GEOGRAPHIC

INFORMATION
DEVELOPMENTGUIDES

SYSTEM

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GeographicInformationSystemDevelopmentGuides
June1996
The State Archives, in cooperation with National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis,
produced this series of development guides to help officials in New York's local governments
develop and implement geographic information systems (participant information). This online
version is provided to facilitate access to the guides. It includes the complete text for each
document;however,somecomplexfiguresandchartsarenotavailableinthisversion.Ifyouhave
any questions or comments about this resource please contact the State Archives at
[email protected]

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TableOfContent

TableOfContent............................................................................................................................ii
Chapter1:Manager'sOverview.....................................................................................................1
1.INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................1
2.GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSYSTEMS:DEFINITIONSANDFEATURE............................................3
3.ENTERPRISEWIDEGIS:THECORPORATEDATABASE.....................................................................4
4.POLICYISSUESINGISDEVELOPMENT.............................................................................................5
5.MANAGEMENTISSUESINGISDEVELOPMENT...............................................................................7
6.GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSYSTEMS:THEDEVELOPMENTCYCLE.............................................9
7.TASKSFORGISDEVELOPMENTANDUSE......................................................................................10
8.SUMMARY.....................................................................................................................................13
9.REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................14
Chapter2:DatabaseConstruction.................................................................................................15
1.INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................15
2.INFORMATIONREQUIREDTOSUPPORTDATACONVERSIONPROCESS.......................................15
3.DATACONVERSIONTECHNOLOGIESAVAILABLE..........................................................................16
4.DATACONVERSIONCONTRACTORS.............................................................................................20
5.DATACONVERSIONPROCESSES....................................................................................................21
6.ATTRIBUTEDATAENTRY...............................................................................................................26
7.EXTERNALDIGITALDATA..............................................................................................................28
8.ACCURACYANDFINALACCEPTANCECRITERIA............................................................................29
Chapter3:NeedsAssessment.......................................................................................................32
1.INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................32
2.CONDUCTINGANEEDSASSESSMENT...........................................................................................33
3.LOCALGOVERNMENTUSESOFGIS...............................................................................................34
4.DATAUSEDBYLOCALGOVERNMENT...........................................................................................37
5.DOCUMENTINGGISNEEDS...........................................................................................................37
6.DOCUMENTINGANACTIVITYTYPEUSEOFTHEGIS....................................................................38
7.THEMASTERDATALIST................................................................................................................39

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8.CONDUCTINGINTERVIEWS...........................................................................................................40
9.PREPARINGTHENEEDSASSESSMENTREPORT.............................................................................41
10.SUMMARY...................................................................................................................................44
Chapter4:PilotStudiesandBenchmarkTests...............................................................................46
1.INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................46
2.PILOTSTUDY:PROVINGTHECONCEPT.........................................................................................46
3.EXECUTINGTHEPILOTSTUDY.......................................................................................................50
4.EVALUATINGTHEPILOTSTUDY....................................................................................................52
5.BENCHMARKTESTS:COMPETITIVEEVALUATION.........................................................................55
Chapter5:ConceptualDesignoftheGIS.......................................................................................60
1.INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................60
2.NATUREOFGEOGRAPHICDATA...................................................................................................61
3.ENTITYRELATIONSHIP(ER)DATAMODELING.............................................................................62
4.GEOGRAPHICDATAMODELS........................................................................................................65
5.METHODOLOGYFORMODELING..................................................................................................66
6.DEVELOPINGASPATIALDATAMODEL(ENTITYRELATIONSHIPDIAGRAM).................................68
7.SUMMARYOFCONCEPTUALDATAMODELING............................................................................68
8.SPATIALDATASTANDARDSANDMETADATAREQUIREMENTS....................................................69
AppendixA........................................................................................................................................74
Chapter6:AcquisitionofHardware&Software............................................................................77
1.INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................77
2.GISHARDWAREANDSOFTWAREACQUISITION...........................................................................77
3.STEPSINTHEGISACQUISITIONPROCESS.....................................................................................78
4.EVALUATIONOFPROPOSALS........................................................................................................79
5.GISDELIVERYANDINSTALLATIONPLAN.......................................................................................81
6.SAMPLEHARDWARESPECIFICATIONS..........................................................................................81
7.NETWORKANDCOMMUNICATIONSSPECIFICATIONS.................................................................84
8.SOFTWARESPECIFICATIONS.........................................................................................................85
9.GISDATABASESTRUCTURE...........................................................................................................87
10.SUMMARY...................................................................................................................................88
Chapter7:SurveyofAvailableData..............................................................................................89
1.INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................89
2.DATAREQUIRED............................................................................................................................89

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3.POTENTIALSOURCESOFDATA.....................................................................................................90
4.DESCRIBINGANDEVALUATINGPOTENTIALDATA........................................................................97
Chapter8:GISSystemIntegration...............................................................................................101
1.INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................101
2.GISSYSTEMCOMPONENTS.........................................................................................................101
3.SYSTEMTESTING.........................................................................................................................102
4.USERTRAINING...........................................................................................................................103
Chapter9:EvaluatingGISHardwareandSoftware......................................................................104
1.INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................104
2.SOURCESOFINFORMATIONABOUTGIS....................................................................................104
3.SELECTIONPROCESS...................................................................................................................107
Chapter10:GISApplicationDevelopment.....................................................................................112
1.INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................112
2.WHYAPPLICATIONSARENEEDED...............................................................................................112
3.CATEGORIESOFAPPLICATIONS..................................................................................................112
4.DATABASEAPPLICATIONS...........................................................................................................113
Chapter11:DatabasePlanningandDesign.................................................................................114
1.INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................114
2.SELECTINGSOURCESFORTHEGISDATABASE............................................................................115
3.THELOGICAL/PHYSICALDESIGNOFTHEGISDATABASE............................................................120
4.PROCEDURESFORBUILDINGTHEGISDATABASE.......................................................................120
5.PROCEDURESFORMANAGINGANDMAINTAININGTHEDATABASE.........................................122
6.GISDATASHARINGCOOPERATIVES............................................................................................122
Chapter12:GISUseandMaintenance........................................................................................124
1.INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................124
2.USERSUPPORTANDSERVICE.....................................................................................................124
3.DATAMAINTENANCEPROCEDURES...........................................................................................125
Glossary......................................................................................................................................129

Chapter1:Manager'sOverview

1.INTRODUCTION
This guide is the first of a set of technical support documents to assist local governments in
developing a GIS. The set of guides describes procedures and methods for planning the GIS,
evaluating potential data sources, testing available hardware and software and planning for its
acquisition,buildingtheGISdatabase,developingGISapplications,andplanningforthelongterm
maintenanceoftheGISsystemanddatabase.Theseguidesareintendedtoprovideadviceonhow
best to accomplish the GIS development tasks for all levels of local government from
large,urbanizedcountiestosmallruraltownstospecialpurposedistricts.
Realistically,largecomprehensiveGISswillbedevelopedbythelargerunitsofgovernment(counties
andcities)individuallyor,mostlikelyastheleaderinacooperativemultiparticipanteffort.These
wouldinvolvetheindividualoperatingunitswithinthatgovernmentand/orthesmallerunitsoflocal
governmentwithinthecommonlandareaofthelargerleadingunit.Typically,wewouldexpectto
see county government taking the lead, but also covering the interest of all other governmental
units within the county. Occasionally, there will be situations where smaller units of government
(town, special purpose district, or limited purpose GIS application) may have to "goitalone" in
developingtheGIS.Theseguidelineshavebeenwrittentomainlyaddressthefirstcaseacounty
leadingaconsortiumorcooperativeeffort.Thus,wewouldexpecttheGISdevelopmentteamofa
county to be the primary user of these guidelines, in the sense of actually performing the tasks
outlined in each document. However, this does not mean the other participants in a GIS should
stopreadingtheseguidelinesatthispoint.Itiscriticallyimportantforallexpectedparticipantsin
a cooperative GIS venture to fully understand the development process. If a smaller unit of
government is to reap the benefits of a countylevel GIS, they must actively participate in the
planninganddevelopmenteffort.
TheproceduresareapplicableforuseinfirsttimecreationofaGIS,forrestructuringanongoingGIS
development project, and for the review and further development of an existing GIS. The subject
matter of the guides identifies the necessary tasks in a GIS development program, describes
appropriate methods to accomplish each task and, where applicable, provides examples and
illustrationsofdocumentsorotherproductsthatresultfromeachtask.
The guidelines are designed for use by generalpurpose local governments (city, county, town, or
village), special purpose governments (utilities, school districts, etc.), and by those who provide
assistancetolocalgovernments(consultants,academicunits,etc.).Theguidesaddressthetechnical
stepsrequiredtocreateaGIS,themanagementtasksrequiredtoensuresuccessfuldevelopmentof
theGIS,andthepolicyissuesthatshouldbeconsideredfortheeffectiveuseoftheGIS.

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TheRoleOfManagement
AlthoughGISisoftenviewedasanarenaforthetechnicallysophisticatedcomputerprofessional,the
development of a successful governmentbased multiparticipant GIS is very dependent on proper
management participation and supervision. Normal, commonsense management practices are as
necessaryinaGISprojectasinanyothermajorundertaking.Infact,ourexperiencehasshownthat
the recommended management actions may be the most critical aspect of the GIS development
process. GIS development is a process of technological innovation and requires management
attention appropriate to this type of activity active as opposed to passive management
involvement in the project. Historically, much of the disillusions and disappointment with GIS
projectsstemsnotfromafailureofthetechnicalcomponentsoftheGISbutratherfromalackof
understanding of the process of technology innovation and the lack of realistic expectations of all
parties associated with the project (GIS technicians, potential users, managers, and
elected/appointedofficials).

Applying the GIS Development Guides by Local Governments in New York

State
The overall procedure contained in the GIS Development Guides is very comprehensive and can
requireconsiderabletime,effortanddollarstocomplete.Thisraisesthequestions:

Doesallofthishavetobedone?
Whatlevelofdetailisappropriate?
How can smaller governments,villages and towns, special purpose districts, or a single
departmentinalargerjurisdiction,getthroughthisprocess?

Doeseverythinghavetobedone?..levelofdetail?
Basically,yes.However,thestepsintheGISdevelopmentprocessarefrequentlydoneinaniterative
manner over an extended time period. Also, the steps are not completely independent of one
anotherandsosomebackandforthdoeshappen.Itisoftenusefultomakea"firstcut"runthrough
the entire process, writing down what is already known and identifying the major questions that
needtobeanswered.Thepersonwhowillbemanagingthedevelopmentprocessmaybeabletodo
this"firstcut"descriptionin1to2days.Thiscanbeveryhelpfulingettingafeelforthescopeofthe
whole process and then can be used as a decision tool for continuing. The number of times the
processisconducted,theamountofdetail,andtheresourcesneededtocompletethestudycanbe
balancedinthisway.Iftheintendedimplementationwillbelimitedorsmall,theplanningeffortand
documents can be sized accordingly. It is important, however, that each step be considered and
completedatsomelevel.
Howcansmallerunitsoflocalgovernment,suchasvillagesandsmalltownscompleteaGISPlan?
Thebestsituationforavillage,smalltown,orevenasmaller,ruralcountyistobeapartnerwitha
larger unit of government, a county, regional agency or utility company that is conducting and/or
leadingaGISplanningexercise.ParticipatinginaregionalGIScooperative,orjoininganexistingone,
will provide access to GIS technical expertise and spatial data created by other agencies.
Additionally,ifoneisapartnerinalargergroup,theactivitiesdirectedtowardtheevaluationand

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selectionoftheGIShardwareandsoftwaremaynotneedtobecompleted.Onewouldsimplyuse
the same GIS system in use by the larger agency or group. Only the activities aimed at defining
applications (uses) and identifying the needed data would need to be done by the smaller unit of
government.Insuchasituation,thelargerunitofgovernmentassumestheleadershiproleforthe
areawideGISandshouldhavethetechnicalexpertisetoassistthesmallerunit.Insituationswhere
alargereffortdoesnotexist,avillageortowngovernmentmaywanttolookataGISinstallationina
similarvillageortownelsewhereinthestate.Giventhesimilaritiesinlocalgovernmentswithinthe
state,theadoptionoftheGISplanofanotherunitisnotunreasonable.Thatplanshouldbecarefully
reviewed by the intended participants in the GIS to ensure applicability. After modifying and
validating the plan, a schedule for GIS hardware, software and data acquisition can be prepared
consistent with available resources. If a good plan is prepared, there is no reason data acquisition
(the most expensive part of a GIS) cannot be stretched over a long time period. Significant data
already is available from state and federal agencies at reasonable costs. These data can form the
initialGISdatabase,withlocallygenerateddataaddedlater.Alistofstateandfederaldatasources
iscontainedintheSurveyofAvailableDataGuide.

ContentOfThisGuide
This guide presents an overview of the GIS development process. This process is presented as a
sequence of steps conducted in a specific order. Each step is important in itself, but more
importantly,informationneededtocompletesubsequentstepsisassembledandorganizedineach
previousstep.Theunderlyingphilosophyoftheentireseriesofdocumentsistoconcentrateonthe
GISdata.AswellasbeingthemostexpensivepartofanyGIS,thedatamustbecollected,stored,
maintained, and archived under an integrated set of activities in order to ensure continued
availabilityandutilitytotheinitialusersaswellasfutureusers,includingthegeneralpublic.Defining
and documenting data elements from their initial definition in the needs assessment through to
properarchivingoftheGISdatabaseaccordingtostaterequirementsistheconstantthemeofthese
guidelines.

2.GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSYSTEMS:DEFINITIONSANDFEATURE
BasicDefinitionOfAGeographicInformationSystem(GIS)
Ageographicinformationsystem(GIS)maybedefinedas"...acomputerbasedinformationsystem
which attempts to capture, store, manipulate, analyze and display spatially referenced and
associated tabular attribute data, for solving complex research, planning and management
problems"(Fischer and Nijkamp, 1992). GISs have taken advantage of rapid developments in
microprocessortechnologyoverthepastseveraldecadestoaddressthespecialchallengesofstoring
and analyzing spatial data. Geographers have referred to GISs as simultaneously providing "...the
telescope, the microscope, the computer and the Xerox machine" for geographic and regional
analysis(Abler,1987).

UniqueFeaturesOfAGISWhyPlanningProcessIsNeeded
GIS belongs to the class of computer systems that require the building of large databases before
theybecomeuseful.Unlikemanymicrocomputerapplicationswhereausercanbeginuseafterthe

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purchaseofthehardwareandsoftware,theuseofaGISrequiresthatlargespatialdatabasesbe
created, appropriate hardware and software be purchased, applications be developed, and all
componentsbeinstalled,integratedandtestedbeforeuserscanbegintousetheGIS.Thesetasks
arelargeandcomplex,solargeinfact,astorequiresubstantialplanningbeforeanydata,hardware
or software is acquired. The focus of the GIS Development Guides is to describe the GIS planning
processandtoprovideexamplesofhowtoaccomplishtherecommendedplanningtasks.

HistoryOfTechnologyInnovationsGISIsATechnologyInnovation
ItisusefultonotethatGISis,atpresent,atechnologicalinnovation.Theadoptionoftechnological
innovations(i.e.,thedevelopmentofaGISforalocalgovernment)isnotalwaysastraightforward
process, such as one might expect with the installation of something that is not new. Several
problemsarelikelytooccursuchas:

Staffnotfullyunderstandingthetechnologypriortoextensivetraining
Developmenttimeestimatesdifferingfromactualtasktimes
Greateruncertaintyaboutcosts
Agreaterlikelihoodthatprogrammaticchangeswillbeneededduringthedevelopment
phases,etc.

Thesignificantmanagementpointhereisthatthesearenormalconditions
intheadoptionofanewtechnology.Managementneedstoanticipatethat
sucheventswillhappen,andwhentheydo,takeappropriatemanagement
actions.
TheadoptionofcomputertechnologybyanorganizationeitherGISorotherapplications,introduces
fundamental change into the organization in its thinking about data. Prior information technology
alloweddatatobecollectedandrelatedtoactivitiesandprojectsindividually.Organizedstoresof
data were the exception rather than common practice. This led to duplicate data collection and
storage(asindifferentdepartments)andtothepossibilityoferroneousdataexistinginoneormore
locations. One of the goals of computer systems and database development is to eliminate
redundantdatacollectionandstorage.Theprincipleisthatdatashouldbecollectedonlyonceand
thenaccessedbyallwhoneedit.Thisnotonlyreducesredundancy;italsoallowsformoreaccurate
data and a greater understanding of how the same data is used by multiple departments. The
necessary condition for successful computer system and database development is for different
departmentsandagenciestocooperateinthedevelopmentofthesystem.Adatabasebecomesan
organizationwideresourceandiscreatedandmanagedaccordingtoasetofdatabaseprinciples.

3.ENTERPRISEWIDEGIS:THECORPORATEDATABASE
TheroleofaGISinalocalgovernmentsettingismorethansimplyautomatingafewobvioustasks
forthesakeofefficiency.Alocalgovernment(orseveralcooperatinggovernments)shouldviewthe
GIS project as an opportunity to introduce fundamental change into the way its business is
conducted.Aswiththeadoptionofmanagementandexecutiveinformationsystemsinthebusiness
world, the adoption of GIS effectively reorganizes the data and information the government

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collects,maintains and uses to conduct its affairs. This can, and arguably should, lead to major
changesintheinstitution,toimprovebotheffectivenessandefficiencyofoperations.
A key factor in the success of computer system adoption in the business world is the concept of
the"enterprise" or "corporate" database. As implied by the name, the corporate database is a
single,organizationwidedataresource.Theadvantagesofthecorporatedatabasearefirst,thatall
usershaveimmediateandeasyaccesstouptodateinformationand,secondlythattheconstruction
of the database is done in the most efficient manner possible. Typically, the corporate database
eliminatesredundantcollectionandstorageofinformationandthekeepingofextracopiesofdata
and extra reference lists by individual users. Here, we are recommending the use of corporate
database concept to integrate GIS data for all units of local government participating in a
cooperativeGISprogram.
An effective corporate database does require cooperation on the part of all users, both for the
collectionandentryofdatainthedatabaseandindevelopingapplicationsinashareddatacontext.
This may result in some individual applications or uses being less efficient, however the overall
benefits to the organization can easily outweigh these inefficiencies. Greater emphasis
must,however,beplacedonmaintainingahighqualityofdataandservicestousers,mainlytooffset
the perceived loss of control that accompanies sharing an individual's data to another part of the
organization.
Thecorporatedatabaseconceptcanbeusedinthegovernmentalsituation,foreithersingleunitsof
governmentorbetweenseveralgovernmentalentitiesinthesameregion.Thebenefitsassociated
with the corporate database can be achieved if governmental units are willing to cooperate and
share a multipurpose regional GIS database. Such an arrangement has some technical
requirements; however, establishing the corporate database is much more a question of policy,
managementcooperationandcoordination.

