys and their Applications

A key is an insert which is housed in the keyway to fit together a hub or a pulley
to transmit torque. A keyway is provided on the shaft and also on the hub or on
a pulley to connect together the conjugate parts by inserting the key in between.
The key can be withdrawn at will to disengage the mating components.

12.16.3.

Common types
Parallel key or feather key (Fig 73)

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Fig 73

a)

Parallel or feather key

These keys have uniform thickness, also called as Feather keys. While preventing
relative rotation they permit gliding or axial movement of the hub (matching part)
on the shaft.
IS:2048 lays down standards for Parallel keys or feather keys and key ways (Fig 74)
There are nine types of parallel key as follows:
Type A - keys with both ends round.
Type B - keys with both ends square.
Type C - keys with both ends round with one hole for retaining screw for sizes 8x7
and upwards .
Type D - keys with both ends square with hole for one retaining screw for sizes 8x7
and upwards.
Type E
(i) keys with both ends round with holes for two retaining screws for sizes 8x 7 and
10x8.
(ii) additionally provided with tapped hole for one or two jacking screws for sizes
12x8 and upwards.

Type F
(i) keys with both ends square with holes for two retaining screws.
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(ii) additionally provided with tapped hole for one or two jacking screws for sizes 12x8
and upwards.
Type G - keys with both ends square with chamfer and hole for one retaining
screws.
Type H - keys with both ends square with holes for two retaining screws.
Type J- keys with both ends square and hole for one spring dowel sleeves.

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Fig 74
The keys except type A and type B are screwed to the shaft with the help of
retaining screws viz. slotted cheese head screw (IS:1366) or hexagon socket
head cap screw (IS: 2269). Sometimes spring dowel sleeves (!S:5988) are made
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use of. The cross section of key varies from 2 x 2 m m to 100x 50 mm length
6to400mm depending upon the dia of the shaft. Jack screw helps in removing
key from key seat.
For design purposes, the key sizes are based on shaft dia on which they are
fitted.
Approximate proportion of parallel or taper keys, If D is the dia. of the shaft,
width of the key W = 1 /4D+2 mm. Nominal thickness T = 2/3 W.
Example
Diameter of shaft = 40 mm
Width = 4-x 40+2 = 12 mm 4 2
Thickness = x 12 = 8 mm
Thickness at the large end is the nominal thickness of the taper key.Taper
is 1 in 100 on the top face only.

b) Taper keys
They are rectangular in cross section. They have a taper of 1:100 on the
thickness. Taper on the key helps to hold the hub and shaft together firmly.
The key seat on the shaft is parallel to the axis i.e. uniform depth whereas key
way in the hub is tapered to 1:100 to suit the key.
There are three types of taper keys:
Type A - Keys with both ends round.
Type B - Keys with both ends square.
Type C - keys with one end round and other end square.
Fig.75 shows the above keys.

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Fig 75

All the edges are chamfered atS x 45 where S varies from 0.16 mm to 1.20 mm
according to the width of the key (b).
Keys for shafts upto 22 mm dia. are of square section, keys for shafts above 22
mm dia are of rectangular section. Approximate proportion of sunk keys of
rectangularcross section for a shaft of diameter d.
Width of the key (b) = 0.25d + 2 mm (% d + 2 mm)
Thickness of the key (h) = 0.66 b or (2/3b)
Taper 1 in 100 (1:100)
Length = d to 3d (approx.) maximum upto 140 mm.
IS: 2292 lays down the specifications for taper keys and key ways. Width and
thickness vary from 2 x 2 to 100 x 50 mm according to the shaft dia ranging from
6mm to 500 mm. Length varies from 6 mm min. to 400 mm max.
A taper key of type B, width 32 mm, height 18 mm, length 100 mm is designated
as Taper key B32 x 18 x 100 IS: 2292.
Tolerance on key width b is h9 and for thickness h, h9for square section and hi
1 for rectangle section. Tolerance on key way width is D10.
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c) Gib-Head Keys
It is a taper key with a square head chamfered 30 at the thick end of the key.
When the key is not accessible to remove it, a head is provided called gib. A
wedge is placed between the gib and hub, by giving a jerk to the wedge, the key
is removed from assembly.Fig 76&77 shows the approximate proportions of the
key. All the edges along the length are chamfered.

Fig 76

Fig 77
Width of key W = 0.25 d + 2 mm
Thickness T = 0.66 W
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Taper = 1:100
Thickness of head H = 1.75 T
Length of headB = 1.5 T
Chamfer of head = 30 chamfer along the length 45
Gib head keys are of square section uptoshaftdia22and for dia 22 and above are
of rectangular cross section. IS:2293 lays down the specification of gib head keys
and keyways for shaft dia 6 mm to 500 mm.