4.POLICYISSUESINGISDEVELOPMENT
ThereareseveralpolicyissuesthatneedtobeaddressedearlyintheGISplanningprocess:

GISProjectManagement
Adequate management attention has already been mentioned in this document. As GIS is still an
evolving new technology, the individuals involved (management, users, GIS staff) may have very
different expectations for the project, some based on general perceptions of computing, which
mayor may not be correct. This, along with the long time period for developing the GIS, makes it
veryimportantforsubstantialinvolvementofmanagementintheproject.Severalfactorsassociated
withsuccessfulGISprojectsare:

EmphasizeadvantagesofGIStoindividualusersandentireorganization
Requirehighlevelofcompetencybyallparticipants
Ensure high level of management commitment from all management levels in the
organization

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Require participation in team building and team participation within & between
departments
Ensureminimumdataqualityandaccessforallusers
Requiredevelopmentteamtosetrealisticexpectations
Minimizetimebetweenuserneedsassessmentandavailabilityofusefulproducts.
Developpositiveattitudetowardchangewithinorganization
Ensureleveloftechnologyisappropriateforintendeduses
HighlyvisiblePilotProjectthatissuccessful

DataSharing
Thesharingofdataamonggovernmentagenciesisavirtualnecessityforasuccessful,longterm
GIS. Not even the most affluent jurisdictions will be able to justify "goingtheirownway" and not
takingadvantageofwhatdataareavailablefromothersourcesornotsharingtheirdatabasewith
other governmental units. This, then, raises several questions that must be considered during the
planningoftheGIS:

Whatwillbethesourceforeachdataitem?
Howwillsharingbearranged?..purchase?..license?..otheragreement?
Whowillownthedata?
HowwillnewGISdatabeintegratedwithexistingdatafiles(legacysystems)?
Whowillberesponsibleforupdatestothedata?
Howwillthecostofthedata(creationandmaintenance)beallocated?
Whowillprovidepublicaccesstothedata?
Whowillberesponsiblefordataarchivingandretention?..oftheoriginal?..ofcopies?

These questions do not, at this time, have good answers. Currently, the Freedom of Information
regulationsrequirethatallgovernmentdatabemadeavailabletothepublicatminimalcost(costof
making a copy of the data). No distinction is made on the basis of the format of the data (eye
readableordigital),theamountofdata,ortheintendeduseofdata.Thus,thequestionofsharing
thecostofaGISdatabasecannotbeaddressedingeneral.Ifdatacanbeobtainedfreefromanother
agency,whyenterintoanagreementtopayforit?Theansweris,ofcourse,thatthecreatingagency
willnotbeabletosustaintheGISdatabaseunderthesecircumstances.However,atthistime,the
setofstatelawsandregulationsapplicabletoGISdataarenotadequatetoresolvecostissuesand
to facilitate regional data sharing cooperatives. New legislation will be required. The New York
State Temporary GIS Council did submit recommendations on these issues to the Legislature in
March1996.Additionally,theNewYorkStateArchivesiscurrentlyintheprocessofpreparingrecord
management and retention schedules suitable for GIS data, both in individual agencies and for
shareddatabases.TheNewYorkStateOfficeofRealPropertyServiceshasbeendesignatedasthe
GISrepresentativeontheGovernor'sTaskForceforInformationResourceManagement.Oneofthe
chargesthathasbeengiventotheTaskForceistodesignacohesivepolicyforthecoordinationof
geographicinformationsystemswithinNewYorkbuildingontheworkoftheTemporaryGISCouncil.
Further information should be available in late1996 that should clarify the issues associated with
arrangingfordatasharingamonggovernments.

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5.MANAGEMENTISSUESINGISDEVELOPMENT
ExpectedBenefitsFromTheGIS
Localgovernmentneedfor,anduseof,aGISfallsintoseveralcategories:maintainingpublicrecords,
respondingtopublicinquiriesforinformation,conductingstudiesandmakingrecommendationsto
elected officials (decisionmakers), and managing public facilities and services(utilities, garbage
removal,transportation,etc.).TheGIStasksthatmeettheseusesare:

Providingregularmaps
Conductingspatialqueriesanddisplayingtheresults
Conductingcomplexspatialanalyses

Manyofthesetasksarealreadydonebylocalgovernment,althoughbymanualmeans.TheGISis
abletoperformthesetasksmuchmoreefficiently.Someoftheanalyticaltaskscannotbeperformed
without a computer due to their size and complexity. In these cases, the GIS improves local
governmenteffectivenessbyprovidingbetterinformationtoplannersanddecisionmakers.
Benefits from using a GIS fall into the two categories of: efficiency and effectiveness. Existing
manualtasksdonemoreefficientlybytheGISresultinasubstantialsavingsofstafftime.Inthelocal
government context, the largest savings come from answering citizen inquiries of many types.
Dependingonthesizeofthegovernment,savingsusingthequeryfunctionofaGIScanrangefrom2
personyearsforasmallertown,to58personyearsforalargetown,to10ormorepersonyearsfor
alargecounty.Estimatesofpotentialtimesavingscanbederivedbymeasuringthetimetorespond
toaquerymanuallyandbyGISandmultiplyingthedifferencebythenumberofexpectedqueries.
ThisinformationisusuallygatheredduringtheNeedsAssessment.Effectivenessbenefitsaremore
difficulttoestimate.TheGISmaybeusedtoaccomplishseveraltasksthatwerenotpreviouslydone
duetotheirsizeandcomplexity(e.g.,flowanalysisinwaterandsewersystems,trafficanalysis,etc.).
Astheseareessentiallynewtasks,acomparisonbetweenmanualandGISmethodsisnotpossible.
While not measurable, the benefits from these applications can be substantial. Generally
categorizedasbetterplanning,betterormoreeffectivedecisionmaking,theseapplicationssupport
moreeffectiveinvestmentofgovernmentresourcesinphysicalinfrastructurewhererelativelysmall
performanceimprovementscantranslateintolargedollarsavings.GISalsoprovidesaneffectiveway
tocommunicatetheproblemandsolutiontothegeneralpublicandotherinterestedparties.

ResourcesRequiredToDevelopAGIS
Developing a GIS involves investment in five areas: computer hardware, computer
software,geographicdata,proceduresandtrainedstaff.Theacquisitionofthecomputerhardware
andsoftwareareoftenincorrectlyviewedasthemostexpensiveactivityinaGISprogram.Research,
some conducted at the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis at SUNYBuffalo,
hasdemonstratedthatdevelopingthegeographicdatabase(whichincludessomeoftheprocedure
and staff costs) can account for 60% to 80% of the GIS development costs. Continuing costs for
operation and maintenance are also dominated by the data costs. Coordination of GIS programs,
particularly among several local government agencies, can minimize the cost of database
construction and maintenance, and can provide for the greatest use of the database, which gives
maximumbenefitsfromtheinvestment.

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StaffingRequirementsForAGIS
Staffing for a GIS is a critical issue. In general, it is not easily feasible to directly expand the local
governmentstaffpositionstofilltheGISneed.Therearethreeareaswhereexpertiseisneeded:

ManagementoftheGISproject(GISprojectmanager)
GISdatabaseskills(usuallycalledadatabaseadministrator)
Applicationdevelopmentfordatabaseandusers(aGISsoftwareanalyst)

Initial creation of the GIS database (digitizing) will require an appropriately sized clerical staff,
dependentontheamountofdatatobeconverted.Alternativestostaffexpansionareconsultants
and data conversion firms. GIS database conversion is a frontend staff need that can easily be
contractedout (good quality specifications need to be written for this task). If at all possible, the
three functions of GIS manager, GIS software analyst and GIS database administrator should be
fulfilledbystaffpersonnel,eitherbyhiringorbyretrainingexistingprofessionals.Whennecessary,
duringthestartupphasesofGISdevelopment,theGISanalystanddatabaseadministratorfunctions
can be done under consultancy arrangements, PROVIDED THAT A FULLTIME GIS MANAGER IS
AVAILABLEONSTAFF.
The second need is for training of users in general computing, database principles, and GIS use.
ThesetopicsarecoveredintrainingcoursesofferedbymostGISvendors,andaftertheGISsoftware
hasbeenselected,theyarethebestsourceforusertraining.

ManagementDecisionPointsintheGISDevelopmentProgram
The "decision" to develop a GIS is made incrementally. The information needed to determine the
feasibilityanddesirabilityofdevelopingaGISisnotavailableuntilseveraloftheplanningstepshave
beencompleted.Thekeydecisionpointsare:

DecisiontoinvestigateGISfortheorganizationtheinitialdecisiontobegintheprocess.
ThisisaninitialfeasibilitydecisionandisbasedonthelikelihoodthataGISwillbeuseful
andeffective.Itisfairlyimportanttoidentifythemajorparticipantsatthispointboth
departments within agencies and the group of agencies, particularly key agencies, the
agencieswhorepresentamajorityoftheusesandwhowillcontributemostofthedata.
Decisiontoproceedwithdetailedplanninganddesignofthedatabaseatthistime,the
applications, data required, and sources of the data have been identified. Applications
canbeprioritizedandscheduledandthebenefitsstreamdetermined.Also,applications
tobetestedduringthepilotstudyandthespecificquestionstobeansweredbythepilot
study will have been determined. A preliminary decision will need to be made as to
whichGISsoftwarewillbeusedtoconductthepilotstudy.
Decision to acquire the GIS hardware and software this decision follows the
preparation of the detailed database plan, the pilot study and, if conducted, the
benchmarktest.Thisisthefirstpointinthedevelopmentprocesswherethecostsofthe
GIS can reasonably be estimated, the schedule for data conversion developed, and
targetsforuserstobeginusedetermined.

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6.GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSYSTEMS:THEDEVELOPMENTCYCLE
DevelopingaGISismorethansimplybuyingtheappropriateGIShardwareandsoftware.Thesingle
mostdemandingpartoftheGISdevelopmentprocessisbuildingthedatabase.Thistasktakesthe
longest time, costs the most money, and requires the most effort in terms of planning and
management.ThereforetheGISdevelopmentcyclepresentedhereemphasizesdatabaseplanning.
MostlocalgovernmentswillacquiretheGIShardwareandsoftwarefromaGISvendor.Choosingthe
right GIS for a particular local government involves matching the GIS needs to the functionality of
the commercial GIS. For many agencies, especially smaller local governments, choosing a GIS will
require help from larger, more experienced agencies, knowledgeable university persons and from
qualified consultants. By completing selected tasks outlined in these guidelines local governments
canpreparethemselvestoeffectivelyinteractanduseexpertisefromtheseothergroups.
The GIS development cycle starts with the needs assessment where the GIS functions and the
geographicdataneededareidentified.Thisinformationisobtainedthroughinterviewingpotential
GISusers.Subsequently,surveysofavailablehardware,softwareanddataareconductedand,based
intheinformationobtained,detailedGISdevelopmentplansareformulated.
It is important to involve potential users in all stages of GIS development. They benefit from this
involvementinseveralways:

DescribingtheirneedstotheGISanalysts
LearningwhattheGISwillbecapableofaccomplishingforthem
Understanding the nature of the GIS development cycle the time involved and the
costs.

Potentialusersneedtounderstandthattheremaybesignificanttimelagsbetweenthefirststepsof
NeedsAssessmentandthetimewhentheGIScanactuallybeused.Mostly,thisisduetothesizeof
thedatabasebuildingtask,whichcantakeuptoseveralyearsinalargejurisdiction.
Inadditiontounderstandingthatdatabasedevelopmenttakessubstantialtime,usersandmanagers
needtoappreciatethat GISisa newtechnologyanditsadoptionofteninvolvessomeuncertainty
that can cause time delays, ongoing restructuring the development program, and the need to
resolve unforeseen problems. This set of guideline documents describes the GIS development
process in away that will minimize problems, time delays, cost overruns, etc.; however, the
occurrence of these situations cannot be completely avoided. The GIS project team and
managementsimplyhavetobeawarethatsomeunforeseeneventswillhappen.GISdevelopment
mustbeviewedasaprocessratherthanadistinctproject.
EstimatingandplanningforthecostoftheGISisasomewhatdifficulttask.First,itisnecessaryto
recognize that the GIS database will likely be the single most costly item if a local government
develops all of the data itself from maps, etc., this cost can be as much as 70 80 % of the total
system cost. Thus, acquiring digital data from other GIS systems, government sources or the
private sector can be very cost effective. Participating in, or organizing a regional data sharing
cooperative or district, can also lead to reduced data costs. When planning for the GIS database,
longtermdatamaintenanceandretentioncostsmustbeestimatedaswellastheinitialstartup

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costs.Cooperationbetweenagencieswithsimilardataneedsmayprovidethemosteffectivewayto
achievelongtermdatamaintenance,retention,andarchiving.

7.TASKSFORGISDEVELOPMENTANDUSE
TheGISdevelopmentcycleisasetofelevenstepsstartingwiththeneedsassessmentandending
withongoinguseandmaintenanceoftheGISsystem.Thesestepsarepresentedhereasalogical
progressionwitheachstepbeingcompletedpriortotheinitiationofthenextstep.Whilethisviewis
logical,itisnotthewaytheworldalwaysworks.Someoftheactivitiesintheprocessmayhappen
concurrently,maybeapproachedinaiterativemanner,ormayneedtoberestructureddepending
onthesizeandcharacterofthelocalgovernmentconductingthestudyandtheresourcesavailable
to plan for the GIS. The GIS development cycle is based on the philosophy that one first decides
whattheGISshoulddoandthenasasecondactivitydecidesonhowtheGISwillaccomplisheach
task. Under this philosophy, the needs are described first, available resources are inventoried
second (data, hardware, software, staff, financial resources, etc.), preliminary designs are created
andtestedasathirdmajorsetofactivities,andlastlytheGIShardwareandsoftwareareacquired
andthedatabaseisbuilt.
The GIS development cycle is described in terms of 11 major activities. Prior to initiating these
studies, the responsible staff in local governments should attend introductory GIS seminars and
workshops,GISconferences,andmeetingsofspecificGISusers'groups,toobtainabroadoverview
ofwhatGISisandhowothersareusingthesesystems.
The11stepsoftheGISdevelopmentcycleare:

NeedsAssessment
ConceptualDesignoftheGIS
SurveyofAvailableData
SurveyofGISHardwareandSoftware
DetailedDatabasePlanningandDesign
DatabaseConstruction
PilotStudy/BenchmarkTest
AcquisitionofGISHardwareandSoftware
GISSystemIntegration
GISApplicationDevelopment
GISUseandMaintenance

Thesetasksareonewayofdividinguptheentiresetofactivitiesthatmustbeaccomplishedtobuild
a successful GIS. While there are other ways of expressing and organizing these activities, this
particularstructurehasbeenchosenbecauseitemphasizesdatadevelopmentdatadefinition,data
modeling,datadocumentation,datacaptureandstorage,anddatamaintenanceandretention.The
importantpointtobemadehereisnottheorderorstructureofthetasks,butratherthat,oneway
oranother,allofthesetasksmustbecompletedtohaveasuccessfulGIS.

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In some situations, different methods may be more appropriate than those presented in these
guides,oradifferentlevelofdetailmayfittheparticularsituationofaunitoflocalgovernment.No
matter how simple or complex a given GIS environment is, all of the above tasks should be
completedatanappropriatelevelofdetail.Inthespecificguidesofthisset,examplesofdifferent
levelsofdetailwillbeprovided.
Thestartingpointistheneedsassessment.Itisassumedthatthelocalgovernmenthasdecidedthat
aGISmaybejustifiedanditisreasonabletoexpendtheresourcestofurtherstudytheproblem.A
finalassessmentofthecostsandbenefitswillnotbemadeuntilseveraltaskshavebeencompleted
and the nature and size of the resulting GIS can be estimated. In the process presented here, this
finalfeasibilityassessmentismadeaspartofthedetaileddatabaseplanninganddesignactivity.
Eachofthemajorportionsofthedevelopmentcycleidentifiedandbrieflydescribedbelowisfurther
describedinasubsequentguidelinedocument.

NeedsAssessment
TheGISneedsassessmentisdesignedtoproducetwocriticalpiecesofinformation:

ThelistofGISfunctionsthatwillbeneeded
Amasterlistofgeographicdata.

These two information sets are extracted from a set of GIS application descriptions, a list of
importantdata,andadescriptionofmanagementprocesses.Standardformsareusedtodocument
theresultsofuserinterviews.Theinformationgainedintheneedsassessmentactivitygoesdirectly
intotheConceptualGISDesignactivity.

ConceptualDesignoftheGISSystem
The conceptual design of the GIS system is primarily an exercise in database design. It includes
formalmodeling(preparationofadatamodel)oftheintendedGISdatabaseandtheinitialstagesof
the database planning activity. Database planning is the single most important activity in GIS
development.Itbeginswiththeidentificationoftheneededdataandgoesontocoverseveralother
activities collectively termed the data life cycle identification of data in the needs
assessment,inclusionofthedatainthedatamodel,creationofthemetadata,collectionandentry
of the data into the database, updating and maintenance, and, finally, retention according to the
appropriate record retention schedule. A complete data plan facilitates all phases of data
collection,maintenanceandretentionandaseverythingisconsideredinadvance,dataissuesdonot
become major problems that must be addressed after the fact with considerable difficulty and
aggravation.Theproductoftheconceptualdesignactivityisadatamodelwhichrigorouslydefines
theGISdatabaseandsupportsthedetaileddatabaseplanningactivity.
The conceptual design of the GIS also includes identification of the basic GIS architecture (type of
hardwareandGISsoftware),estimatesofusage(derivedfromtheNeedsAssessment),andscoping
the size of the GIS system. All of this is done with reference to the existing data processing
environments (legacy systems) that must interface with the GIS. This guideline also includes a
sectiononmetadataanddatastandards.

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SurveyOfAvailableData
A survey of available data can commence once needed data have been identified in the Needs
Assessment.Thistaskwillinventoryanddocumentmapped,tabularanddigitaldatawithinthelocal
government as well as data available from other sources, such as federal, state, or other local
governments and private sector organizations. The entries in this inventory may include other GIS
systemswithinthelocalareafromwhichsomeoftheneededdatamaybeobtained.Ifthereexists
anorganizeddatasharingcooperativeorothermechanismforgovernmentdatasharing,itshould
beinvestigatedatthistime.TherealsoexiststhepossibilitythatoneormoreofthecommercialGIS
database developers may be able to supply some of the needed data and should therefore be
investigated.Thedocumentationpreparedatthispointwillbesufficienttoevaluateeachpotential
datasourceforuseintheGIS.Informationcollectedatthispointwillalsoformpartofthemetadata
fortheresultingGIS

SurveyOfAvailableGISHardwareAndSoftware
Almost all local government GIS programs will rely on commercially available GIS software. As a
result, a survey of the available GIS systems needs to be conducted. During this activity, the GIS
functionalityofeachcommercialGISsystemcanbedocumentedforlaterevaluation.

DetailedDatabaseDesignAndPlanning
Thedetaileddatabaseplanninganddesigntaskincludesthefollowingactivities:developingalogical
orphysicaldatabasedesignbasedonthedatamodelpreparedearlier,evaluatingthepotentialdata
sources, estimating the quantities of geographic data, estimating the cost of building the GIS
database and preparing the data conversion plan. Concurrent with the detailed planning for the
database, pilot studies and/or benchmark testing that are desired can be executed. Information
gained from these studies and tests will be needed to estimate the size of the equipment (disk
space,mainmemoryetc.)andtodeterminehowmuchapplicationdevelopmentwillbenecessary.
Subsequently, plans for staffing, staff training, equipment acquisition and installation, and user
trainingmustbecompleted.Afterthepreparationofalltheseplans,theentirecostoftheGISwillbe
knownandthefinalfeasibilityassessmentcanbemade.

PilotStudyAndBenchmarkTests
PilotstudiesandbenchmarktestsareintendedtodemonstratethefunctionalityoftheGISsoftware
simplyput,whatthecommercialGISfromthevendorcando.Thesetestsareusefultodemonstrate
topotentialusersandmanagementwhattheGISwilldoforthem.Also,performancedataoftheGIS
systemcanbedetermined.

GISDatabaseConstruction
Databaseconstruction(sometimesreferredtoas"databaseconversion")istheprocessofbuilding
thedigitaldatabasefromthesourcedatamapsandtabularfiles.Thisprocesswouldhavebeen
plannedduringthepreviousactivityandthemainemphasishereismanagementoftheactivityand
qualityassurance/qualitycontroloftheconverteddata.Theconversionprocessisoften"contracted
out"andinvolveslargequantitiesofsourcemapsanddocuments.Closeandeffectivemanagement
isthecriticalfactorinsuccessfuldataconversion.

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GISSystemIntegration
Unlike many other computer applications, a GIS is not a "plug and play" type system. The several
componentsofaGISmustbeacquiredaccordingtowelldocumentedspecifications.Thedatabase
mustbecreatedinacarefulandorganizedmanner.Oncealltheindividualcomponentshavebeen
acquired,theymustbeintegratedandtested.Usersmustbeintroducedtothesystem,trainedas
necessary, and provided with adequate assistance to begin use of the GIS. Parts of the GIS which
mayappeartoworkfineindividuallymaynotworkproperlywhenputtogether.TheGISsystemstaff
mustresolvealltheproblemsbeforeuserscanaccesstheGIS.

GISApplicationDevelopment
"Application"isageneraltermcoveringallthingsthat"goon"inaGIS.First,thereare"database
applications." These are all the functions needed to create, edit, build, and maintain the
database,andareusuallycarriedoutbytheGISsystemsstaff.Someusersmayhaveresponsibilityfor
updating selected parts of the GIS database, however the entire database should be under the
control of a "database administrator." Other applications are termed "user applications."
Contemporary GISs provide many simple applications as part of the initial software package (e.g.,
mapdisplay,query,etc.).Morecomplexapplications,oronesuniquetoaparticularuser,mustbe
developedusingamacroprogramminglanguage.MostGISshaveamacroprogramminglanguage
for this purpose (e.g., Arc Macro Language (AML) in ARC/INFO. and Avenue in ArcView). The
applications needing development by the GIS systems staff will have been described during the
NeedsAssessmentontheGISApplicationforms.

GISSystemUseAndMaintenance
After having described the rather large task of creating a GIS, we can now say that use and
maintenance of the GIS and its database will likely require as much attention as was needed to
initially build it. Most GIS databases are very dynamic, changing almost daily, and users will
immediately think of additional applications that they would like to have developed. Formal
proceduresforallthemaintenanceandupdatingactivitiesneedtobecreatedandfollowedbythe
GISsystemstaffandbyalluserstoensurecontinuedsuccessfuloperationoftheGIS.

8.SUMMARY
This document has presented an overview of the GIS development process, with an emphasis on
dataanddatabaseissues.Allofthetasksandissuesidentifiedinthisdocumentwillbedescribedin
detail in the remaining eleven guidelines of this series. The procedures are presented as "guides,"
andnotasa"cookbookrecipe"whichmustberigorouslyfollowed.EachofthemajortasksintheGIS
development process and the information generated within the task should be addressed in any
specific project. The methods and forms used in this series can be used, or alternatives can be
developed,as appropriate to the situation. The one matter to always keep in mind is that the GIS
planisadocumenttocommunicateuserneedstoaGISanalyst.Thecomponentsoftheplanmust
contain:

Descriptionsofapplicationsthatareunderstandabletotheuser
Alogicaltranslationofuserrequirementstosystemspecifications

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Detailedspecificationsuitableforsystemdevelopment

Followingtherecommendationsintheseguidelinescannot,unfortunately,guaranteesuccess.Many
ofthefactors,outsidethecontroloftheGISdevelopmentteam,willaffecttheultimatesuccessof
theGISsuccessbeingdefinedasuseoftheGISbysatisfiedusers.However,theauthorsofthese
guidelinesbelievethatattemptingtodevelopaGISwithoutfollowingthese,orsimilarprocedures,
substantially raises the probability of an unsuccessful GIS project either one that is not useful or
onethatsubstantiallyexceedsbothcostanddevelopmenttimeestimates.
Finally, although presented here as an independent activity, GIS development must recognize and
interfacewithothercomputersystemsinlocalgovernment,suchasE911,policeandfiredispatch,
facilities management systems, etc. . The GIS must not be viewed as independent of the other
systems,butintegratedwiththem,nomatterhowdifficult,toformatruecorporatedatabasefor
localgovernment.

9.REFERENCES
Fischer, Manfred M. and Nijkamp, Peter, "Geographic Information System, Spatial Modeling, and
PolicyEvaluation,"Berlin&NewYork:SpringerVerlag,1993,pg.42.
Abler,R.F.,1987,"TheNationalScienceFoundationNationalCenterforGeographicInformationand
Analysis"InternationalJournalofGeographicalInformationSystems,1,no.4,303326.

15

Chapter2:DatabaseConstruction
1.INTRODUCTION
ScopeOfDatabaseConstruction
Adatabaseconstructionprocessisdividedintotwomajoractivities

creationofdigitalfilesfrommaps,airphotos,tablesandothersourcedocuments;
organizationofthedigitalfilesintoaGISdatabase.

Thisguidelinedocumentdescribesthefirstprocess,digitalconversion,andthesubsequentguideline
entitled"GISSystemIntegration"dealswiththeorganizationofthedigitalfilesintoadatabase.

2. INFORMATION REQUIRED TO SUPPORT DATA CONVERSION

PROCESS
DataModel
GIStechnologyemployscomputersoftwaretolinktabulardatabasestomapgraphics,allowingusers
toquicklyvisualizetheirdata.Thiscanbeintheformofgeneratingmaps,onlinequeries,producing
reports,orperformingspatialanalysis.

GIS(Spatial)DataFormats
Indigitalform,GISdataiscomposedoftwotypes:mapgraphics(layers)andtabulardatabases.

Mapgraphicsrepresentallofthefeatures(entities)onamapaspoints,lines,orareas,
orpixels.
Tabular databases contain the attribute information which describe the features
(buildings,parcels,poles,transformers,etc.).

GIS data layers are created through the process of digitizing. The digitizing process produces the
digital graphic features (point, line or area) and their geographical location. Tables can be created
from most database files and can be loaded into a GIS from spreadsheet or database software
programslikeExcel,Access,FoxPro,Oracle,Sybase,etc.Acommonkeymustbeestablished
between the map graphics and the tabular database records to create a link. This link is usually
definedduringthescrubbingphase(datapreparation)andcreatedduringdatacapture(digitizing).
Forparceldata,theparcelidorSBLnumber(section,blockandlot)isagoodexampleofacommon
key.Themapgraphic(pointorpolygon)isassignedanSBLnumberasitisdigitized.Thedatabase
records are created with an SBL number and other attributes of the parcel (value, landuse,
ownership,etc.).

RasterandVectorFormat
GISallowsmaporothervisualdatatobestoredineitherarasterorvectordatastructure:

P a g e |16

There are two types of raster or scanned image: 1) remotely sensed data from satellites; and 2)
scanneddrawingsorpictures.Satelliteimagerypartitionsthe earth'ssurfaceintoauniformsetof
grid cells called pixels. This type of GIS data is termed raster data. Most remote sensing devices
record data from several wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. These values can be
interpretedtoproducea"classifiedimage"togiveeachpixelavaluethatrepresentsconditionson
theearth'ssurface(e.g.,landuse/landcover,temperature,etc.).Thesecondtypeofscannedimage
isasimplerasterimagewhereeachpixelcanbeeitherblackorwhite(onoroff)orcanhaveasetof
valuestorepresentcolors.Thesescannedimagescanbedisplayedoncomputerscreensasneeded.
Rasterdataisproducedbyscanningamap,drawingorphoto.Theresultisanarrayofpixels(small,
closelypackedcells)whichareeitherturned"on"or"off."Asimplescannedimage,forexample,in
TIFF(TaggedImageFileformat)format,doesnothavetheabilitytobeutilizedforGISanalysis,and
isusedonlyforitsdisplayvalue.The"cells"ofthedigitalversionoftheimagedonothaveanyactual
geographical nature as they represent only the dimensions of the original analog version of the
image.Rasterdatainitsmostbasicformispurelygraphicalandhasno"intelligence"orassociated
databaserecords.
Raster data can be enhanced to provide spatial analysis within a GIS. Pixels or cells represent
measurable areas on the earth's surface and are linked to attribute information. These cells are
assignednumericvalueswhichcorrespondtothetypeofrealworldentitywhichisrepresentedat
thatlocation(e.g.,cellscontainingvalue"2"mayrepresentalake,cellsofvalue"3"mayrepresenta
particularwoodedarea,etc.).

Vector data represents map features in graphic elements known as points, lines and
polygons(areas).

Vectorgraphicscoordinatesarerepresentedassingle,oraseriesof,xycoordinates.Dataisnormally
collectedinthisformatbytracingmapfeaturesontheactualsourcemapsorphotoswithastyluson
a digitizing board. As the stylus passes over the feature, the operator activates the appropriate
controlforthecomputertocapturethexycoordinates.Thesystemstoresthexycoordinateswithin
afile.Vectordatacanalsobecollectedonscreen(called"headsup"digitizing),bytracingascanned
imageonthecomputerscreeninasimilarmanner.

3.DATACONVERSIONTECHNOLOGIESAVAILABLE
ManualDigitizing
Manual digitizing involves the use of a digitizing tablet and cursor tool called a "puck", a plastic
deviceholdingacoilwithasetoflocatorcrosshairstoselectanddigitallyencodepointsonamap.
Atrainedoperatorsecurelymountsthesourcemapuponthedigitizingtabletand,utilizingthecross
hairsonthedigitizingpuck,tracesthecrosshairaxisalongeachlinearfeaturetobecapturedinthe
digitalfile.Thetabletrecordsthemovementofthepuckandcapturesthefeaturescoordinates.The
work is timeconsuming and labor intensive. Concentration, skill and handeye coordination are
crucialinordertomaintainthepositionalaccuracyandcompletenessofthemapfeatures.

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Traditionaldataconversioneffortsarebasedonproducingavectordatafilecompiledbymanually
digitizing paper maps. Vector data provides a high degree of GIS functionality by associating
attributeswithmapfeatures,allowinggraphicselections,spatialqueriesandotheranalyticalusesof
thedata.Vectordataalsocarrieswithitthehighestcostsforconversion.Theindustryaveragefora
complete data conversion project to digitize parcel lines, dimensions and text is between $3.00
$5.00 per parcel. The price is determined by the complexity and amount of data. To keep costs
down, data can be selectively omitted from conversion (i.e. not all text and annotation will be
captured).Theresultingvectordatacanreproduceauseful,albeitmorevisuallystarkversionofthe
originalmap.Abarebonesdataconversionprojectcanbeconductedbydigitizingonlythelinework
fromthetaxmaps.TheminimumindustrycostfordigitizingparcellineworkwithauniqueIDonlyis
between$1.00to$1.50perparcel.

Scanning
Scanning converts lines and text on paper maps into a series of picture elements or pixels. The
higher the resolution of the scanned image (more dots per squareinch), the smoother and more
accurately defined the data will appear. As the dots per inch (DPI) increases, so does the file size.
Most tax maps should be captured with a scan resolution of 300400 DPI. One of the main
advantagestoscanningisthattheuserseesadigitalimagethatlooksidenticaltotheirpapermaps
completewithnotes,symbology,textstyleandcoffeestains,etc.Scanningcanreplicatethevisual
natureoftheoriginalmapatafractionofthecostofdigitizing.Howeverthislowcosthasa"price".
The raster image is a dumb graphic there is no "intelligence" associated with it, i.e. individual
entities cannot be manipulated. Edgematching and georeferencing the images (associating the
pixels with real world coordinates) improves the utility of the scanned images by providing a
seamlessviewoftherasterdatainanimagecatalog.Scannedimagesrequiremorediskspacethan
an equivalent vector dataset, but the tradeoff is that the raster scanning conversion process is
fasterandcostslessthanvectorconversion.

RastertoVectorConversion
Scanneddata,inrasterformat,canbe"vectorized"(convertedintovectordata)inmanyhighend
GIS software packages or through a standalone data conversion package. Vectorizing simply
involves running a scanned image through a conversion program. In the vectorization process,
features which are represented as pixels are converted into a series of X,Y points and/or linear
featureswithnodesandvertices.OnceconvertedwithinaGISenvironment,thedataisinthesame
format created using a digitizing tablet and cursor. Many vectorized datasets require significant
editingafterconversion.

HybridSolution
Sincebothvectorandrasterdatasetshavedecidedadvantagesanddisadvantages,ahybridsolution
capitalizes on the best of both worlds. Overlaying vector format data with a georeferenced
backdropimageprovidesapowerfulgraphicdisplaytool.Thecombineddisplaysolutioncouldshow
thevectormapfeaturesandtheirattributes(alsoavailableforGISquery),andanexactreplicaofthe
scanned source material which may be a tax map or aerial photography. If needed, individual
parcels, pavement edges, city blocks or entire maps can be vectorized from the georeferenced
scanned images. This process is called incremental conversion. It allows the county to convert

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scannedrasterdatatovectorformatteddataonanasneededbasis.Thereareaplethoraofraster
tovectorconversionroutinesonthemarket,butitisimportantthattheconversiontakeplaceinthe
samemapcoordinatesystemanddataformatasyourexistingdata.Thekeyadvantagetothehybrid
approach is this: even after full vectorization, the scanned images continue to provide a higher
qualitygraphicimageasavisualbackdropbehindthevectordata.

EntryofAttributeData
Additional attribute data can be added to the database by joining a table which contains the new
attributestoanexistingtablealreadyintheGIS.Tojointhesetablestogetheracommonfieldmust
bepresent.MostGISsoftwarecanthenusetheresultingtabletodisplaythenewattributeslinked
totheentities.TherearevarioussourcesforbuildinganattributedatabaseforaGIS.FromCDROM
telephone and business market listings with addresses, to data which is maintained in various
governmentdatabasesin"dbase"orvariousotherdatabaseformats.

AcquisitionofExternalDigitalData
The availability of existing digital data will have an effect upon the design of the database.
IntegratingexistingdatabaseswiththeprimaryGISwillrequiretheestablishmentofcommondata
keysandotheruniqueidentifiers.Issuesofdatalocation,dataformat,recordmatchrates,andthe
overallvalueofintegratingtheexternaldatashouldallbeconsideredbeforedecidingtopurchaseor
acquireexistingdatasets.

GISHardwareAndSoftwareUsedinDigitalDataConversion
MostcontemporaryGISsoftwarepackagesarestructuredtooperateoncomputerworkstationsto
accomplishdigitizingandeditingtasks.
Fourbasictypesofworkstationscanbeidentified:

Adigitizingstation,aworkstationwhichisconnectedtoaprecisiondigitizingtablet,which
utilizes a highresolution display terminal, and which also has all of the analysis functions
necessaryforquerying,displayingandeditingdata
An editing workstation, which is used for conducting most of the QA/QC functions of the
conversionprocess,havingallthefunctionalityofthedigitizingstationexceptfortheability
todigitizedataviaadigitizingtablet
Graphicdatareview/Tabulardatainputworkstationsareusedfordisplayingandreviewing
graphicdata,andfortheenteringoftabularattributedataassociatedwiththesefeatures
XTerminalsarethefourthtypeofworkstationandtheseallowforgraphicdisplayandinput
ofdatautilizingtheXWindowSystemcommunicationsprotocol.