Example
Diameter shaft = 46 mm
Width (W) = 0.25 x 46 +2 = 11.5+2
= 13.5 rounded off to 14 mm.
Thickness(T) = 0.66 x 13.5 = 8.91 rounded off to 9 mm
H =1.75x9 = 15.75 say 16 mm
L = 1.5x9 = 13.5 mm.

d) Woodruff keys (IS:2294) (Fig 78)

It is in the shape of a segment of a circular disc. It gets aligned in the key seat of
the shaft fig.78. The flat projected part of the key fits into the key way formed
on the hub. This key is intended for light duty drives only. There are two series of
wood ruft keys series 1 for torque application (transmission of power) series 2
for position application.
For a shaft of dia d (24)
Thickness of key b = d/6
Radius of key R = 2b or d/3
projection of key above shaft = T/2
height of the key h = 1,75b
Tolerance on width = h9
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Tolerance on height hi = hi 1
Tolerance on D = h12
Max. 40 mm dia of shafts on which the woodruff key is used; max.width key is
10 mm.
Wood ruff keys are designated by its width and its height followed by BIS
no,IS:2294
Example
Woodruff key of width 8 mm
Woodruff key 8.0 x 11.0 IS.2294; dia. shall be 28 mm.

Fig 78

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Fig 79

Fig 80

e) Saddle key
Saddle keys are of two types.
1. Flat saddle
2. Hollow saddle

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These keys are used for transmitting very low torque. No keyway is made on the
shaft. In the case of a flat saddle the shaft is flattened a bit while the hollow
saddles curved portion of the key matches the profile of the shaft as shown in
Figs 81&82.

Fig 81

Fig 82
Approximate proportion

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Example

f) Tangential key (Fig 83)

These keys are used when very high torque of impact type is to be transmitted in
both directions of rotation. Common applications are found in flywheels, rolling
mills etc. Atangential key consists of two taper rectangular wedges, positioned
one over the other in opposite directions. Two sets of keys are fixed at 120
angle as shown in Fig 83 and should be such that the broad side is directed along
a tangent to the shaft circle while the narrow side sits along the radius of the
shaft.

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Fig 83

g) Round key (Fig 10)

Fig 84
It is of cylindrical cross-section and is used in assemblies to secure the mating
components where the torque is light. The key is fitted parallel to the shaft into
the drilled hole made partly on to the shaft and partly on to the mating part.
Approximate proportion of round key

h) Sunk keys (Fig 85):

They partly fit in the shaft (sunk) and hub.

Fig 85

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i) Thin taper keys

These are similar to taper keys discussed except these keys are comparatively
longer I S:6166 lays down the specification for thin keys and key ways. These are
used on dia 22 to dia 230 mm. Key sizes vary from 8 x 5 to 50 x 18 mm according
to diameter of shaft.
The fit between the key way and key is D10/h9 providing clearance fit.
Note: Tolerance, limits and fits will be dealt later.

j) Special keys and keys not as per BIS

There are some keys in use though not as per BIS viz
Dove tail key
Peg key
Single head key with screw
Double head key.

1) Dove tail key:

The rectangular part of the key is fitted into the shaft and dove tail part into the
hub. They are driven into their position by using soft hammers. (Fig 86)

Fig. 86

2) Peg key:
Hub which takes the peg key has a suitable hole in the slot. The key is first
mounted on to the hub hole. The shaft is then aligned to the hub. Key is
comparatively longer than those used with taper keys. (Fig 87)

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Fig 87

3) Single headed key:

After driving into the key way, it is fastened to the hub with a counter sunk
screw. (Fig 88a) Key seat on the shaft to take double headed key is from one end
of the shaft. The key is first fitted to the hub and then the key seat of the shaft is
aligned and fixed. (Fig 88b) The key, in all these cases cannot get loosened from
its position of the hub. It allows the hubtoslideif required along the axis to some
extent.

Fig 88

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k) Other types of Keys

1) Cone keys:
These are segments of a truncated cone with cylindrical hole, on the axis, when
they are mounted on a shaft, they can take up tapered hollow hub of different
dia meters or shafts of varying diameter. (Fig 89)

Fig 89

2) Tangential keys:
Two sets of pair of taper keys are used tangential to the shaft. They are used on
shaftfordia 60 mm above upto 500 mm (IS:2291)
The keys are placed with their taper face to face as in Fig 90a. They are driven
into, the width across the parallel faces increase. Fig 90b shows how the
tangential keys are used on reverse direction. They are used on shafts where
loads on reverse direction also are to be taken up.

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Fig 90

12.16.4.

Tolerance on keys and key ways

Key width (b) h9 for square key, hi 1 for rectangular key Key way (b)
D10Thickness (h) h9 for square section, hi 1 for rectangular section.
Key has chamfer S x 45 where S varies from 0.16 to 3.00mm and key way has
radius varying from 0.08 to 2.5mm according to the size ofthe shaft. Depth of
key slot 0.6h (approximately on shaft) 0.4h (approximately on hole)

12.16.5.

Material for keys

Steel of tensile strength of 600 MPa(60MN/m2:60 kgf/mm2approx.)

12.16.6.

Designation of keys
Keys are designated bytheir type, width, height and length followed by IS
numbers.
Parallel key type A width 70 mm height 36 mm, length 250 mm is designated as
parallel key A 70x36x250 IS:2048.

12.16.7.