With the increasing power of todays personal computers, many GIS analysis packages are being
designedforPCs.AsGISdatafilesareverylarge,PCbasedGISpackagesusuallyrequireaPCwith
minimumrequirementsincludinga486processorand16megabytesofRAM.Harddrivediskspace
dependsuponhowlarge thedatasets arewhicharebeingused.Asafebottomlineforharddrive
spacewithaPCis500megabytes.Formostdataconversionprojects,muchmoreharddrivespace
willbeneededinordertostoredataastheyareconverted.Tapestoragehardwareisalsonecessary
inordertoefficientlybackupthemanymegabytesoffilescreatedintheconversionprocess.Justto

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provideanideaofthestoragerequirementsnecessaryforbasicscanningconversion,thefilesizeof
onetaxmapalone,in(TaggedImageFileFormatorTIFF)imageformat,scannedata500dotsper
inch(dpi)resolution,canrangeanywherefrom13megabytes.
Digitizing hardware requirements vary according to the conversion approach which is applied. For
vectorconversion,adigitizingtabletwillbenecessaryinusuallyamanualdigitizingprocess.Another
piece of digitizing hardware, a scanner, is used to create raster images. Automatic digitization,
through the use of a scanner is a very popular approach for capturing data. Raster data can
subsequently be transformed into vector data in most turnkey GIS packages, through the use of
rastertovectorconversionalgorithms.
After the conversion of map data into digital form, hardware will be needed for outputting digital
data in hardcopy format. When handling a data conversion project, a necessary piece of output
hardwareisapenorrasterplotter.GISsoftwareallowsforthecreationofplotsatanyviewscale.
The plotter, with its ability to draw on a variety of materials (including paper, mylar and vellum),
allowsforthecreationofqualitymapplots.Mostplottersusuallyhaveaminimumwidthofthree
feet.Vectorandrasterplottersarebothavailableonthemarket.Vector,penplottersutilizevarious
pens for the drawing of linear features on drawing media. Pen plotters can handle most plotting
jobs,buttheydonotproducegoodresultsinareashadingsuchasintheproductionofcholorpleth
maps.Rasterplotters,ontheotherhand,areexcellentinproducingshadingresults.Rasterplotters
usually cost more than vector plotters, but are substantially more versatile and have better
capabilities.
OtheroutputdevicesforthecreationofhardcopiesofGISdatainclude:screencopydevices,used
for copying screen contents onto paper without having to produce a plot file; computer FAX
(facsimile)transmissions,oftenusedincommunicationsbetweenconversioncontractorsandclients,
produce small lettersize plots, and the fax transmission files (as raster images) can be saved and
viewed later; printers are used to output tabular data which is derived from the GIS, and if
configuredcorrectly,canproducesmalllettersizeplots.

PilotProject/BenchmarkTestResults
The pilot project is a very important activity that precedes the data conversion project. The pilot
projectallowsyou,theGISsoftwaredeveloper,andthedataconversioncontractortheabilitytotest
and review the numerous steps involved in creating the database. Defining the pilot study area
involvesselectionofasmallgeographicareawhichwillallowforahighdegreeofbeingsuccessful,
thatis,thatitwillbecompletedinarelativelyshortperiodoftimeandwillallowforthetestingofall
projectelementswhicharenecessary(conversion procedures, applications, databasedesign).Test
resultswhichareobtainedfromthepilotprojectusuallyincludeassessmentsof:databasecontent,
conversionprocedures,suitabilityofsources,databasedesign,efficiencyofpreparedapplicationson
datasets,theaccuracyoffinaldata,andcostestimates.

IdentifiedProblemsWithSourceData
The pilot study involves testing and finding successes and problems in procedures and designs for
theGIS.Itinvolveslookingforproblemsthatoccurduetolackof,orinadequacyin,sourcedata.Itis

P a g e |20

importanttoidentifyproblemsespeciallyatthesourcedatalevelsinceitisusuallytheeasiestand
cheapesttocorrecterrorspriortodataconversion.
When evaluating the results of a pilot study, problems with digital data accuracy resulting from
source data flaws, are bound to arise. Usually, the source data used for a project are not in the
properformatrequiredforthebestpossibledataresult.Forexample,problemsmayarisewhenthe
sourcedataforacertaindatalayerconsistsofmapswhichareatvariousscales.Thesevariousscale
differences can create error when these digitized layers are joined into a single layer. Other
problems arise when there are not adequate control points found upon map sheets in order to
accurately register coverages while they are being digitized. At times, even adjacent largescale
source map sheets may have positional discrepancies between them. Such inconsistencies will be
reflected in the corresponding digital data. Procedures for dealing with all known source data
problemsneedtobespecifiedpriortothestartofdataconversion.

4.DATACONVERSIONCONTRACTORS
FirmsAvailableAndServicesOffered
TherearedifferenttypesoffirmswhichcanhandleGISdataconversion.Therearesomefirmswhich
specializeinGISdataconversion,andsubcontractouttheservicesofotherfirmsasneeded.Some
otherfirmswhichhandledataconversionbutdonotparticularlyspecializeindataconversionalone
include: aerial mapping firms, engineering firms and GIS vendors. Various firms will offer standard
dataconversionservices,butbasedupontheirmaintypeofwork,mayoffersomeuniqueservices.
Forexample,afirmspecializinginGISdataconversionmayhaveawidevarietyofsoftwareoptions
which the client company can choose from. Such a firm usually will have numerous digitizing
workstationsandalargestaff,andbeabletocompletetheprojectinashorterperiodoftimethan
otherfirmswhichdonotparticularlyspecializeinGISdataconversion.Ifneeded,aspecializedGIS
dataconversioncompanycouldsubcontractservicesfromanothercompany.
Aerial mapping firms can offer many specialized data conversion services associated with
photogrammetry,whichwillnotbeavailabledirectlythroughageneraldataconversioncontractor.
Manyaerialmappingfirmsnowhaveconsiderableexpertisewiththecreationofdigitalorthophoto
images, rectified and scaled scans of aerial photography, which can be displayed and utilized with
vectordata. Engineering andsurveyingfirmsarewellequipped todealwith mostdata conversion
projects,andwillusuallyhaveamajorcivilengineering/surveyingunitwithintheorganization.These
firmsusuallywillfocusuponcertainaspectsofGISsystemsandapproachconversionprojectswith
stressupontheextentof construction detail,positionalaccuracyrequirements,COGOinput,scale
requirements and database accuracy issues. At times, GIS software vendors will handle data
conversionprojectsinordertotesttheirsoftwareinbenchmarkstudiesandpilotprojects.
The main conversion services which are usually offered include: physical GIS database design and
implementation, deed research, record compilation, scrubbing, digitizing, surveying, programming
andimagedevelopmentandregistration.

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ApproximateCostofServices
Outsourcingdataconversionwithdatapurchase/ownership
CONVERSIONMETHOD

PERPARCELCOST

Manuallydigitizedvectordata(lineworkalone)

$1.20/Parcel

Manuallydigitizedvectordata(linework&annotation)

$5.00/Parcel

Vector data developed from the vectorization of scanned maps

$3.00/Parcel
(linework&Annotation)
Rasterimagedata(registeredtoacoordinatesystem)

$50./map=$0.55/Parcel

OutsourcingDataConversionandLicensingData
CONVERSIONMETHOD

PERPARCELCOST

ManuallydigitizedVectorData(LineworkandAnnotation)

$1.50/Parcel

(NocostestimatesareavailableforRasterData)

(Note: All of the above cost estimates are based upon average prices offered by various data
conversionvendors)

MakingArrangementsForExternalDataConversion
There are a number of ways of obtaining the digital conversion of map data. Arrangements are
usually made through the development of a Request for Proposal (RFP), and then evaluating the
proposals submitted by various conversion contractors. Some of the criteria which are desired in
selecting a conversion contractor include: the company's technical capability, the company's
experience with data conversion, the company's range of services, location, personnel experience
and the overall technical plan of operation. Balanced with all of these items is usually the
organization'sbudgetandthecostsassociatedwiththeproject.

5.DATACONVERSIONPROCESSES
DigitalConversionOfMappedData
Digitaldataconversionofmappeddataisacostlyandtimeconsumingeffort.Themorecloselythe
digital data reflects the source document, and the more attributes are associated with the map
features,thehigherthemaputilitybutalsothehigherthecostofconversion.Becauseofthehigh
cost of digitizing all graphic map features, and text/graphic symbology, conversion efforts may
compromise data functionality by limiting the number of features captured in order to keep costs
down. The actual processes involved with digital conversion of mapped data are usually the most
involved,andmosttimeconsumingofall.Thesetwotraitstogetherexplainwhydataconversionis
usuallythehighestcostofimplementingtheGIS.

PlanningTheDataConversionProcess
Thedataconversionprocessneedstobeplannedeffectivelyinordertominimizethechanceofdata
conversion problems which can greatly disrupt the normal workflow of the organization. It is

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necessary to plan all of the physical processes which will be involved in data conversion and to
developtimeestimatesforallwork.Thesemainprocessesinclude:

Specifications
Sourcemappreparation
Documentflowcontrol
Supervisionplans
Problemresolutionprocedures

These procedures allow for the efficient conversion of mapped data. Guidelines for normal data
captureproceduressuchasscanningandtabledigitizingshouldbedevelopedtoensurethatalldata
are consistently digitized. Particularly when an organization is conducting conversion inhouse, a
small amount of time invested in developing error prevention procedures will greatly benefit the
organizationbysavingtimeinthecorrection/editingphaseoftheconversion.Itiseasiertoprevent
errorsthantogoaheadandtrytocorrectthemaftertheactualdigitizinghasbeenconducted.

Data Conversion Specifications: Horizontal And Vertical Control,

Projection;CoordinateSystem,AccuracyRequirements
Any discussion about data conversion should start with the topic of accuracy. We've all heard the
expression,"GarbageIn,GarbageOut."Withouttheabilitytomeettheproperaccuracystandards
establishedearlyinaGISconversionproject,theresultingGISmaybeuselessbaseduponitslackof
accuracy.Evenstill,inreality,whenbuildingaGISandhandlingdataconversion,wearefacedwitha
varietyofsourcedocumentswhichmayeachcarryadifferentscale,resolution,qualityandlevelof
accuracy.SomesourcemapdatamaybesoquestionablethatitshouldnotbeloadedintotheGIS.
ExtractingreliabledatalateronfromtheGISwilldepend upon eithertheconvertingofdatafrom
reliablesourcedocuments,orthedevelopmentofnewdata"fromscratch."
Mapprojectionsaffectthewaythatmapfeaturesaredisplayed(astheyaffecttheamountofvisual
distortion of the map), and the way map coordinates are distributed. Before any GIS graphic data
layers will be ready for overlay functions, the layers must be referenced to a common geographic
coordinatesystem.GISsoftwarecandisplaydatainanynumberofprojectionsystems,suchasUTM
(UniverseTransverseMercator),StatePlaneCoordinateSystems,andmore.Forscannedmapsand
aerialphotos(whicharesimplenonGISrasterimages),tobedisplayedeffectivelywithvectordata,
theimagesneedtoberegisteredandrectifiedtothesamecoordinatesystem.
Establishingspecificrequirementsformapaccuracyshouldbedoneatthebeginningofaproject.Ifa
certainlevelofaccuracyisdesired,itisthislevelwhichwillhavetobedevelopedinfutureaspectsof
the project. Procedures should be standardized in order to ensure the best and most consistent
resultspossible.

SourceMapPreparation(PreDigitizingEdits)
Preparing the analog data that will be converted is an important first step. This needs to be done
whether the data will be scanned or digitized, and whether you are outsourcing the work or
completingitinhouse.Thispreprocessingisalsoreferredtoas"scrubbing"thedata.Theprocess
involvescodingthesourcedocumentusinguniqueIDsand/orusingsomemethodtohighlightthe

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datathatshouldbecapturedfromthesedocuments.Thismakesitcleartothepersonperforming
the scanning or digitizing what they should be picking up. It will also be important later for
performingqualitycontrolchecksandtomakesurethatthedigitaldatahasalinktotheattribute
databaseneededforaGIS.

DocumentFlowControl
Withoutaclearsystemformonitoringandplanningtheflowofmap(andattributedata)documents
betweenthenormalstoragelocationsofmapdocumentsandthosepartieshandlingtheactualdata
conversion, problems will usually arise in tracking the location of maps. When a large number of
maps are being converted, it is important to maintain a full understanding between both the
conversion contractor or inhouse conversion staff, and the normal user group of the source
documentsaboutexactlywhichdocumentsarebeinghandled,andatwhattime.Sourcemapsare
deliveredtotheconversiongrouporcontractorasaworkpacket,usuallyconsistingofamanageable
numberofmapsofacertaingeographicregion,whichispredeterminedwithinthedataconversion
workplan.Aschemefortrackingpacketsofsourcedocuments,aswellastheresultingdigitalfilesis
needed.Thisschemeshouldbeabletotrackthedigitalfilethroughthequalitycontrolprocesses.
In addition to tracking the flow of documents and digital files through the entire data conversion
process,aprocedureneedstobeestablishedforhandlingupdatestothedatathatoccurduringthe
conversion time period. This change control procedure may be quite similar to the final database
maintenance plan, however, it must be in place before any of the data conversion processes are
started.Also,ifthisprocedurewilllikelybeverydifferentfromthepreviousmanualmapupdating
methods used and may involve substantial restructuring of tasks and responsibilities within the
organization.

SupervisionPlans(ParticularlyForContractConversion)
When planning the data conversion process, it is important that attention be given to the
developmentofdetailedplansforsupervisingthedataconversionprocess.Supervisoryplansallow
the organization to distribute responsibility for the many different facets of the data conversion
project. When data conversion has been contracted out, it is important that communication be
maintainedbetweentheclientcompanyandthecontractor.Thedevelopmentofspecificvariations
normal administrative tools used for scheduling and budget control can be very useful (e.g.,
CPM/PERTschedulingprocedures;GANTTcharts,etc.)

ProblemResolutionProcedures
Inordertoensuretheefficientprogressofallaspectsofthedataconversionproject,itisimportant
todevelopformalproceduresforproblemresolution.Editingproceduresanddatastandardsshould
bedevelopedforsuchitemsas:majorandminorpositionalaccuracyproblems;inaccuraterubber
sheeting,ormapjoining/filematchingproblems;attributecodingerrors,etc.Otherproceduresfor
eventssuchasmissingsourcedata,handlingvariousscaleresolutionissues,andevenhardwareand
software system problems should also be created. Establishing such procedures and assigning
responsibilities for resolution are extremely important, particularly when outside contractors are
involved.

P a g e |24

ConvertingTheData
As stated earlier, it is important to follow consistent preestablished procedures in the actual
digitizingofthedatasets.Consistentlyusingatestedandapprovedsetofconversionguidelinesand
procedures will eliminate any chance of ambiguity in methods. Using established procedures will
allowforthemostconsistentproductpossible.
ReviewingDigitalData
Thedigitaldatareviewprocessinvolvesthreeissues:

datafileformatandformatconversionproblems
dataqualityquestions
dataupdatingandmaintenance

Thereviewprocessmustfirstbehandledbeforethedecisiontorelyonotherdigitaldatasourcesis
made.Additionally,formaldatasharingagreementsshouldbemadebetweenthetwoorganizations.

QualityControl(Accuracy)CheckingProcedures
A quality assurance (QA) program is a crucial aspect of the GIS implementation process. To be
successfulindevelopingreliableQAmethods,individualtasksmustbeworkedoutanddocumented
indetail.Dataacceptancecriteriaisaveryimportantaspectoftheconversionprogram,andcanbea
complex issue. A full analysis of accuracy and data content needs will facilitate the creation of
documentationwhichmaybeutilizedbytheaccuracyassessmentteam.
A combination of automatic and manual data verification procedures is normally found in a
completeQAprogram.Theactualprocessnormallyinvolvesvalidationofthedataagainstthesource
material,evaluationofthedata'sutilitywithinthedatabasedesign,andanassessmentofthedata
with regard to the standards established by the organization handling the conversion project.
Automatedprocedureswillnormallyrequirecustomizedsoftwareinordertoperformdatachecks.
MostGISpackagestodayhavetheirownmacroprogramminglanguageswhichallowforthecreation
of customized programs. Some automated QA procedures include: checking that all features are
represented according to conversion specifications (e.g., placed in the correct layer); features
requiringnetworkconnectivityarerepresentedwithlogicalrelationships,forexample,twodifferent
diametersofpipingortwodifferentgaugesofwiremusthaveaconnectingdevicebetweenthem
which should be represented by a graphic feature with unique attributes; relationships of
connectivitymustbemaintainedbetweengraphicfeatures(MontgomeryandSchuch,143).
Manualqualitycontrolproceduresnormallyinvolvecreatingandcheckingeditplotsofvectordata
against source map data. QA requirements which will have to be met include: absolute/relative
accuracy of map features should be met and all features specified on the source map should be
included on the edit plot; map annotation should be in required format (e.g., correct symbology,
font,color,etc.)andtextoffsetsshouldbewithinspecifieddistanceandofcorrectorientation;plots
ofjoineddatasetsshouldhaveadequateedgematchingcapability(M&S,145).

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FinalCorrectionResponsibilities
Quality control editing of the digitized product is a crucial step in preparing spatial feature data.
Afterinitiallydigitizingadatalayer,aneditplotisproducedofthosedigitizedfeatures.Theeditplot
is a hardcopy printing of the digitized features. The edit plot is printed at the same scale as the
sourcedataandcheckedbyoverlayingtheplotwiththesourcemaponalighttable.Thiseditcheck
allowsforthedeterminationoferrorssuchasmisalignedormissingfeatures.Correctionsmaythen
be made by adding or deleting and redigitizing features. When onscreen digitizing, feature
placementerrorsmaybecorrectedby"rubbersheeting"thegraphicfeaturestofitthesourcedata.
Rubbersheeting is the process of stretching graphic features through the establishment of graphic
movement"links"withafrompoint(wherethefeaturepresentlyislocated),andatopoint(where
thefeatureshouldbeplaced). GIS graphic manipulationroutinesthen move graphicsaccording to
thesespecifiedlinks.

File Matching Procedures (Edge Match, Logical Relationships Within Data,

Etc.)
Files which are going to be spatially joined must first have adequate edgematching alignment of
their graphic features. This entails a number of basic GIS graphic manipulation procedures: (1)
coordinatetransformation,whichprojectsthedatalayerintoitsappropriaterealworldcoordinates;
(2)rubbersheetingofthegraphicfeaturesinonedatafiletoaccuratelycoincidewiththeadjacent
graphicfeaturesinanotherfile;(3)spatialjoining,thecombiningoftwoormoredatafilesintoone
seamlessfilespanningthegeographicareaofallfiles.
Coordinatetransformationistheprocessofestablishingcontrolpointsuponthedigitizedlayerand
defining realworld coordinates for those points. A GIS coordinate transformation routine is then
usedtotransformthecoordinatesofallfeaturesonthedatalayerbaseduponthosecontrolpoint
coordinates.Oncetransformed,spatiallyadjacentdatalayersmaythenbedisplayedsimultaneously
withintheircombinedgeographicextent.Adeterminationmaythenbemadeastotheeffectiveness
andaccuracyofthecoordinatesassignedtothedatalayers.Ifnecessary,graphicfeaturesfoundin
bothdatalayersmayberubbersheetedtobetteralignfeatureswhichwillneedtobeconnected.For
example,iftheendpointofagraphicfeaturerepresentingastreetcenterlineisnotreasonablyclose
toitscorrespondingstartingpointontheadjacentdatalayer,oneorbothofthesegraphiclineswill
havetobemovedsothatthegraphicfeaturewillconnect.Analignmentproblemsuchasthiscan
signal possible errors in the coordinate transformation and/or the source data. After features are
accuratelymatched,thedatafilesmaybecombinedintoasingledatafile.Thecombineddatafile
will afterwards require editing and the development of new topological relationships in the new
dataset. An example of one postspatial join editing procedure is the removal of graphic line
connectionpointscalled&quota;nodes"whichmayinterferewithvariouselementsoftheattribute
database.

FinalAcceptanceCriteria
Standards for appropriate quality assurance, and accuracy verification procedures in general,
depend greatly upon the data sources, the schematics of the database for which data is being
prepared,andtheactualdataconversionapproachesapplied.Acceptanceofthejoineddigitalmap
filesdependsuponthedatameetingcertaincriteria.Criteriausuallyrelatetoaccuracy,suchasthe

P a g e |26

determination of whether the product meet National Map Accuracy Standards at the appropriate
scale. Other criteria may relate to whether attributes are in order, if they have been added. Most
acceptance determinations should be made on whether the feature data is meeting standards of
accuracy,completeness,topologicalconsistency,andattributedatacontent.

BuildingMainDatabase
OneofthefinalstagesinvolvedindevelopingaGISdatabaseinvolvesputtingalltheconverteddata
together.Establishingoneuniformdatabaseinvolvesenteringallattributeandfeature dataintoa
common database with an established workable file/directory structure, sometimes known as a
"data library." As the database is developed and data is ready for use, it can be released to the
various data users for analysis. Once the database is designed, it then becomes important to
maintain data accuracy and currency. If changes are made within the confines of the data layers,
thesechangesmustbedefinedandupdatesmadetokeeptheintegrityofthedatabase.Subsequent
guidelinedocumentsdealwithdataintegrationanddatabasemaintenance.

6.ATTRIBUTEDATAENTRY
SourceDocuments
Thereareanumberofsourcedocumentswhichcanbeutilizedasdatafortheattributedatabase.
Many organizations are able to utilize their existing electronic database files and import this data
directlyintotheirGISdatabase.Inthecaseofpaperfilesrelatingtogeographicareas,andattribute
dataexistingonpapermaps,thisdatawillhavetobemanuallyenteredintoGISattributedatafiles
intheformoftables.Beforethisinformationisenteredintoadatabase,itmustfirstbereviewed
andedited.Itisalsoimportanttohaveaproceduralplandesignedfortheentryofthisdatainorder
tocoordinatetheflowofthesesourcedocuments.

PreEntryCheckingAndEditing
A review of GIS attribute source documents can oftentimes reveal an unorganized mass of maps,
charts, tables, spreadsheets, and various textual documents. The checking and editing of source
documentsishandledinthescrubbingphaseoftheproject.Withoutaspecificplandesignedforthe
entry of these various data elements, it is highly likely that error will be introduced into the GIS
database.Itiscrucialthatallsourcedocumentsarereadableandproperlyformattedtoallowfor
the most efficient entry of numerical and textual data. If the database conversion is being
outsourced, and the contractor is unable to read the source data, the resulting database will be
inaccuratemorecostly,orboth.Itisrecommendedthataformalscrubmanual,designedaccording
tothedatabaseandapplicationrequirements,bedevelopedtohelpfacilitatethesupplementingof
source data and its entry into the database. Logical consistency is an important element for both
graphicandattributeelements.Recordsandattributeswhicharerelatedtographicelementswithin
anetworksystemmustmaintainlogicalrelationships.

DocumentFlowControl
Anorganizationwilltypicallyhaveamultitudeofdifferentdocumentformatswhichitwillneedin
coding all of its GIS attribute data. It is crucial that tracking mechanisms be implemented in

27|P a g e

preparationforthekeyentryprocess.Usuallyduplicationofsourcedocumentswhichwillbeusedin
thekeyentryprocesswillnotbefeasible.Asmanysourcedocumentstobekeyenteredareusedon
aregularbasiswithintheorganization,itwillbeimportanttodevelopguidelinesfortrackingthese
documentsiftheyareneededduringtheprocess.Timingandcoordinationwillbefactorsinplanning
documentusage.

KeyEntryProcess
As stated earlier, some organizations will be able to enter much tabular data into the database
simplybywayofimportingexistingtablesorfilesintotheGIS,orrelatingtableswhichexistintheir
external DBMS. Normally, it will be necessary to enter attribute data into the system utilizing a
keyboard.Manyorganizationschoosetouselistswhenenteringdatafromthekeyboard.Itismuch
more efficient during conversion to enter a 2 or 3digit code which has a reference list associated
withit.Typinginafulldescriptionofthegraphicintothetextfieldtakeslonger,andincreasesthe
chanceoftypographicalerror.

DigitalFileFlowControl
Numerousfileswillresultfromthekeyentryprocess.Thesefileswillneedtobegivenpropernames
anddirectorylocationsinordertotrackandpreparethedatalogicallyforusewithintheGIS.

QualityControlProcedures
Most databases allow the user to specify the type of field for each data element, whether it is
numeric, alphanumeric date, etc.; whether it has decimal places, and so on. This feature can help
preventmistakesasthesystemwillnotallowentriesotherthanthosespecifiedinadvance.
There are a number of automated and manual procedures which can be performed to check the
qualityofattributedata.Somecustomizedprogramsmayberequiredforthetestingofsomequality
controlcriteria.Someattributevaluevaliditycheckswhichmaybeperformedinclude:verifyingthat
eachrecordrepresentsagraphicfeatureinthedatabase,verifyingthateachfeaturehasatabular
record with attributes associated with it, determining if all attribute records are correct, and
determiningthatallattributescalculatedfromcertainapplicationsmustbecorrectbaseduponthe
input values and the corresponding formulas. The translation of obsolete record symbology into a
GIS usable format, according to conversion specifications, is one procedure which will have to be
conductedmanually(MontgomeryandSchuch,145).
Theresponsibilityforcheckingandmaintainingautomatedqualitycontrolprocedurescanbeplaced
inthehandsofthestaffresponsibleforactualdataconversion.Whenoutsourcingdataconversion,
oneofthemosttimeconsumingaspectsoftheprojectistheevaluationofconverteddataonceit
has been received from the vendor. Usually, automated routines are developed which can be
utilized in the evaluation of the datasets, and in determining if the data fulfills all of the
requirements and standards stated in the contract. This process can be simplified by the client
companydeliveringautomatedqualitycontrolcheckingroutinestothedataconversionvendor.The
vendor is then able to run these routines, evaluate and edit the data so that it will meet
requirements before it is even shipped to the client. Such a procedure saves valuable time and
expenses which would otherwise have been spent on quality control evaluation, shipping and
businesscommunication.

P a g e |28

ChangeControl
Finalediting proceduresanddataacceptancearebaseduponwhethermajorrevisionsinthedata
willneedtobeperformed.Afterdataverificationandqualityassurancechecks,itmaybenecessary
to again reevaluate database design, technical specifications of the data, and conversion
procedures overall. Ideally, the planning and design of the database will be sufficiently
comprehensive and correct such that the logical/physical database design will not have to be
modified. However, it is rare that a data conversion project will be able to push through to
completion without some changes being necessary. Many conversion projects develop procedures
whichareusedtoidentify,evaluateandthentoapproveordisapprovethefinalproducts.Aform
shouldbedevelopedwhichisusedtolistdesiredchangeswhichhavebeenidentified.Thelistingof
desired changes is then evaluated in terms of both the volume of the data which has yet to be
edited, and the amount of data which has already been converted. The conversion vendor will
usuallydevelopdocumentationwhichdescribestheestimatedcost/savingswhichwillbeassociated
with the changes and final edits. Most organizations now accept the fact that changes will be a
normalpartofdataconversionandchangerequestsareusuallyexpected.Thechallengethenliesin
the methods by which change mechanisms are developed and agreed upon between client and
vendor.

FinalAcceptanceCriteria
Acceptance criteria are the measures of data quality which are used to determine if the data
conversion work has been performed according to requirements specified. In the case of
outsourcingofconversion,thesecriteriawilldetermineifthedatahasbeenpreparedaccordingto
thecontractspecifications.Ifthedatadoesnotmeetthesespecifications,theconversioncontractor
will be required to perform any necessary editing upon the data to reach acceptable standards.
Acceptancecriteriaandstandardsmayvarybetweenorganizations.

FileMatchingAndLinking
InmostGISpackageswhichutilizerelationaldatabasetechnology,thefilematchingandlinkingisa
fairlysimpleprocess.MostGISpackagescontainstraightforwardproceduresforjoiningandrelating
attribute files, which normally entails the selection of the unique identifying key between the
graphicfeatureattributetableandanyotherdataattributetables.Oncetheidentifierlinkhasbeen
specified, the GIS software automatically establishes the relationship between the tables, and
maintainstherelationshipbetweenthem.

7.EXTERNALDIGITALDATA
SourcesOfDigitalData
Digitalspatialandattributedatacanbefoundfromavarietyofsources.Variouscompaniestoday
produce"canned"digitalspatialdatasetswhicharereadyforusewithinaGISenvironment.Utilizing
anexistingdatabaseisagoodwaytosupplementdataintheconversionprocessandisoneofthe
best ways to save money on the cost of producing a database. Most federal, state, and local
governmentagencieshavedatawhichisavailabletothepublicforminimalcost.

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Two of the largest spatial databases which are national in coverage include the US. Geological
Survey's DLG (Digital Line Graph) database, and the U.S. Census Bureau's TIGER (Topologically
IntegratedGeographicEncodingandReferencing)database.Bothsystemscontainvectordatawith
point,lineandareacartographicmapfeatures,andalsohaveattributedataassociatedwiththese
features. The TIGER database is particularly useful in that its attribute data also contains valuable
Bureau of the Census demographic data which is associated with block groups and census tracts.
This data is used today in a variety of analysis applications. Many companies have refined various
government datasets, including TIGER, and these datasets offer various enhancements in their
attributecharacteristics,whichincreasestheutilityofthedata.Unfortunately,problemsassociated
withthepositionalaccuracyofthesedatasetsusuallyremainandaremuchmoredifficulttoresolve.
Satelliteanddigitalorthophotoimagery,rasterGISdatasets,andtabulardatasetsarealsoavailable
fromvariousdataproducingcompaniesandgovernmentagencies.

TransferSpecifications
Many government agencies produce spatial data which is in its own unique format. Many full
featureGISpackageshavetheabilitytoimportgovernmentspatialdatasetsintodatalayerswhich
are usable within their own environment. Some agencies or companies may produce their data in
themostcommondataformatsforgovernmentdatainthetransferoftheirdata(e.g.TIGERorDLG
format).Suchpoliciesallowforeasytransfertovarioussystems.

QualityControlChecks
Qualitycontrolchecksonexternaldatasetswillbenecessary.Manygovernmentdatasets,although
extensiveintheirgeographiccoverageandintheutilityoftheassociateddata,donotalwayshave
the most accurate or complete data, particularly in terms of positional accuracy. It is always
advisable to be skeptical of a dataset's accuracy statement and compliance with standards and to
fully test and evaluate the data beforepurchasing it or incorporating it into the database. Various
automatedandmanualqualitycontrolprocedures,discussedforbothassessingcartographicfeature
andattributecharacteristicsshouldbeutilizedinaqualityassuranceevaluationoftheexternaldata.

8.ACCURACYANDFINALACCEPTANCECRITERIA
Acceptancecriteriadeterminetowhatstandardsdatamustcomplyinordertobeusablewithinthe
system.Graphicacceptancestandardsforexternaldigitaldatamaybeidentifiedinthreedifferent
cartographic quality types which include: relative accuracy, absolute accuracy and graphic quality.
StandardsforGISdatawillnormallydependupontheaccuracyrequiredofthedataset.IntheGIS
environment,accuracywilldependuponthescaleatwhichthedataisdigitized,andatwhichscaleit
ismeanttobeused.

Relativeaccuracyisbasicallyameasureofthenormaldeviationbetweentwoobjectsona
map and is normally described in terms of + or the number of measurement units
(normallyinchesorfeet)thefeatureislocatedapartfromitsneighboringmapfeatures,as
comparedtotheirlocationsintherealworld.

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Absoluteaccuracycriteriawillevaluatethemeasureofthemaximumdeviationbetweenthe
locationofthedigitalmapfeatureanditslocationintherealworld.Manyorganizationsset
theirabsoluteaccuracystandardsbaseduponNationalMapAccuracyStandards.
GraphicQualityreferstothevisualcartographicdisplayqualityofthedata,andpertainsto
aspects such as the data's legibility on the display, the logical consistency of map graphic
representations, and adherence to common graphic standards. Placement and legibility of
annotation,linework,andothercommonmapelementsallfallundergraphicquality.

Informationalqualityisanotheraccuracycriteriacomponentwhichshouldbegivenmuchattention
in building a database. Informational quality relates to the level of accuracy for both map graphic
features and to their corresponding tabular attribute data. There are four basic categories for
assessingthesequalities:

completeness
correctness
timeliness
integrity

Together,theseaspectsofinformationalqualitycomprisetheextenttowhichthedatasetwillmeet
thebasicrequirementsfordataconversionacceptance.
Completeness isan assessment of the dataset's existing features against what should currently be
located within the dataset. Completeness may relate to a number of digital map features:
annotation symbols, textual annotation, linework. Completeness will also relate to the attribute
data, and whether all of the necessary attributes are accounted for. A typical requirement for the
bottomlimitofdatasetcompleteness,whenoutsourcingconversion,isthatnotmorethan1%ofthe
required features and attributes will be missing from the digital dataset. For example, out of 80
roadsthatarelocatedwithinageographicarea,ifonly72areincludedonthemap,thenonly90%of
thedataisincluded,andthusthemapisonly90%complete.
Correctness is that quality which relates to the truth and full knowledge of the information
contained. If a map shows a number of roads, and the linework is positioned correctly, but is not
labeledcorrectly,thereisaproblemwithcorrectness.Correctnessappliesbothtomapfeaturesand
toattributedata.Ifadatasethasthepositionalaccuracy,orthecompletenessintermsofplacingan
object,butdoesnothavethecorrectlabelforthatobject,thisisaproblemwiththecorrectnessof
the dataset. Evaluating correctness can be done through automated or manual procedures.
Validationproceduresarethosewhichwouldbeutilizedinthetestingofthedatasets.Anexample
ofassessingcorrectnessmightincludethematchingofonedatasetsourceagainstanothertocheck
fordataaccuracyfromthevariousmatchingqualities.Everygraphicanddatabasefeaturehasthe
potentialforerror.
Timeliness is another measure of informational quality, and it is a unique form of correctness.
Timelinessisbaseduponthecurrencyofadataset,andifitisnotuptodate,orcurrent,thenthe
dataset must be of a specified age. The timeliness of a dataset begins from the date the dataset

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arrivesattheclient'sdoor.Fromthatpointon,itis theresponsibilityoftheclientorganizationto
maintainthedata,anditscurrency.
Theintegrityofadatasetisameasureofitsutility.Graphically,databaseintegritymeansthatthe
dataset is maintaining its connectivity and topological consistency. In it, all lines are connected,
there are no line overshoots or undershoots, and all feature on the display are representative of
realworld features. In order to maintain database integrity, there should not be any missing or
duplicaterecordsorfeatures.

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Chapter3:NeedsAssessment
1.INTRODUCTION
AneedsassessmentisthefirststepinimplementingasuccessfulGISwithinanylocalgovernment.A
needsassessmentisasystematiclookathowdepartmentsfunctionandthespatialdataneededto
dotheirwork.Inadditiontothefinalneedsassessmentreportthatisgenerated,intangiblebenefits
are realized by an organization. Conducting a GIS needs assessment fosters cooperation and
enhanced communication among departments by working together on a common technology and
new set of tools. Finally, the needs assessment activity itself serves as a learning tool where
potential users in each participating department learns about GIS and how it can serve the
department.
A needs assessment is required if the local government will be adopting a GIS throughout the
organization.Withoutacompleteneedsassessmenteachdepartmentmightproceedtoadopttheir
ownsystemanddatabasewhichmayormaynotbecompatiblewiththoseofanotherdepartment.
The largest benefit for a local government adopting a GIS is to realize efficiencies from common
"basedata"andthesharingofdataamongdepartments.
Attheconclusionofaneedsassessment,anorganizationwillhavealloftheinformationneededto
plan the development of a GIS system. This information can be grouped into the following
categories:

Applications to be developed. In evaluating the responsibilities and work flow within a

department,certaintasksareidentifiedthatcanbedonemoreefficientlyoreffectivelyina
GIS.ThesetaskswillformthebasisofGISapplications.Applicationdescriptionspreparedas
partoftheneedsassessmentwilldescribethesetasks.
GIS functions required. For each application identified, certain GIS functions will be
required.Thesewillincludestandardoperationssuchasqueryanddisplay,spatialanalysis
functions such as routing, overlay analysis, buffering, and possibly advanced analysis
requiringspecialprogramming.
DataneededintheGISdatabase.Mostdepartmentsinlocalgovernmentusedatathathas
aspatialcomponent.Muchofthisdataarehardcopymapsortabulardatasetsthathavea
spatial identifier such as addresses and zip codes or XY values (latitudelongitude, state
plane coordinates, or other coordinate system). A needs assessment will identify how this
informationwillbeusedbyGISapplications.
Data maintenance procedures. By looking at the work flow and processes within and
between departments, responsibility for data creation, updates and maintenance will
becomeapparent.

Note: The needs assessment procedure refers to a local government and its departments as the
organizational units. In a multiagency GIS cooperative, the same activities described would be
carried out by all participants, at the appropriate level of detail as determined by the role each
participantwouldplayintheresultingGIScooperative.