Fixing of key (Fig 91)

As the feather keys are parallel, they are likely to get loosened from their
position. Except Type A and B, other keys are fastened to the shaft by means of

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retaining screws and spring dowel sleeves. The retaining screws are either
slotted cheese head screw (IS: 1366) or hexagon socket head cap screws
(IS:2269). Spring dowel sleeves are as per IS:5938. Fig 70 shows howthe
retaining screws and spring dowels are used. Width of keys vary from 2 mm to
100 mm and height or thickness varies frommm to 50 mm according to shaft
diameter from 6 mm to 500 mm.

Fig 91

12.17. Spline:
A spline is an arrangement of a number of keys and keyways formed integrally
over the periphery of a cylindrical shaft. (Fig 92)
It is the machine element consisting of integral keys (spline teeth) or keyways
(spaces) equi-spaced around a circle or portion thereof.
Internal spline is a spline formed on the inner surface of a cylinder.
External spline is the spine formed on the outer surface of a cylinder.

Fig 92
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12.17.1.

Uses of a spline
The spline formation enables, the gear mounted to it to slide longitudinally and
also transmits torque when the gear is engaged to another mating gear or in a
gear train.
Example

12.17.2.

All-geared headstock of a lathe

Reed mechanism of milling machine

Norton gearbox of a lathe

Forms of splines
The two forms of splines are:
straight spline
involute spline.

12.17.3.

Straight spline (Fig 93)

Fig 93
The spline form is similar to parallel key when it is externaland parallel keyway
when it is internal. The spline seat a flat and parallel and a clearance fit is
provided.

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12.17.4.

Involute spline (Fig 94)

Fig 94
The spline form is involute and is used for higher power transmitting. These
forms are cut by hobbingcutters similar to gear profiles. The angles of involute
spline turns are in 14 1/2, 25, 20, 30 and 45.
The following table is shown, for basic spline profile. (Straight form) Designation
of spline (straight sided)
A spline with 6 number of spline keys, having inner diameter 28 mm, outer
diameter 34 mm is designated as spline 6x28x34, IS: 2327.

12.17.5.

Splined shafts and splined hubs:

These are like integral multi keys on their periphery. The faces of each spline are
parallel and align with each other and can slide over the shaft. (Figs 95&96) They
got greater strength with regard to key and keyways IS:2327.
Splined shafts and hubs are used extensively in the automobile, machine tool
and other industries.
Splined shafts are generally used:
for coupling shafts when relatively heavy torques are to be transmitted
without slip;

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for transmitting power by sliding or fixed gears, pulleys and other rotating
members and
for attaching parts that may require removal for indexing or change in
angular position
The straight sided splines have been divided into two series, light duty and
medium duty.
The inside diameter has been kept the same for both the series. It will be larger
than the bearing diameter by 1 to 2 mm, so that a suitable fitting dimension may
be obtained.

Fig 95

Fig 96

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12.17.6.

Straight sided spline or spline way:

Aspline or splineways whose sides (or flanks) are normal to a tangent touching
the centre of the arc as its major diameter. The sides are parallel to each other
throughouttheir depth and length and are known as straight to distinguish them
from those having flanks of involute or other curved form. (Fig 97&98)

Fig 97

Fig 98
The dimensions of the straight sided splined shafts and given in the Table 1.
The designation of straight sided splines for general use shall consist of the
nominal size (as given in the first column oftable) and the numberofthis Indian
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standard. For example, a6-splined shaft or hub with minordiameter of 28 mm

and major diameter of 32 mm shall be designated as;
Spline 6 x 28 x 32 IS:2327 (Fig 99)
The splines may be straight sides or involute sided (IS:2327 and IS:3665). The
dimensions for straight sided splinesfor machine tools are given in IS:2610.
Designated no. of splines x min. dia x max.dia 1.5 (IS:2327).

Fig 99

12.17.7.

Serrated shaft
In certain assemblies, serrated shafts are also used for transmission. (Figs 100 a
and b)

Fig 100

13.

Circlips
Circlips are fastening devices used to provide shoulders for positioning or
limiting the movement of parts in an assembly. (Fig 101) Circlips are also called
retaining rings IS: 3075 part 1, 2, and 3).

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The rings are generally made of materials having good spring properties so that
the fastener may be deformed elastically to a considerable degree and still
spring back to its original shape. This permits the circlips to spring back into a
groove of other recess in a part or they may be seated on a part in a deformed
condition, so that they grip the part by functional means. Circlips are
manufactured from spring steel with high tensile and yield strength.

Fig 101

Types: There are two types.

13.1. Internal circlips
This type of rings are assembled in holes, bores or housing.

13.2. Circlips for bores (IS:3075 - Part II):

These are available for bores of nominal diameter range 8 to 300 mm in normal
type and 20 to 100 mm in heavy type.
These are made from spring steel of grade 70 C6 or 75 C6.

Fig 102

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13.3. External circlip:

These type of circlips are installedon shafts, pins, studs and similar parts.Circlips
for shafts Normal type (N) and heavy type (H).These are available for shafts dia 3
mm to 300 mm.
13.4. Heavy type:
These are suitable for shafts dia 15 mm to100 mm.Both types offer a number of
advantages over other fastening methods.

Their cost is relatively low when compared with other types of fasteners.

Their use often results in savings in raw materials and simplified machining
operations for other parts in the assembly.

One circlip often can replace two or more parts.

Assembly toolings developed for circlips usually permit very rapid assembly
of the fasteners, even by unskilled workers.

Fig 103

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13.4.1. Material:
Circlips are manufactured from spring steel with high tensile and yield strength.
13.4.2. Designation:
A circle for shaft dia (normal)d1 = 50 mm and thickness (s) = 2 mm Normal type
shall be designated as
Circlip 50 x 2 N IS:3075 (Part I)
For heavy duty circlip 50 x 3 H (IS:3075 - Part I) (Fig 104).
Circlip for bore nominal dia d1 normal type circlip 50 x 2 N IS:3075 (Part II).
For Heavy duty circlip 50 x 2.5 H (IS:3075 - Part II) (Fig 105).

Fig 104

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Fig 105

14.

Collars
Set collars are used in general engineering for locking and for locating bearing
and other running parts in the axial direction to obtain the inter-changeability of
thecollars with shafts. Set collars are specified in IS:2995 -1965 suitable for
shafts dia 2 mm to 200 mm.
Set collars light series are of two types.
Type A used on shafts with slotted set screw IS:2388 for fixing on to shafts.
Single set screw is used for shafts dia 2mmto70mm bore collar. Two slotted grub
screws at 135 are used on shafts and collar bores 72 to 200 mm dia for fixing on
the shaft. The grub screws M2 x 3 to M20 x 2 are used according to shaft
diameter. There are 28 preferred sizes and 35 non-preferred sizes.
Type B set collars use taper pins (IS:2393 - 1963), for bores of collars dia 4.5 to
150 mm (53 sizes). A taper pin (IS:6688-1981) dia 1.5 x 12 mm to dia 60 x 220
mm long are used according to the collar board. (Figs 106&107) Set collars are
made of Fe 410.

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Fig 105

Fig 106

15.

Riveted Joints
Rivets are used to fasten permanently two or more plates or pieces of metal.
Jointsmade with rivets are called riveted joints they are commonly used in shipbuilding and for the construction of steel buildings, bridges, boilers, tanks etc.
Plates joined together by means of a riveted joint cannot be disconnected
without chipping-off rivet-heads from one side of the joint.
Rivets are usually made of C-30. Inits initial form [fig. 107 (i)]. A rivet
comprisesfollowing:

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i. A head,
ii. Cylindrical body of shank and
iii. A slightly tapered tail.
A rivet is specified by the diameter of its shank. The length of the tail, out of
which another head is formed, is kept about 1.25 times the diameter of the
rivet.

Fig 107

15.1. Riveting
The process of forming another rivet-head, after the rivet is placed in the hole
previously drilled or punched through the plates, is called riveting. The diameter
of -is hole is kept slightly larger (about 1 mm to 1.5 mm) than the diameter of
the vet. Any burr formed at the edges of the hole due to drilling, is removed by a
little counter-sinking.

The rivet is made red-hot in a charcoal furnace and

then inserted within the hole in the plates. The head of the rivet is held fast
against the adjoining plate, while the tail is hammered and another rivet-head is
forged. The rough surface : the new head is smoothened by the use of a special
tool having a cavity of the desired form of the head [fig. 107 (ii)]. A hot rivet is
easier to work on. It also binds he plates more closely together on cooling, on
account of contraction of the metal. Riveting is done cold (i.e. without heating
the rivet) in case of rivets of small sizes - when they are made of soft ductile
metals such as copper, aluminum etc. Machine riveting, which is a common
modern practice, is employed when the work is to be done speedily or on a large
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scale. The rivet-head is formed under a steady forceapplied by means of

hydraulic or pneumatic pressure. Due to the steady pressurethe hole in the
plates is filled up more completely.

15.2. Caulking andFullering

To prevent leakage through the joint, the platesare firmly forced together by
caulking or fulleringprocesses. The edges of the plates are hammered and
driven-in by a caulking tool (fig. 108) ora fullering tool (fig. 109). The caulking
tool isin the shape of a blunt chisel. The thicknessof the fullering tool is about
the same as thatof the plates. To facilitate these operations theedges of the
plates are usually machined to anangle of about 80 before joining them
together.This angle is increased to about 85 after thefullering process.
Leakage through the hole is prevented bythe caulking operation on the edge of
the rivet-head (fig. 109). Both these processes are generallyperformed with the
aid of pneumatic power

Fig 108

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Fig 109

15.3. Forms and Proportions of Rivet-Heads

Fig 110
Fig. 110 shows some of the various forms of rivet-heads used for general
work.The proportions given are for rivets of nominal diameters between 12 mm
and 50 mm
The snap or cup head is the most common form in use. The countersunk head is
used when the surface of the plate is required to be free from projecting heads.
Conical and ellipsoid heads are generally used in boiler work.

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15.4. Failure of Riveted Joints

A riveted joint may fail in any one of the following ways (fig. 111):
i.

Tearing of the plate between the holes if they are very near each other
[fig. 111-5(i)].

ii.

Tearing of the plate between the edges of the plateandthe rivet-hole, if

the hole is too near the edge [fig.111 (ii)].

iii.

Shearing

of

the

rivet

if

the

diameter

of

the

rivet

issmallerthannecessary[fig. . 111(iii)].
iv.