33|P a g e

Onceallofthisinformationiscollectedandanalyzedforeachdepartmentandpublishedinareport,
it can be used as a blueprint for implementing the GIS. The GIS coordinating group within the
organizationwilluseitto:

DesigntheGISdatabase
IdentifyGISsoftwarethatwillmeetthegovernment'sneeds
Prepareanimplementationplan
StartestimatingthebenefitsandcostsofaGIS

Acommonmistakeinperforminganeedsassessmentistosimplytakeaninventoryofthemapsand
spatialdatacurrentlyusedineachdepartment.Therearetwomajorproblemswiththisapproach.
First,thisdoesnotallowtheGIScoordinatinggrouptoevaluatehowaGIScouldbeusedtoenhance
theworkofeachdepartmentandtheagencyasawhole.Bylookingatthedepartmentfunctions
andwhatthedepartmentdoesorproduces,theGIScoordinatinggroupandpotentialusersdevelop
anunderstandingoftheroleGIScanplayintheorganization.Theexistingdataandmapsdoneedto
be inventoried and may well be used in building the GIS, however such an inventory should be
separatefromtheneedsassessment.
Thesecondmajorproblemwiththe"datainventory"approachisthatittendstofocusonlyondata
internaltotheorganization.Localgovernmentsrelyheavilyondatafromoutsidesourcesfederal
agencies,stateagencies,business,etc.Theneedforthesedataisbetterdeterminedbylookingat
the potential GIS applications and how data will be used by each application. It can then be
determinedwhatdatashouldbeacquiredfromothersources.

2.CONDUCTINGANEEDSASSESSMENT
The most significant aspect of a needs assessment is to document the findings in a standard and
structuredmanner.Itisveryimportanttoadopt(ordevelop)astandardmethodtobeusedforthe
description of all the GIS tasks, processes and data that will be included in the needs assessment.
TheseformswillbeusedinneedsassessmenttoidentifythethreekindsofGISrequirements:

GISapplicationsthesewillbetasksthatcanbeperformedbytheGISwhenauserrequires
them, such as preparing a map, processing a query, or conducting some particular GIS
analysis. GIS applications can be described using the five page GIS Applications forms
includedwiththisguideasAppendixA.
GISactivitythesearesituationswhereinformationneedstobekeptonsomeactivityor
process important to the user, such as issuing building permits, conducting public health
inspections,etc.AGISactivitycanbedescribedusingpages1and4oftheGISApplications
formsthemainapplicationformandthedataflowdiagramming(DFD)form.
GIS data there will be certain categories of spatial data that are important to keep, but
which will not appear in any GIS application or activity identified in any application
description. A separate method must be developed to systematically record the need for
suchdata.OtherGISdataneededbutnotincludedineitheroftheabovecategories,canbe
entereddirectlyintothemasterdatalist.

P a g e |34

The main methodused tocollect theinformationtoenterontotheformsisindividualinterviews.

PotentialusersoftheGIScanbeidentifiedbymanagementandbyexaminationoftheorganization
chart. A series of oneonone interviews is the best way to identify the users needs. During the
interview,theusercanusuallyidentifydocumentsthatcanprovideadditionalinformationtotheGIS
analyst.

Theneedsassessmentactivityiscomposedoftwomainparts:
InterviewinganddocumentingtheneedsofpotentialGISusers

CompilingtheresultsoftheneedsassessmentintothemasterdatalistandthelistofGISfunctions.
These two lists respectively are used to prepare the GIS data model and the GIS specifications
(activitiesdescribedunderConceptualDesign).
TheinterviewprocessshouldidentifyanddescribeallanticipatedusesoftheGIS.Thenextsection
briefly describes the major categories of GIS use, followed by a detailed description on how to
completetheneedsassessmentforms.

3.LOCALGOVERNMENTUSESOFGIS
Theuseofgeographicinformationsystemsbylocalgovernmentfallsintofivemajorcategories:

Browse
Simpledisplay(automatedmapping);
Queryanddisplay;
Mapanalysis;and
Spatialmodeling.

Browse
Thisfunctionisequivalenttothehumanactofreadingamaptofindparticularfeaturesorpatterns.
Browsing usually leads to identification of items of interest and subsequent retrieval and
manipulationbymanualmeans.Forsinglemaps,orrelativelysmallareas,thehumanbrainisvery
efficient at browsing. However, as data volumes increase, automated methods are required to
effectivelyextractanduseinformationfromthemap.

SimpleDisplay
ThisGISfunctionisthegenerationofamapordiagrambycomputer.Suchmapsanddiagramsare
oftensimplereproductionofthesamemapsusedinapreviousmanualorientedGISenvironment.
Examplesofthistypeofusearepreparationofa1:1000scaletownmap,asketchofanapproved
siteplan,mapsofcensusdata,etc.

QueryandDisplay
Thisfunctionsupportstheposingofspecificquestionstoageographicdatabase,withtheselection
criteria usually being geographic in nature. A typical simple query would be: "draw a map of the
locationofallnewresidentialunitsbuiltduring1989"Amorecomplexquerymightbe:"drawamap

35|P a g e

of all areas within the town where actual new residential units built in 1989 exceeds growth
predictions."Suchaquerycouldbepartofagrowthmanagementactivitywithinthetown.Queries
maybeintheformofregular,oftenaskedquestionsormaybeadhoc,specificpurposequestions.
TheabilitytorespondtoavarietyofquestionsisoneofthemostusefulfeaturesofaGISinitsearly
stages of operation. In the long run, other more sophisticated applications of the GIS may have a
highervalueorbenefit,buttoachievethesetypesofbenefits,usersmustbefamiliarwiththeGIS
anditscapabilities.SuchfamiliarizationisachievedthroughtheuseofaGISforthesimplertasksof
queryanddisplay.

MapAnalysis(MapOverlay)
ThisinvolvesusingtheanalyticalcapabilitiesofGIStodefinerelationshipsbetweenlayersofspatial
data.Mapanalysisisthesuperimpositionofonemapuponanothertodeterminethecharacteristics
of a particular site (e.g., combining a land use map with a map of flood prone areas to show
potential residential areas at risk for flooding). Map analysis (often termed overlay or topological
overlay) was one of the first real uses of GIS. Many government organizations, particularly those
managingnaturalresources,haveaneedtocombinedatafromdifferentmaps(vegetation,landuse,
soils, geology, ground water, etc.). The overlay function was developed to accomplish the super
impositionofmapsinacomputer.Thedataarerepresentedaspolygons,orareas,intheGISdata
base,witheachtypeofdatarecordedonaseparate"layer."Thecombinationoflayersisdoneby
calculatingthelogicalintersectionofpolygonsontwoormoremaplayers.Inadditiontocombining
multiple "layers" of polygontype data, the map overlay function also permits the combination of
point data with area data (pointinpolygon). This capability would be very useful in a town for
combiningstreetaddresses(fromtheAssessor'sfiles)withotherdatasuchasparceloutlines,census
tract,environmentalareas,etc.Manyfacilitysitingproblems,locationdecisions,andlandevaluation
studieshavesuccessfullyusedthisprocedureinthepast.

SpatialModeling
Thisapplicationistheuseofspatialmodelsorothernumericalanalysismethodstocalculateavalue
of interest. The calculation of flow in a sewer system is an example of spatial modeling. Spatial
modeling is the most demanding use of a GIS and provides the greatest benefit. Most spatial
modelingtasksareverydifficulttoperformbyhandandarenotusuallydoneunlessacomputerized
system,suchasaGIS,isavailable.Thesemodelsallowengineersandplannerstoevaluatealternate
solutions to problems by asking "what if" type questions. A spatial model can predict the result
expectedfromadecisionorsetofdecisions.Thequalityoftheresultisonlyasgoodasthemodel,
but the ability to test solutions before decisions have to be made usually provides very useful
informationtodecisionmakers.Onceagain,thistypeofuseofaGISwillevolveovertime,astheGIS
isimplementedandused.
A closely related computer capability is a CAD system (computer aided design). CAD systems are
usedtopreparedetaileddrawingsandplansforengineeringandplanningapplications.WhileCAD
systems functions are different from GIS functions, many commercial CAD products have some of
thefunctionalitynormallyfoundinaGIS.Thereare,however,significantdifferencesbetweenaCAD
systemandaGIS,mainlyinthestructureofthedatabase.TheremaybesomeneedforCADtype
capabilitiesinaparticularlocalgovernment,sothisformsanothercategoryofuse.

P a g e |36

Ingeneral,geographicinformationinlocalgovernmentisusedto:

Respondtopublicinquiries,
Performroutineoperationssuchasapplicationreviewsandpermitapprovals,and
Provideinformationonthelargerpolicyissuesrequiringactionbythetownboard.

These are typical local government activities which benefit from a geographic information system.
ThedevelopmentofGISwillfacilitatethepresentgeographicinformationhandlingtasksandshould
leadtothedevelopmentofadditionalapplicationsofbenefittothelocalgovernment.
TherearealsoothercomputersystemsinlocalgovernmentsthatperformGISlikefunctions,suchas
Emergency 911, underground utility locator systems, school bus routing systems, etc. The variety
anddiversityofGISapplicationsarewhatmake thedefinitionofaGISverydifficult.Basically,any
computer system where the data have one or more spatial identifiers or that perform spatial
operations can be classed as a GIS. For example, a system containing street addresses and census
tractcodesandthathastheabilitytoplaceagivenstreetaddressinthepropercensustractisaGIS
whetherornotmapboundariesarepartofthesystem.Therearetwoimportantpointshere:

Alargeproportionoflocalgovernmentdatadoeshaveoneofmorespatialidentifiers,and
thereforehasthepotentialofbeingpartofaGIS.
Other, existing systems with GIS data or performing GISlike functions must be integrated
intotheoverallsystemdesign.GISshouldnotbedevelopedasaseparatesystem.

Whether a local government unit is considering or planning a "full, multipurpose GIS" or is only
interested in a limited or single function system, the database planning and design considerations
arethesame.Onlythemagnitudeoftheanalysisanddesignactivitiesdiffer.SomeGISusersbelieve
thatsmallerandsimplerapplications,suchasaschoolbusroutingsystem,donotrequireaformal
planning activity. There are, however, several reasons to conduct such a planning activity for the
smallerapplications:

Toensurethattheuserrequirementswillbefullymet
To develop documentation, especially data documentation (metadata), needed to use and
maintaintheGIS
Tobeinapositiontoparticipateindatasharingprogramswithotheragenciesasadditional
applicationsaredeveloped
To create a permanent record of the data and its use to document agency plans and
decisions,andtomeetdataretentionandarchivingrequirements.
Touseasabaseforbuildingalarger,multifunctionatsomelaterdate.

ThelevelofeffortneededtocompleteaGISplancanbekeptcommensuratewiththescopeandsize
of the intended GIS. Further, the GIS planning software tool that accompanies these guidelines
providesaneasyandconvenientwaytocreatetherecommendeddocumentation.

37|P a g e

4.DATAUSEDBYLOCALGOVERNMENT
TherearemanykindsofdatausedbylocalgovernmentthatcanbeincludedinaGIS.DatainaGIS
canbeoneoftwotypes:spatialdataandnonspatialdata.Spatialdataisthatdatawhichistaken
frommaps,aerialphotographs,satelliteimagery,etc.Itiscomposedofspatialentities,relationships
betweentheseentities,andattributesdescribingtheseentities.Nonspatialdataisusuallytabular
datatakenfromtables,lists,etc.Mostofthetime,thenonspatialdatawillbelinkedtooneormore
spatialentitiesbykeys(uniqueidentifiersassociatedwiththespatialdataandnonspatialdata).For
example, the tax map would represent the spatial data while the real property inventory is non
spatialdata,whichislinkedtotheentities(parcels)onthetaxmap.
Spatialdataiscommonlyrepresentedbygeometricobjects(points,line,andpolygons).Nonspatial
datacontainingaspatialreferenceisalsoconsideredspatialdata.Oneofthemostcommonformsof
thistypeofdatainlocalgovernmentarerecordsandfilesreferencedbystreetaddress.
ExamplesoflocalgovernmentdatathathavebeenusedwithGISinclude:
Taxparcels

Landusemaps

Realpropertyinventories

Zoningmaps

Infrastructuredata

Planimetrics

Watersystem

Rightofway

Sewersystem

Waterways
(streams)

Electric

BuildingOutlines

Censusdata

Permitrecords

TheoperationsrequiredinaGISmustmeetthedatahandlingrequirements ofthespatialdataas
well as those of the nonspatial data. The most common use of a GIS in local government is the
querybasedonattributekeysandthendisplayedinmapform.

5.DOCUMENTINGGISNEEDS
TheGISneedsaredocumentedusingthefollowingforms:
A.TheGISApplicationDescription(5pages),usedto:

Describeproducts(mostlymapdisplays)producedbytheGIS
DescribeactivitiessupportedbytheGIS

B.TheMasterDataList
MostGISapplicationscanbedescribedusingtheGISApplicationDescription.Incaseswherethese
forms are not appropriate, any other systematic description of the need can be used. If more
appropriate,differentformscanbedevelopedaslongasthesameinformationcanbesystematically
recorded:thedatarequiredandtheGISfunctionsneedtodeveloptheGISproduct.
ThesetofformsusedtodocumentaGIScontainsthefollowingfivepages:

P a g e |38

1.GISApplicationDescriptionForm

Usethisformtoenter:
Applicationidentificationinformation
Applicationdescriptionandpurpose
Typeofapplication,mapscale,querykey,frequency,andrequiredresponsetime
Dataneededbytheapplication
a. Entities(features)
b. Attributesofentities

2.MapDisplayForm
Usethisformtodrawasampleofanymapstobeproducedbytheapplication(includingthelegend
showingsymbolsforeachfeature).Thiscanbeahanddrawnsketch,althoughitshouldbedrawnto
thescaleoftheoutputdesired.
3.TableDisplayForm
Usethisformtoshowsamplesofanytablestobeproducedbytheapplication(usedonlyiftables
areneededintheapplication).Ifanyentriesinthetableinvolvecomplexcalculations,theseshould
bedescribedusingeitheraDataFlowDiagramorotherseparatepages.
4.DataFlowDiagram
Usethisformtodrawadataflowdiagramorflowchartwhenanapplicationiscomplex.Thischartis
usually drawn by the GIS analyst or someone else familiar with the diagraming techniques, and is
usedtodocumentcomplexcalculationsordescriptionsofactivitiesthatwillneedGISsupport.
5.EntityRelationshipDiagram
Usethisformtodrawanentityrelationship(ER)diagramofthedatausedintheapplication.This
drawingisusuallydonebytheGISanalystorsomeoneelsefamiliarwiththeERtechnique,andis
onlydoneformorecomplexGISapplications.

6.DOCUMENTINGANACTIVITYTYPEUSEOFTHEGIS
Some GIS applications in local government do not involve the production of maps and tables. For
example,aGISmaybeusedtorecordandstoreinformationaboutabuildingpermitapplication,a
subdivision plat, a site plan, etc. Many activities of local government are simply the processing of
permitsfromindividualsorfirms.IfanyoftheseactivitieswillalsogenerateGISdata,theyshouldbe
described for the needs assessment. Two techniques available for describing processes are flow
chartsanddataflowdiagrams.
Acompletedapplicationdescriptionforalocalgovernmentactivityofthistypecanbeenteredon
pages1and4oftheGISApplicationDescriptionforms.

39|P a g e

7.THEMASTERDATALIST
Themasterdatalistisacompositeofalldataentities(features)andtheirattributesthathavebeen
entered in the data section of the GIS Application Description (Page 1). Other data identified by
usersas"needed,"butnotincludedinanyapplicationdescriptionmaybeentereddirectlyintothe
masterdatalist.
Figure3MasterDataList
MasterDataList
Entity

Attributes

SpatialObject

Street_segment

name,address_range

Line

Street_intersection

street_names

Line

Parcel

section_block_lot#,
owner_name,

Polygon

owner_address,
area,

depth,front_footage,

assessed_value,last_sale_date,

last_sale_price,
owner_name,

owner_address, assessed_value

(as

ofpreviousJanuary1st)

Building

building_id,date_built,

Footprint

building_material,

building_assessed_value

Occupancy

occupant_name,
occupant_address,

None

occupancy_type_code

Street_segment

name,type,width,length,

Polygon

pavement_type

Street_intersection

length,
width,
Polygon
traffins_flow_conditions,

intersecting_streets

Water_main

type,
size,
installation_date

Valve

type,installation_date

Hydrant

type,installation_date,pressure, Node

site_address,

size,

material,

Line
Node

P a g e |40

last_pressure_test_date

Service

name,
address,
invalid_indicator

Soil

soil_code,area

Polygon

Wetland

wetland_code,area

Polygon

Floodplain

flood_code,area

Polygon

Traffins_zone

zone_ID#,area

Polygon

Census_tract

tract#,population

Polygon

Water_District

name,ID_number

Polygon

Zoning

zoning_code,area

Polygon

type,

None

8.CONDUCTINGINTERVIEWS
Individual interviews are the most effective way of finding out from users their potential GIS
applications. Before starting interviews, a briefing session for all potential users should be held.
Duringthismeeting,theinterviewersshoulddescribetheentireneedsassessmentproceduretoall
participants.Themainactivitieswillbe:

Conduct"startup"seminarorworkshop
Intervieweachpotentialuser
Preparedocumentation(forms)foreachapplication,etc.
Revieweachapplicationdescriptionwiththeuser
Obtainuserapprovalofandsignoffforeachapplicationdescription

Anintroductoryseminarorworkshopwithallpotentialusersinattendanceisusefultopreparethe
wayforuserinterviews.Atthebeginningofaproject,manyusersmaynothavemuchknowledge
aboutGISorhowitmighthelpthem.Also,theinterviewteammaybefromoutsidetheorganization
and may not be very familiar with the structure of the particular local government. The startup
seminarshouldaddressthefollowingtopics:

Definitions:
1. WhatisaGIS?
2. HowisaGISusedbylocalgovernment?(Typicalapplications)
Interviewproceduretobefollowed:
1. Whattheintervieweewilldo?
2. Whatisexpectedfromtheinterviewee?
3. Whoapprovestheapplicationdescriptions?
4. Howtheinformationfromtheapplicationdescriptionswillbeused?
Groupdiscussion:ItisoftenusefultohavethegroupidentifyaninitialsetofGISapplications
as candidates for further documentation. The discussion of possible applications between
interviewersanduserswillstarttorevealwhatissuitableforaGISapplication.Oneormore

41|P a g e

applicationscanbedescribedintheprocessbythegroupsoeveryoneseeshowtheprocess
willwork.
It is preferable to interview users individually rather than in groups. This provides a better
opportunitytoexploretheideasofeachpersonandalsopreventsotherindividualsfromdominating
anyparticularmeeting.GroupmeetingseasilylosefocusonspecificGISapplicationsandtherefore
donotprovidethedetailedinformationneededtoadequatelydescribetheGISapplications.
Conductinganinterviewisnotaneasytask.SomepotentialusersmayhaveagoodgraspofGISand
how they might use one. However, often potential users do not have complete knowledge of the
capabilities of a GIS and therefore may not be able to readily identify GIS applications. In these
cases, the interviewer (GIS analyst) needs to help the user explore his/her job activities and
responsibilitiestoidentifyGISopportunities.TheGISanalystshouldusuallybeginaninterviewwitha
review of the procedure, then ask the user to identify and describe potential applications. When
specific GIS applications cannot be easily identified, it is helpful if potential users describe, in
general,his/herjobfunctionsandresponsibilitiesandtheroletheirdepartmentplaysinthewhole
organization.Fromthisdiscussion,theGISanalystcanusuallyidentifypotentialGISapplicationsand
thenexploretheseforpossibleinclusionintheneedsassessment.