Crushing of the plate or the rivet [fig. . 111 (iv)].

Fig 111

15.5. Dimensions of a Riveted Joint

To prevent failure, the joint should be carefullydesigned.Forelementary
work,suitablevaluesof the rivet diameter, positions ofholes etc.fora given
thicknessof the plates, may be obtained by using the following empirical
formulae:
i. d=6 f
ii. p = d
iii. m = d
Where
t=thickness of plates in mm
d = diameter of rivets
p = pitch, i.e. the distance between centres of adjoining rivets in the same
row (parallel to the edge of the plate)
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m = margin, i.e. the distance between an edgeof the plate and thenearest
rivet-hole.
Asm = d, the distance of the centre line of the nearest row of rivets from the
edge of the plate is equal to 1.5 d.
Approximate values of d (diameter of rivet) for different values of t (thickness of
plates) are given in table 1.
TABLE 1
Thickness of
8
plate, 1mm of
plate, t mm

Diameter of
Rivet , d mm

18

17

10

19

11

12

14

20

21

22

16
24

18

20

22

25

26

27

28

30

15.6. Types of Riveted Joints

There are two types of riveted joints:
1) Lap joint
2) Butt joint.
Each of the above riveted joints will now briefly described. 25-6-1.

15.6.1.

Lap Joint
In a lap joint, the plates to be connected overlap each other. When the joint is
made with only one row of rivets, it is called a single-riveted lap joint.
Fig. 112 shows the sectional front view and top view of a single-riveted lap joint
along with its pictorial view. The width: overlap L isequal to 3d.
A joint is said to be double-riveted, triple riveted etc. according to the number of
rows of rivets init.
When two or more rows of rivets an required, rivets may be arranged in one: the
following formations:

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1) Chainformation
2) Zigzag formation.
In chain arrangement shown in the double- riveted lap joint in fig. 112, rivets in
adjoining rows are placed directly oppose each other.

Fig 112
In zigzag formation they are staggered as shown infig.113.Thedistance between
the rows of rivets, called the rowpitch p should not be less than 0.6p for zigzag
riveting, and 0.8p for chain riveting.
In terms of d, the approximate values ;rpr are 2d and 2d + 6 mm respectively, la
zigzag arrangement, the distance between centre of a rivet in one row and the
center of the nearest rivet in the adjoining row, is called the diagonal pitch.

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This pitch is also often considered instead of the row pitch and its value is
obtained by the formula:

Fig 113

15.6.2.

Butt Joint
In a butt joint, edges of the plates to be connected butt against each other and
the joint between them is covered by butt-plates or butt-straps (also called
cover- plates or cover-straps) on one or both sides. At least two rows of rivets,
one in each connected plate, are necessary to make the joint.

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Thickness of butt-strap:
When only one strap is used, thickness t-( = f to 1.1251; when two straps are
used,thickness f2 = 0-7f to 0.8f,where f is the thickness of the plates to be
connected.

Fig 114

Fig 115

Fig. 114 shows two views of a single-riveted butt joint with one cover-strap.
The same joint with two straps is shown in fig. 114.
A double-riveted butt joint with double straps is shown in pictorial view in fig.
115. Note that there are two rows of rivets in each of the main plates, and that
the rivets are arranged in zigzag formation.
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Fig 116
Two rings of a steam-boiler shell are connected as shown in fig. 117. The
circumferential joint is a double-riveted lap joint. A triple-riveted or trebleriveted butt joint with two cover-straps is used for the longitudinal joint.

Fig 117
16.

(Rolled-Steel Sections (Fig. 167)

These are largely used in steel structures. The common shapes are: (i) angle, (ii)
tee, (iii) channel and (iv) FI or hoist.

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Fig 118

17.

Couplings
A coupling is a device used to connect two misaligned shafts together at their
ends for the purpose of transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow
disconnection of

shafts during operation, however

there

are torque

limiting couplings which can slip or is connect when some torque limit is
exceeded.The primary purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating
equipment while permitting some degree of misalignment or end movement or
both. By careful selection, installation and maintenance of couplings, substantial
savings can be made in reduced maintenance costs and downtime.
Shaft couplings are used in machinery for several purposes. Shafts are available
up to maximum of 7 meters length due to transportation difficulty.To get a
greater length, it is necessary to join two or more pieces of shaft using coupling.
Couplings are used to,
To provide connection of shafts that are manufactured separately such as a
motor and generator.
To provide for misalignment of the shafts or to introduce mechanical
flexibility.
To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.
To introduce protection against overloads.
To alter the vibration characteristics of rotating units.
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To connect driving and the driven part

To use in machines and motors
Fig 168 shows the parts of couplings and the position of shafts to be coupled.

Fig 118

17.1. Types of Couplings

17.1.1.

Safe or Slip-type Coupling

A safety coupling is self-disengaging when the torque is higher than the friction
generated by the spring and jaw.
The parts and positions of a safety coupling are shown in Fig 119.

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Fig 119
Figs 120 and 121 illustrate the engaged and disengaged positions.

Fig 120

Fig 121

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17.1.2.