9.PREPARINGTHENEEDSASSESSMENTREPORT
The needs assessment report consists of the application descriptions, the master data list, and
severalsummarytables.Alistofallapplicationssummarizingthetypeandfrequencyofuseisthe
firsttable.
Figure5ListofGISApplications
App#

ApplicationName

Type

Frequency

ZoningQuery

Query&Display

85/day

CustomerPhoneInquiry

Query&Display

100/day

FireDispatchMap

Query&Display

86/day

FireRedistrictingMap

MapAnalysis

1/year

CrimeSummaryMap

Query&Display

12/month

PatrolDispatchMap

Query&Display

133/day

ComplaintSummaryMap

Query&Display

624/year

SubdivisionDevelopmentMap

Query&Display

Noestimate

CounterQueryMap

Query&Display

85/day

10

LandUse/LandValue

MapDisplay

1/year

11

AssessedValueMap

Query&Display

144/year

12

GrievanceMap

Query&Display

2500/year

13

ComparableValueMap

Query&Display

Noestimate

P a g e |42

14

Built/VacantMap

Display

1/year

15

WaterandSewerLineMap

Query&Display

30/month

16

HydrologicProfileMap

SpatialModel

1440/year

17

SewerSystemFlowAnalysis

SpatialModel

12/year

18

EmergencyRepairMap

Query&Display

110/year

19

StormDrainageMap

SpatialModel

700/year

20

FireFlowTestMap

SpatialModel

260/year

21

EasementMap

Query&Display

520/year

22

ZoningMap

Query&Display

50/day

23

FloodplainMap

Query&Display

50/day

24

YouthLeagueResidency

CheckQuery&Display 3500/year

25

MosquitoControlAreaMap

Query&Display

50/year

26

SitePlanApprovalProcess

Query&Display

200/year

27

CensusDataMap

Display

48/year

28

PopulationDensityMap

MapAnalysis

50/year

29

LandUseInventory

Display

24/year

30

RetailSpaceProjection

SpatialModel

24/year

31

OfficeSpaceProjection

SpatialModel

12/year

32

TrafficVolumeMap

Query&Display

24/year

ThistablecontainsselectedGISapplicationsfromtheTownofAmherst,N.Y.NeedsAssessment
Figure6TablesSummarizingApplicationsExamples
GISApplicationbyDepartmentbyType
Department

Display

Query&Dispatch

MapAnalysis

SpatialModel

Total

FireDispatch

Police

Assessor

Engineering

15

Building

Recreation

Highway

10

11

Planning

10

12

28

Total

17

46

10

76

The data from the table above can be used to prepare tables like the one below, summarizing
applicationsbydepartmentandthefrequencyofapplicationsbydepartment.

43|P a g e

GISApplicationbyDepartmentbyFrequency
Department

Display

Query&Display

MapAnalysis

SpatialModel

Total

FireDispatch

94,170

100

94,271

Police

49,637

49,637

Assessor

23,894

23,896

Engineering

18

2,049

3,452

5,519

Building

250

25,000

25,250

Recreation

3,520

3,520

Highway

1,475

10

1,485

Planning

718

2,536

80

40

3,374

Total

988

202,281

81

3,602

206,952

NumbersinthesetablesarefromtheTownofAmherst,N.Y.needsassessmentandrepresentthe
estimatesofGISuseperyear.ThesenumberswillbeusedduringthedatabasePlanningandDesign
phase to estimate usage and benefits, of the GIS. In this example, for the Town of Amherst, it is
estimatedthat2.5minutesofstafftimewillbesavedforeachquerygivingatotalsavingsof4.03
yearsstafftime/year(202,281times2.5minutesdividedby60minutes/hourdividedby2088hours
peryear).
ThelasttablerelatesGISapplicationstothedatausedbyeachapplication.
Figure7GISApplications/DataItemMatrix
Application/DataItemMatrix

Land
Parcels

Roads

Buildings

Water
Mains

Fire
Hydrants

Wetland
Areas

#1LeakDetectionMap

#2
Customer
Report<

#4HydraulicModelAnalysis

Service

#3PressureTestMap

#5WorkCrewSchedule

Thismatrixisusefulinplanningandschedulingdataconversion.Ifapplicationsareprioritized,then
data needed by high priority applications can be scheduled for conversion early in the conversion
process.Also,ifsomedataisnotavailableforsomereason,itispossibletodeterminetheaffected
applications.
ThelaststepincompilingtheneedsassessmentreportistoextractthelistofGISfunctionsneeded
from the application descriptions. This list will include the standard function types of display and
query and display plus any other functions included in a data flow diagram or flow chart. Typical
examplesofsuchGISfunctionsare:calculatedistancebetweenobjects,determinetheshortestpath
throughanetwork,etc.Figure8isanexampleofaGISfunctionslist.

P a g e |44

Figure8GISFunctionList
GISFunctions/ProceduresList
GIS Functions
CandidateGISs
(from
Generic GIS ARC/INFO
Application
Functions
Basic
Macro
Description)

INTERGRAPH

SYSTEM9

Basic Macro

Basic Macro

Screen
Display

ARCPLOT

YES

YES

Plotter
Display

ARCPLOT

YES

YES

Generate
Report

INFO

YES

YES

Query

Attribute
Query

INFO

YES

YES

SpatialQuery

Spatial
Search

IDENTIFY

YES

YES

Overlay

ARC

YES

YES

Buffer

ARC

YES

YES

Reclassify

ARC

YES

YES

ShortestPath

Shortest
Path

NETWORK

NO

YES

Route

Route

NETWORK

NO

YES

Hydraulic
Model

AML

YES

YES

Display

MapAnalysis

The list of GIS functions and the master data list will be used in subsequent tasks to design the
databaseandpreparetheGISspecifications.

10.SUMMARY
The procedure presented in the guideline for preparing a needs assessment is based on
documentingGISapplicationsinastandardformat.Thecomponentsofthisformatarestructuredto
facilitate communication between potential GIS users and the GIS analyst, and to provide specific
anddetailedinformationtotheGISanalystfordesigningtheGIS.Thefirstpageoftheapplication
descriptionisthemostcriticaltotheGISanalystasanindicationoftheGISfunctionalityrequiredby
theapplication.IfadditionalinformationontheGISfunctionalityisneeded,thanaflowchartordata
flowdiagramcan bedeveloped(page 4oftheapplicationdescription).Forthepotentialuser,the
map display and report format describe output he/she will receive. These pages should be
sufficiently detailed for the user to approve or signoff as to the correctness of the application

45|P a g e

description.Itis,ofcourse,veryimportantthattheentireGISapplicationdescriptionbeinternally
consistent.
The entityrelationship diagram is mainly useful in the next phase of the GIS design Conceptual
Design,wherethedatamodelfortheentiresystemwillbedefined.Ifentityrelationshipdiagrams
arepreparedforindividualapplications,theywillthanbeavailablefortheConceptualDesignphase.
Otherwise,thesediagramcanbepreparedduringtheConceptualDesignphase.

46

Chapter4:PilotStudiesandBenchmark
Tests
1.INTRODUCTION
Prior to making a commitment to a new technology like GIS, it is important to consider testing
conceptsandphysicaldesignsfordevelopmentofsuchasystemwithinalocalgovernment.Thiscan
be done by performing a pilot study to determine if GIS can be useful in the daily conduct of
business and, if so, further conducting a benchmark test to determine the best hardware and
softwarecombinationtomeetspecificneeds.
NumerousGISpilotstudiesandbenchmarktestshavebeenconductedbylocalgovernmentswithin
thestateandacrossthenation.DecisionsondeploymentofGISshouldnotbebasedsolelyonother
experience.Managersandendusersrespondbesttorelevantlocaldataandactualapplications,and
will learn more readily if they have first hand experience defining and conducting a pilot study on
benchmarktestinhouse.

2.PILOTSTUDY:PROVINGTHECONCEPT
PlanningaPilotStudy
A pilot study provides the opportunity for a local government to evaluate the feasibility of
integrating a GIS into the daytoday functions of its' operating units. Implementing GIS is a major
undertaking.Apilotstudyprovidesalimitedbutusefulinsightintowhatitwilltaketoimplement
GIS within the organization. Proving the concept, measuring performance, and uncovering
problems during a pilot study, which runs concurrent with detailed system planning, database
planning,anddesign,ismorebeneficialthanpressingforwardwithimplementationwithoutthis
knowledge.
To maximize the usefulness of the pilot study, it must be planned and designed to match the
organizations work flow, functions, and goals as described in the GIS needs assessment. The pilot
studywillbesuccessfulifithasthesupportandinvolvementofuppermanagementandstafffrom
theoutset.Thisinvolvementwillprovidetheopportunitytoevaluatemanagementandstaffability
tolearnandadoptnewtechnology.

ObjectivesofaPilotStudy
ApilotstudyisafocusedtesttoprovetheutilityofGISwithinalocalgovernment.ItisnotafullGIS
implementationnorisitsimplyaGISdemonstration;butratheratestofhowGIScanbedeployed
within an organization to improve operations. It is the platform for testing preliminary design
assumptions,dataconversionstrategies,andsystemapplications.Aproperlyplannedandexecuted
pilotstudyshould:

createasampleofthedatabase

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testthequalityofsourcedocuments
testapplications
testdatamanagementandmaintenanceprocedures
estimatedatavolumes
estimatecostsfordataconversion
estimatecostsforstafftraining

The pilot study should be limited to a small number of departments or GIS functions and a small
geographic area. The pilot study should be application or function driven. Even though data
conversionwilltakeamajorportionofthepilotstudydevelopmenttime,itistheuseofthedata
thatisimportant.WhattheGIScandowiththedataprovesthefunctionalityandfeasibilityofGISin
local government. The Needs Assessment document has identified applications, data required,
sources of data, etc. In addition, a conceptual database design has been previously developed.
Followingisalistofproceduresforcarryingoutapilotstudy:

selectapplicationsfromneedsassessment
determinestudyarea
reviewconceptualdatabasedesign
determineconversionstrategy
developphysicaldatabasedesign
procureconversionservicesanddevelopconversionworkplan
commencesourcepreparationandscrubbing
developacceptancecriteriaandqcplan
developdatamanagementandmaintenanceprocedures
testapplication
evaluateandquantifyresults
preparecostestimates

SelectingApplicationstoInclude
Caremustbetakentoselectavarietyofapplicationsappropriatetotestthefunctionalcapabilities
ofGISandtheentiredatabasestructure.AreviewoftheNeedsAssessmentreportshouldprovide
selective applications to meet these requirements. Make sure to include data administration
applications along with end user/operations applications. Data loading, backups, editing and QC
routines have little user appeal, but they represent important functions that the organization will
relyondailytoupdateandmaintaintheGISdatabase.
Datatobetestedinthepilotstudycaneitherbepurchasedfromexternalsourcesorconvertedfrom
inhousemaps,photos,drawings,documentsanddatabases.Inanyevent,thedatashouldrepresent
the full mix and range of data expected to be included with the final database. It should include
samplesofarchivedorlegacysystemrecordsanddocumentsiftheyareplannedtobeincludedin
theGISinthefuture.Allpotentialdatatypesandformatsshouldbeconsideredforthepilot.Thisis
thechancetotestthewholeprocessofintegratingandmanagingdata,togetherwiththeutilityof
the data in a GIS environment and different conversion and compression methods, before final
decisionsaremade.

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SpatialExtentofthePilotStudy
Selectionofthestudyareashouldaddressseveralissues:

Datadensity
Representativesampling
Seamlessvs.sheetwiseconversionorstorage

Chooseanarea(orareas)ofinterestthatrepresentstherangeofdatadensityandcomplexity.Make
surethatalldataentitiestobetestedexistintheareaofinterest.Thiswillprovidearepresentative
datasetandallowtheextrapolationofdatavolumesandconversioncostsfortherangeofdataover
theentireconversionarea.
To measure hardware performance the selected area should be chosen to match the file or map
sheet size the end user will normally work with. Be aware that even if the data is currently
representedassinglemapsheetsatavarietyofscales,theGISwillstorethedataasa"seamless"
dataset.

PreliminaryDataConversionSpecifications
Asetofdataconversionspecificationsneedtobedefinedforeachoftherequireddatalayersinthe
testdatasets.Theconversionspecsneedtoaddress....

Accuracy
Reliability
Coverage
Convenience
Completeness
Condition
Timeliness
Readability
Correctness
Precedence
Credibility
Maintainability
Validity
Metadata

The foundation of the GIS is derived from the conversion process which creates a topologically
correctspatialdatabase.

SelectingGISHardwareandSoftware
Toprovideforcontinuityandtominimizeaddedexpensefortotalsystemdevelopment,selectthe
most likely choice of hardware and software based on the database design specifications, and
purchaseorborrowthatnecessaryforthepilotstudyfromthehardwareandsoftwarevendors.

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SelectingaDataConversionVendor
Eventhoughthisisonlyapilotstudy,italsoservesasatestoflikelysuppliersofhardware,software
anddataconversionservices.Therefore,arespectabledataconversionvendorshouldbeselectedto
performthework,andpriorusesofthevendorservicesshouldbecontactedtoconfirmtheirability
tomeetexpectations.Itshouldn'tmatterwhatmethodtheconversionvendorusestoconvertthe
data. Be open to suggestions from the potential conversion vendors as to the most cost effective
methodstoconvertthedata.Aslongasyougetthedatainthecorrectandusableformattosatisfy
yourdatabaseplans,themethodfordataconversionusedshouldnotbeanissue.However,youwill
getmuchbetterresultsifthevendorhasfirsthandexperiencewiththechosenGISsoftwareandthe
data conversion takes place in the same GIS software package. There is always a chance of losing
attributesorinheritingcoordinatingprecisionerrorsconvertingfromoneformattoanother.

DefiningCriteriaforEvaluatingthePilotStudy
Thepilotstudyperformancemustbeevaluatedinmeasurableterms.Byitsveryname,apilotstudy
impliesaninitialinvestigation.Aninvestigationimpliesasetofquestionstoaskandasetofanswers
toachieve.Forclarity,thequestionscanbeaddressedtomatchthemajorcomponentofGISplus
othersasneeded.

Database

Wereadequatesourcedocumentsavailableandwastheirqualitysufficient?
Howmucheffortwasinvolvedin"scrubbing"thedatabeforeconversion?
Howlongdidtheconversionprocesstake?
Werethereanyproblemsorsetbacks?
Wassupplementaldatapurchased,ifso,whatwasthecost?
Didthedatamodelworkforeachlayerasdefined?
Wasthedataadequate(i.e.alldataelementspopulated)?
Whaterrorswerefoundinthedata(closure,connectivity,accuracy,completeness,etc.)

Applications

Weretheapplicationswrittenasspecified
DidtheapplicationsfitsmoothlyintheGISorwasaseparateprocessinvoked?
AretherequiredfunctionsbuiltintotheGISorwillapplicationsneedtobedeveloped?
IstheGIScustomizable?
Howresponsiveandknowledgeableisthesoftwaredeveloper'stechnicalsupportstaff?
Wereexpectationsmet?

ManagementandMaintenanceProcedures

Howwillthedatabeupdated,managed,andmaintainedinthefuture?
Haveallthosewhowillcontributetotheupdatingandmaintenancebeenidentified?
Havedatamanagementandadministrationapplicationsbeendevelopedandtested?
Havedataaccuracyandsecurityissuesbeenaddressed?
Whowillhavepermissiontoread,write,andotherwiseaccessdata?
HowwillusingGISchangeinformationflowandworkflowintheorganization?

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Costs

Howlargeadatabasewillbecreated?
What will be the required level of existing staff commitment during the data preparation
andGISconstructionprocess?
Whatwillbethecostfordataconversionofinhousedocuments?
Whatwillbethecostforobtainingsupplementaldatafromoutsidesources?
HowwillGISimpactorinterfacewithexistinghardwareandsoftware?
Whatnewhardware,softwareandperipheralequipmentisrequired?
Howmuchtrainingofstaffisrequired?
WilladditionalstaffwithdistinctGISprogrammingandanalysiscapabilitiesberequired?