Plate Coupling
When shaft ends can be brought into perfect alignment, such shafts can be
coupled together by means of a plate coupling. (Fig 122)

Fig 122
The shaft cannot be shifted in the axial direction.
The shafts are secure with keys between the shafts and hubs.

17.1.3.

Clamp coupling
This coupling is built up of two parts which are placed over the connecting ends
of the shafts.
The clamp coupling joins two shafts when they are in alignment, and this
coupling does not permit any axial movement of the shafts. Figs 123 and 124
show the assembled and dismantled condition of a clamp coupled joint. This is
used on line shafts in textile mills. Torque is generally transmitted by friction.
Sometimes a key is used for more power requirements.

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Fig 123

Fig 124

17.1.4.

Flange Coupling

Fig 125
This coupling is having two separate cast iron flanges. Each flange is mounted on
the different shaft end and keyed to it. The two flanges are coupled together by
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help of bolts and nuts. The projected portion of one of the flange and
corresponding recess on the other flange are help to bring the shaft into line and
to maintain alignment. A flange is provided with a shoulder which shelters the
bolts heads and nuts is called protected type flange coupling. These couplings
provide safety like preventing catching clothes of workman. This Flange coupling
is most accurate and rigid. This provides the strong connection between two
shafts. It is used for heavy power transmission at low speed.

Fig 126
Protected Flange Coupling

Fig 127Internal Constructional Dimensions of a Protected Flange Coupling

17.1.5.

Oldham Coupling
An Oldham coupling has three discs, one coupled to the input, one coupled to
the output, and a middle disc that is joined to the first two by tongue and
groove. The tongue and groove on one side is perpendicular to the tongue and

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groove on the other. The middle disc rotates around its center at the same
speed as the input and output shafts. Its center traces a circular orbit, twice per
rotation,

around

the

midpoint

between

input

and

output

shafts.

Often springs are used to reduce backlash of the mechanism. An advantage to

this type of coupling, as compared to two universal joints, is its compact size.
The coupler is named for John Oldham who invented it in Ireland, in 1821, to
solve a paddle placement problem in a paddle steamerdesign.

Fig 128

Fig 129Placement of Driving lugs of Floating Member

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Fig 130Internal Design of Oldham Coupling

Fig 131 Dimensional construction of Oldham coupling

17.1.6.

Universal Coupling
A universaljoint, universal coupling, Hooke's joint is a joint or coupling in a rigid
rod that allows the rod to 'bend' in any direction, and is commonly used in shafts
that transmit rotary motion. It consists of a pair of hinges located close together,
oriented at 90 to each other, connected by a cross shaft. This connects shafts
that are at different planes but at slow speeds.

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Fig. 132

Fig. 133 Universal Coupling

17.1.7.

Types of Universal Coupling

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Fig. 134

Dimensional details of Universal Coupling

Fig 135

18.

Clutches
Power transmission is the main function of clutch. The purpose of the clutch is to
connect or disconnect the various mechanisms to the power source. Various
types of clutches are incorporated in machine tools.

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18.1. Typesof Clutches

18.1.1.

Dog clutch

Cone clutch

Multi-plate clutch

Electromagnetic multiple disc clutch.

Overriding clutch

Air clutch

Centrifugal clutch

Single plate clutch

Dog clutch (Fig 136)

Fig 136
The dog clutch provides a positive drive but can only be engaged when two
elements of the clutch are stationary are being gently mood by hand.

18.1.2.

Cone clutch (Fig 137)

Fig 137

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The cone clutch can be engaged progressively whilst one or both of the elements
are rotating. It can transmit low power.

18.1.3.

Multi-plate clutch (Fig 138)

Fig 138
The multi-plate clutch is widely used in machine tools to connect the
transmission gearbox to the driving motor. It is compact, smooth in operation
and very powerful. A brake is frequently built into the clutch so that the
transmission gearbox is rapidly brought to rest when the clutch is disengaged.

18.1.4.

Electromagnetic multiple disc clutch (Fig 139)

Fig 139
This clutch joins the shaft and the gear. It can be operated through a cable from
a distance. If direct current is applied, it builds a magnetic field on a magnetic
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coil. It flows through the discs and firmly pulls and attracts the armature disc.
The armature clamps the plates together so that they transmit the drive.

18.1.5.

Air clutch (Fig 140)

Fig 140

An air clutch requires no mechanical adjustment since the moving parts

automatically take up any wear on the friction surface. Air pressure must be
maintained continuously while the clutch is engaged.

18.1.6.

Centrifugal clutch (Fig 141)

Fig 141
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When the inner piece has achieved a sufficiently high speed, the centrifugal
weights swivel towards the outside, press the jaws on the outer piece with the
friction lining and the clutch is closed. When the speed is reduced, the clutch
opens by itself. Eg.Moped.

18.1.7.

Overriding clutch (Fig 142)

Fig 142
When the inner piece has to be faster, the overriding clutch transfers the turning
moment by the climbing of balls or the cylindrical rollers. It opens in the
opposite case.

18.1.8.

Single plate clutch (Fig 143)

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Fig 143
This is used in automobile vehicles. The rubbing surface is covered with friction
lining of asbestos/plastic/cottonwith steel wires. The contact force is produced
by springs which effect the continuous closing of the clutch. The pedal force acts
against the spring force and opens the clutch.
Couplingare not shiftable but clutches are shiftable during work and this is the
difference between couplings and clutches.

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Understanding Engineering Drawing & Instructions

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Contents
1. Introduction to engineering drawing and instructions....207

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Understanding Engineering Drawing& Instructions

1.
1.1

Introduction to Engineering drawing and instructions

Reading of Engineering Drawing
The heading blue print reading: is nothing but reading of engineering drawing.
In order to manufacture an engineering component, the shape ofthe component
must be understood in unmistakable terms and those who are associated with
the manufacture must be able to visualise the component from its multiviewdrawing.
Multi-view drawing has no 3D effectand do not convey the shape of a
component in the first sight itself.
There is no one set of rules to read and visualise the shape of an object from the
given multi-view drawing. Visualisation is essentially the reverse ofthe mental
process that is gone through for obtaining the shape of the object.
In this reading of engineering drawing, different styles of exercises are given to
improve the visualization ability.
Sufficient "Reading of engineering drawing" exercises are given in both Ex.17 &
18.
Exercise 17 and 18 contain the following practice exercises.
Finding/Sketching the missing
lines
views
symbols
sections etc.
When it is difficult to form a mental image of the object from the available
views, onecan resortto modeling by means of isometric sketching. This can be
done in many ways.

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Example
Sketch/Draw the missing view of the block shown in Fig 1.

First sketch the isometric view of a rectangular block keeping in mind the overall
length, breadth and heightfrom the views. (Fig 2a)
Then draw its isometric view by cutting away the portions of the prism drawn as
required till we satisfy with the outcome. (Fig 2b & c)
Instead of cutting away, we can also form the object by adding or joining
portions together Fig 3a, b & c.
After sketching the final isometric view, missing view or line or anything can be
found out easily.

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Exercise 17.01 to 17.20

Study the drawings (17.01 to 17.20) carefully and answer the questions related
to the drawing in the space allotted for answer in the workbook -17.01 to 17.20)

Exercise 17.1
Stand assembly (Fig 1)

1. Name components of the stand assembly.

2. What is the P.C.D of the holes in the flange?
3. How many holes are there in the flange?
4. What is the diameter of the flange?
5. What type of welding is used in connecting the cover plate and the tube?
6. What is the length of the tube?

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Exercise 17.2 Simple bearing (Fig 2)

19.

1. What is the maximum value of the dimension for width?

2. How much the thickness of the web?
3. Explain the meaning of the dimension 30 H7/f6?
4. What is the type of fit obtained from the dimension 30 H7/f6?
5. Explain the meaning of the symbol 1.2/

Exercise 17.3 Neck bolt (Fig 3)

1. Calculate the distance 'B'.

2. How many necks are shown?
3. What does the symbol 1.6/indicate?
4. Is the thread pitch fine or coarse?
5. How many threads are there in 12 mm length?

Exercise 17.4

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C.I.Angle bracket (Fig 4)

1. For what purpose

the angle bracket is used.
2. How many holes are there in the bracket?
3. How many webs are there in the bracket?
4. What is the overall size of the bracket?
5. What is the material of this bracket?

Exercise 17.5 Bracket (Fig 5)

1. What is the value of dimension'N'?

2. What is the thickness of the surface marked as 'L'?
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3. How many threaded holes are there in the bracket?

4. What is the meaning of dimension 8H7/g6?
5. Mention the type of tolerance used in the dimension 125.

Exercise 17.6
C. I.Valve body (Fig 6)

1. What is the height of the valve body?

2. What do you mean by M 16 tapped hole?
3. What do you understand by M60 1.5 hole?
4. State the material of the component.
5. State the type of dimensioning adopted in the drawing.
6. What does the symbol indicate?

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Exercise 17.7
Rivetted joint (Fig 7)

1. What is the name of the joint?

2. What is the diameter of the rivet?
3. What is the thickness of cover plate?
4. What type of rivets is used in the joint?
5. What is the pitch of the rivets?

Exercise 17.8
Flange (Fig 8)

1. What is the thickness of the pipe?

2. What is the thickness and diameter of the flange?
3. What is the length of the pipe?
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4. What is the purpose of 75 x 6 mm circular gap in the flange?

5. What is the distance between the <j) 16 mm opposite holes?
6. What does the dotted circle in the side view represent?

Exercise 17.9
'V' Block (Fig 9)

1. What is the name of view' E?

2. What is the name of view' F?
3. What is the name of view'G'?
4. How wide is the 'V' at the top?
5. What is the purpose of broken line 'H'?
6. Give the dimensions of the following alphabets A,B,C&D.

Exercise 17.10

Top plate (Fig 10)

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1. What is the name of the part?

2. How many such parts are required?
3. What is the overall length of the part?
4. What is the overall height?
5. Give the thickness of the part?
6. What type of lines are those marked A,B,C,D ?

Exercise 17.11
Turned component (Fig 11)

1. Give dimensions A, Band C.

2. Give the overall size of this object.
3. Looking at the front view which end is square.
4. Istheleftendoftheobjectwiththe021 dimension round or square?

Exercise 17.12
Bearing (Fig 12)

1. How many webs are there in the bearing?

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2. What is the size of the bearing?

3. What is the length of 30 hole?
4. Which surface of the bearing required tolerance dimension?

Exercise 17.13
Wheel (Fig 13)

1. What is the outside diameter of the wheel?

2. What is the diameter of the hub?
3. What is the size of the keyway?
4. What does the sign VV mean?
5. How many drilled holes are there in the wheel?

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Exercise 17.14
Housing cover (Fig 14)

Study carefully the details of the housing cover in figure and answer the
following:
1. How many holes are to be drilled and what are their diameters?
2. What does means?
3. What do you understand by VVW?
4. Give the overall height of housing cover?
5. How many holes are to be tapped?
6. How many surfaces are to be machined?

Exercise 17.15
Idler pulley (Fig 15)
1. What is the name of the part?
2. What is the largest diameter?
3. What is the overall length?
4. What type of section is indicated?
5. Name four other types of section?
6. Give the diameter of the body of the pulley?
7. State the angle and depth of the 'V' groove.

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8. What is the size of the threaded hole?

9. Where this hole is located?

10.Give the dia of the hidden circle in the end view?
11.What is the width of the 'V' groove in the crest?
12.State the purpose of tapped hole.

Exercise 17.16
Adapter (Fig 16)
1. What is the name of the part?
2. What type of section is indicated?
3. Is the section is true projected or is it rotated?
4. What is the largest diameter?
5. What is the overall width of the part?
6. How far apart are the centres of the two smaller drilled holes?
7. What is the dia of the centre hole?
8. What is the dia of the body into which the centre hole is drilled?
9. What is the dia of the third largest circle?
10.What angle do the two drilled holes make with the centre hole of the
adapter?
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11.What is the least thickness of the part?

Exercise 17.17
Piston rod end (Fig 17)

1. What is the outside diameter of the piston?

2. What type of nut is used in the assembly?
3. What is the size of the recess in the piston?
4. How many slots are there and what is the size of the slot?
5. What is the size of the nut?

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Exercise 17.18
Flange (Fig 18)

1. What is the view shown on the left side of the drawing?

2. What is the width of the keyway?
3. What is the diameter of the hub?
4. What is the depth of the 140 bore?
5. What is the length of the hub?
6. What is the size of the drilled hole?

Exercise 17.19
Vee pulley (Fig 19)
1. What is the name of the part?
2. Where is it used?
3. What is the thickness of the pulley?
4. What is the size of the setscrew?
5. What is the angle of the groove?
6. What is the length of the pulley including the hub?
7. What is the depth of the V-groove?

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 219

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Exercise 17.20
Flat pulley (Fig 20)
1. Indicate the diameter of eachof the following circles A,B,C and D.
2. Why are H and T not sectioned?
3. How thick is the metal at 'G'?
4. How thick is the metal at K?

Exercise 17.21.01 to 17.21.48:

Choose the correct view48 questions are given below. Give your answer
(alphabet) in the response sheet attached in the work book -17.21.01 to
17.21.48.
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220 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 221

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222 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 223

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224 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 225

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226 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Exercise 17.22.01 to 17.22.12:

Front and top view of twelve blocks are given. Select and enter the alphabet of
side view concerning the front and top view in the work book - Ex.No.17.22.01
to 17.22.12.

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 227

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Exercise 17.22.13 to 17.22.20:

Front and top view of eight blocks are given. Select and enter the alphabet of
side view related to the front and top view in the work book -17.22.13 to
17.22.20.

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228 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Exercise 17.22.21 to 17.22.28:

Front and top view of eight blocks are given. Select and enter the alphabet of
side view related to the front and top view in the work book -17.22.21 to
17.22.28.

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 229

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Exercise 17.23.01 to 17.23.06:

Front and side view of cut blocks is given. Select and enter the alphabet of
suitable top view in the work book -17.28.01 to 17.23.06.

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230 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Exercise 17.23.07 to 17.23.18:

Front and side view of blocks are given. Select and enter the alphabet of suitable
top view in the work book -17.23.07 to 17.23.18.

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 231

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Exercise 17.24.01 to 17.24.08:

Top views and side views at the given for eightfront elevation. Match the top
views and side views with the given front views and label them in work book 17.24.01 to 17.24.08.

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232 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Exercise 17.24.09 to 17.24.16:

Top views and side views are given for eightfront elevation. Match the top views
and side views with the given front views and label them in the work book 17.24.09 to 17.24.16.

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 233

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Exercise 17.24.17 to 17.24.28:

Top views and side views are given for twelve front views. Match the top views
and side views with the given front views and answer them in work book 17.24.17 to
17.24.28.

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234 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Exercise 17.25.01 to 17.25.08:

Match front and top view and the side view with their oblique drawing. Give
your answer (Capital & small letters) in the response sheet of this exercise in the
work book.

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 235

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Exercise 18:
Draw front view, side view and plan of the solids shown

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236 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW

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Exercise 19:
Draw free hand pictorial views
Draw free hand orthographic views i). First angle projection ii).Third angle
projectionfront view, side view and plan of the solids shown

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Engineering Drawing - II | PW | 237

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238 | Engineering Drawing II | Sem - 2 | PW