3.EXECUTINGTHEPILOTSTUDY
DataPreparation(Scrubbing)andDelivery
Document preparation of source data representing the entire range of data to be included in the
database must be completed before the conversion contractor can begin work. Data preparation
includes improving the clarity of data for people outside the organization who are unfamiliar with
internalpractices.Thispreconversionprocessisreferredtoa"scrubbing."
Scrubbing is used to identify and highlight features on maps that will be converted to a digital
format.Theprocessprovidesauniqueopportunitytorevieworresearchthesourceandqualityof
thedocumentsanddatabeingusedforconversion.
Scrubbingisgenerallyaninternalprocess,butmayalsobeperformedbytheconversionvendor.The
conversionvendorwillneedtobetrainedonhowtoreadyourmapsordrawings.Thefirstmap(or
allmaps)mayneedtobemarkedwithhighlighterpensandanattachedsymbolkeytodefinewhat
featuresneedtobecollected.
At the same time the maps are markedup, coding sheets are filled out with the attributes of the
featurestobecapturedandauniqueidnumberisassignedtoboththefeatureandthecodingsheet
to create a relate key. This key is critical to connecting the attribute records to the correct map
featuredefinedinDatabaseDesign.
Thebestkeyisadumb,unique,sequentialnumberthathasnosignificance.Thekeyshouldneverbe
intelligent,thatiscontainotherinformation.Thekeyshouldneverbeavaluethathasmeaning,or
has the potential of changing. Don't use address, or map sheet number or XY coordinates or date
installed.Thesevaluesareveryimportantandshouldeachhavetheirownfieldinthedatabase.Do
notusethemastheprimarykey.Thereasonisverysimple.IfyouuseasmartkeylikeSBLnumber
andyouhavetochangethenumber,youruntheriskoflosingtheconnectiontoallotherrelated
tablesthatkeyontheSBLnumber.Makethechangeandtherecordsnolongermatch.However,if
the key is unique and has no meaning it will never have to be changed. Street names change,
numbersgettransposed,featuresarediscoveredtobeonthewrongmapsheetoratthewrongXY

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coordinates.Ifanycorrectionsneedtobemade,alargedefensiveprogrammingeffortmustbein
placetoguaranteetheintegrityoftheintelligentkey.Avoidthegriefanduseadumb,uniquekey.
Codingsheetsareonlyrequiredifthe attributesofthefeaturesarenotreadilyavailablefromthe
mapdocument.Forexample,ifalltherequiredattributesforafeatureareshownasannotationson
the map (e.g. the size, material and slope for a sanitary sewer line), then a coding sheet is
unnecessary. If additional research is required to find the installation date, contractor name, flow
modeling parameters or video inspection survey, then a coding sheet needs to filled out for each
feature. Again it is critical to create and maintain a unique key between the map feature and the
attributedataonthecodingsheet.
Once the data has been prepared for conversion, make copies of everything being sent out and
makeaninventoryofthemaps,codingsheets,photos,etc.thatwillbesenttothevendor.Askthe
vendortoperformaninventorycheckonthereceivingendtoverifyacompleteshipmentarrived.
Changemanagementisessential.Ifthemanualmapsordatawillbecontinuallyupdatedinhouse
duringtheconversionprocess,keepcarefulrecordsaboutwhatmapsandorfeatureshavechanged
sincethemapshavebeensentout.Thisisanimportantprocessthatneedstobefullyinplaceifthe
pilotstudyleadstoafullGISimplementation.

WhenandWheretoSetUpthePilotStudy
Expectthepilotstudytohaveanimpactondailywork.Chooseparticipantswherethepilotwillnot
haveanegativeimpactonthedailyworkload.EveniftheGISistoassistamissioncriticalprocess
likeE911,conductthepilotasaparalleleffort,don'texpectittoreplaceanexistingsystem.Atthe
sametimetrytomaketheGISapartofthedailyworkflowtotesttheintegrationpotential.
Toensuresomelevelofsuccessofthepilotstudy,choosewillingparticipantstoactasthetestbed/
pilotstudygroup.Makesuretheyunderstandtheimpactthepilotwillhaveontheorganizationand
the level of commitment from the staff members. Use educational seminars to inform the
employeesaboutGIStechnologyandthepurposeofthepilotstudy.Communicateveryclearlywhat
the objectives of the pilot study will be, what functions and datasets will be tested and which
questions will be investigated. Describe the required feedback and the use of questionnaires or
checklists that will be used. Above all else, communicate to keep staff informed and to control
expectations.

WhoShouldParticipate
Ateamrepresentingacrosssectionincludingmanagers,supervision,andoperationsstaffshouldbe
assembledforthepilotstudy.Choosethestaffcarefullytoassureobjectiveandthoughtfulsystem
evaluation.Ifpossible,choosethesamepeoplethatwereinvolvedintheneedsassessmentprocess.
TheywillbemoreawareofGIStechnologyandmaybeeagertoseetheprojectmoveforward.

TestingandEvaluationPeriod
Have a pilot team kickoff meeting with the conversion / software / hardware vendors present.
Restate the objectives of the pilot study and responsibilities of each party. Review Needs
Assessment, database design documents and assess training requirements. Define communication
protocolguidelinesifnecessarytokeepkeyplayerscommunicatingandresolvingproblems.

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Beforethedataarrives,installthesoftwareandorhardwareinthetargetdepartment.Conductuser
trainingtofamiliarizeemployeeswiththeuseoftheGISsoftware.Ifemployeesareunfamiliarwith
computers,allowmoretimefortrainingandfamiliarization.
Once the data has been converted and delivered, have the conversion vendor or the software
vendorloadthedataonthetargetmachines.Besurethatthisstepandallpreparatoryeffortsare
monitoredandtreatedasalearningprocessforyourstaff.
Begin a thorough investigation of the capabilities and limitations of the hardware and software.
Keepuserandvendordefinedchecklistsbesidethemachinesatalltimes.Haveeachuserlogtheir
observationsandimpressionswitheachsession.Makesuretonoteanychangeinperformanceasa
functionoftimeofdayorworkload.Alsonoteiftheuser'slevelofcomforthasincreasedwithtime
spentusingthesoftware.
Logallcallstothedataconversion,softwareandhardwarevendors.Notetheknowledgeandskillof
the call takers, responsiveness and turnaround time from initial call to problem resolution. Some
problems may be addressed on the phone, others may take days. If the call cannot be handled
immediately,asktheoutsidetechnicalsupportpersonforanestimatedtime.

ObtainingFeedbackFromParticipants
Itisimperativethatallindividualsinvolvedinthepilotstudyprovideinputbefore,duringandafter
thepilotstudyiscomplete.Thebestmethodtoguaranteefeedbackfromtheparticipantsistohave
themhelpformulatetheobjectivesofthepilot,thequestionnairesandchecklists.Samplequestions
toaddresswerelistedearlierinthisdocument.Augmentthesewithquestionsfromyourownstaff.
Somequestionscanbeansweredwithayes/nochecklist,someanswerswillbeadollarfigure,and
somewillrequireascoringsystemtorateaspectsofthesystemperformancefromsatisfactoryto
poor or unacceptable. Other issues that may effect information flow, traditional procedures and
worktaskswillrequireparticipantstowriteessayquestionsordrawsketchesofchangestheywould
liketoseeintheuserinterfaceorinthemapdisplay.Allresponsesshouldbecompiledinsuchaway
thattheresponsescanbemeasuredandratednumerically.

4.EVALUATINGTHEPILOTSTUDY
WhatInformationShouldBeDerivedFromthePilotStudy
The first question to be addressed is whether the pilot study was a success. Success doesn't
necessarilymeanthattheprocesswentwithoutahitch.Asuccessfulpilotstudycanbefraughtwith
problemsandGIScanberejectedasatechnologyfortheorganization.Thesuccessofthepilotstudy
shouldbemeasuredbywhetherthegoalsandobjectivesdefinedforthepilotwereachieved.Most
issueslistedbelowwerecoveredinearlierportionsofthedocument,butaresummarizedagain.

DataSpecificIssues
Many issues to be assessed in the pilot study are data specific and are related to data quality,
volumesandconversionefforts.

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SourceDocumentQuality
Most first time GIS users are so awestruck by seeing their maps on the computer screen or on
colorfulhardcopyplotsthattheyoverlooktheimportanceofreviewingthequalityandusefulnessof
thesourcedocumentsandtheutilityofthefinalproduct.Manyoriginalmapsaresooldandfaded,
thattheyareunusableasasourcedocumenttocreateaGISdataset.Somemunicipalagencieshave
scrappedtheexistingmapsandresurveyedtheentiretown'sstreetandutilityinfrastructure.Thisis
notacheapalternative,butdigitizingbadmapsisnotagoodinvestment.

QualityControlNeeds
Thereisadangerpresentinanydataconversionproject(evenforapilotstudy)thatthevendorwill
perform the conversion and deliver the data to the client without an adequate Quality Control
process in place. If the client is new to GIS, they may not be able to determine if all the data is
present,ifthedataislayeredcorrectlyorifallattributesarepopulated.
BecauseaGISlooksatmapfeaturesasspatiallyrelated,connectedorclosedfeatures,GISqueryand
displayfunctionscanbeusedtoidentifyfeaturesthatareinerror.Bydisplayingeachmaplayerone
at a time using the attributes of the features, item values that are out of range (blank, zero, or
extreme values) will show up graphically on the maps in different colors or symbol patterns.
Erroneousvaluesshouldbereportedtotheconversionvendorimmediatelyforresolution.
TheclientmayconsiderusingathirdpartyGISconsultingfirmtoreviewthequalityofthedataand
verifythemapaccuracy.

DataAvailability
Beforeanattributefieldisaddedtoacodingsheetasatargetfordatacapture,besurethevalueis
readilyavailableandhasimportancetotheoperationoftheagency.Manydatafieldswouldbenice
to have, but may not be cost effective. For example, a sidewalk and driveway inventory for a
communitywouldbeausefuldatalayertocapture.However,iftherearenoexistingmapsshowing
sidewalk locations, using aerial photos and photogrammetry is a costly approach to capture
sidewalksanddriveways.Acheaperalternativemaybetocreatetwosingledigitfieldsinthestreet
centerlineattributetabletoholdflagsindicatingthepresenceorabsenceofsidewalksontheleftor
rightsideofthestreet.AnoperatorlookingattheGISscreenandairphotoscanassignthevaluesto
theflagswithoutalargeamountofeffort.Basedonthesevalues,differentlinestylesorcolorscan
beusedtosymbolizethepresenceofsidewalksinascreendisplayorhardcopymaps.

PreconversionEditing
Be sure to track and review the number of man hours and problems encountered during the pre
conversion scrubbing effort. These steps will undoubtedly be performed again during the full
conversionandnowisthetimetoassesstheimpactontheorganization.

DataVolumes
Datavolumesanddiskspaceisanimportantissuetoevaluateinthepilotstudy.Thepilotbydesign
coversasmallareaofinterest.Usethesamedatacostratiosdiscussedabovetoextrapolatedata
volumesfortheentireGISimplementationeffort.Datavolumeisnotonlyadiskspaceissue.There
are inherent problems associated with managing large datasets. Large files take more computer

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resourcestomanipulate,backup,restore,copy,convert,etc.Atilingscheme(i.e.breakingthedata
into smaller packets for storage and manipulation) should be investigated in the pilot study as a
futuresolutionforfullimplementation.

AssessingtheAdequacyoftheDataConversionSpecifications
Data conversion specifications are provided to give the conversion vendor and the client
organizationasetofguidelinesonwhatlayers,featuresandattributesshouldbecaptured,atwhat
precision,levelofaccuracyandinwhatformatisthedatatobedelivered.Bestintentionsandreality
needtomeetinthepilotstudytoevaluatetheexpectationsandthelevelofeffort(costs)involved
withconvertingthetargetdataset.
Ask the conversion vendor for feedback on the clarity of the specifications. Do the specs make
sense? Some vendors, holding to the adage the customer is always right, will not question your
specifications and will do whatever you ask no matter how inefficient the process. Others will
openlysuggestalternativeapproachesandwillseekclarifications.Notethekindsofquestionsthey
presentandbeopentochangesearlyintheprocess.

Evaluationoflogicaldatamodelandapplications
NotonlyshouldthequalityofthedataconversionandtheGISsoftwarebereviewedinthepilot,but
just as important, the logical data model needs to be reviewed. The logical data model describes
howmapfeaturesaredefined(points,lines,polygons,annotations)andtherelationshipsbetween
these map features and related database tables. Running applications against the data model will
allowmeasurementofresponsetimethatisafunctionofdataorganization.
Thebottomlineisdoesthedatamodelmakesenseforalltheapplicationsbeingaddressedinthe
pilot and will it be useful in the full implementation. Ask the conversion and software vendors to
explaintheorganizationalstructureoftheGISdatamodel.Whataretheadvantages,disadvantages
andtradeoffsforthemodelusedinthepilotandaskifthesamestructurewouldworkcomparably
inafullimplementation.Lookcarefullyforshortcutsordatamodelchangestomakeadatasetwork
inthepilot.Itmayworkverywellforademoonasmalldataset,butitmaybeunwieldyinalarge
implementation.

GIShardwareandsoftwareperformance
TesttheGISrunningunderavarietyofscenariosrangingfromsingletomultipleusersperforming
simple to complex tasks. Ask your software vendor to write a simple macro to simulate multiple
users running a series of large database queries. Test the performance of query and display user
applicationswhiledataadministrationfunctionsarerunning.
Weretheusersabletolearntousethesystemandperformusefulwork?

RefinedGISCostEstimates
By requiring the conversion vendor to keep detailed logs of conversion times for each data layer
andfeaturetypebymapsheet,theclientorganizationcanprojectorextrapolatefromthepilotdata
conversion to a cost for full conversion. One approach that has worked well in the past is to use
parceldensityasanindicatorofmanmadefeatures.Forexample,ifyoucomputeaseriesofratiosof

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the number of buildings, light poles, miles of pavement edge, manholes, hydrants, and other
featuresagainstthenumberofparcelsinthepilotarea,youcancomputewithprettygoodcertainty
the number of manmade features in the remainder of the GIS implementation area. The Office of
RealPropertyServiceshasalowcost($50/town)parcelcentroiddatabaseinaGISformatthatcan
beusedasaguideforparceldensity.Unfortunatelyphysicalfeatureslikestreams,ponds,contours,
woodedareas,wetlands,etc.,donothaveadirectcorrelationtoparcels.Infactthereseemstobe
an inverse relationship between parcel density and number of physical features. The point to be
learnedisthatthepilotstudyshouldprovideanindicationofcostsforafullfeatured/fullfunction
GISimplementationeffort.

AnalyzingUserFeedback
Tally the number of positive responses to yes/no questions, compute an average score for user
satisfaction, and compile the essay responses for content and tone. Review the complied results
withallteammembersandmanagement.Interviewteammemberstoclarifyquestionswithunclear
or strong responses to gain more insight. From response scorecards and comments develop an
overallscoretodetermineusersatisfaction,completionofgoalsandobjectives.

5.BENCHMARKTESTS:COMPETITIVEEVALUATION
The purpose of a benchmark is to evaluate the performance and functionality of different data
conversion methods, hardware and software configurations in a controlled environment. Each
softwarepackagecanbecomparedinthesamehardwareenvironmentoronesoftwarepackagecan
becomparedacrossdifferenthardwareplatforms.
Bydefiningauniformsetoffunctionstobeperformedagainstastandarddataset,keyadvantages
anddisadvantagesofthedifferentconfigurationscanbecomparedfairlyandobjectively.

PlanningaBenchmarkTest
Aswithanysuccessfulproject,adetailed,thoughtoutplanneedstobedevised.Itshouldbenoted
thatperformingabenchmarktakesalargeamountofeffortbyboththelocalgovernmentagency
and the vendors taking part. Few firms can afford to devote large amounts of staff time and
computing resources competing in benchmark tests for free. Keep that in mind as you design the
benchmarktofocusthetestsonkeyissuesthatcanbereadilycompared.Ifthebenchmarkwillbe
extensive,associatedcostsmaybeincurred.

ObjectivesfortheTest
A benchmark provides an opportunity to evaluate the claims of advanced technology and high
performancepresented bythemarketing/salesforceofcompetingdataconversion,hardwareand
GISsoftwarevendors.
Theobjectivesofthebenchmarkshouldbedefinedclearlyandcommunicatedtoallpartiesinvolved.
Suggestedobjectivesforeachofthedifferenttypesofbenchmarksincludetesting:

ConversionMethods

Costeffectiveprocedures

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Soundmethodology
Qualitycontrolmeasures
Compliancewithconversionspecifications

Hardware

Computingperformance
Conformancetostandards
Networkcompatibilityandinteroperability
Futuregrowthplansanddownwardcompatibility

Software

Conformancetostandards
Computingspeed/performance
GISfunctionality(standardandadvanced)
Canthesoftwarerunonyourexistinghardwaresystem
Easeofusemenuinterface,onlinehelp,mapgeneration,etc.
Easeofcustomizationfornonstandardfunctions
Licensingandmaintenancecosts

Thislistofobjectivesisnotallinclusiveandshouldonlybeusedasaguidelineorastartingpointfor
yourorganizationtodesignabenchmarkstudy.

PreparingGroundRules
Based on the defined objectives, all parties involved should be aware of what will be tested, how
they will be judged and what criteria will be used as a measure (i.e. low cost, high performance,
goodservice,quality,accuracy,etc.).

Teststobeperformedshouldbeasfairaspossible
Theexactsameinformationanddatasetsshouldbegiventoallvendors
Areasonabletimeframeshouldbeprovidedtoperformthework
Novendorshouldbegivenpreferentialtreatmentoveranyotherandclarificationsofintent
shouldbeofferedtoall
Testsshouldbequantitativelymeasurable
Hardwaretestsshouldusecomparablyequippedorcomparablypricedmachines
Softwaretestsshouldbeperformedonthesamehardwareandoperatingsystem

Create scoring sheets for each aspect of the test. For subjective tests, like ease of use, have each
userratetheirsatisfaction/dissatisfactionwiththeresultsofeachphaseusinganumericrankorder
scheme. This won't eliminate bias but will allow impressions and opinions to be compared. For
objectivetests,likemachineperformance,recordtheclockspeed,diskspacerequirements,number
ofbuttonclicks,errormessages,responsetime,etc.foreachtestconducted.

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PreparingtheTestSpecifications(PreliminaryRequestforProposalsorRFP)
The test specifications need to outline the type of test to be conducted (conversion, hardware or
software); objectives of the test; detailed description of the test; measures for compliance; and a
timeframeforcompletion.

SelectingtheParticipantsandLocation
Inordertoconductabenchmark,youneedknowledgeableparticipants(bothinternalandexternal).
Theinternalparticipantsshouldbeknowledgeableregardingthetopictobetested(dataconversion,
hardwareorsoftware).
Selectingexternalparticipantsismoreinvolved.Situationsrangefromnotknowinganyvendorsto
invitetohowtolimitthenumberofvendors.Thesmallerthenumberofparticipantstheeasierthe
finalselectionprocesswillbeforthelocalgovernmentagency.
The Request for Qualifications (RFQ) process can be used to filter or prequalify potential
participants.GISisaspecializedfieldandnoteverybusinessinvolvedwithcomputersisqualified.
Severalfactorsshouldbeconsideredwhenselectingvendorsforabenchmarktest

Aretheyknowledgeableaboutlocalgovernmentagencyoperations
Aretheyawellknowncompany
Aretheytechnicallyqualified
Aretheyexperiencedandhaveasuccessfultrackrecord
Aretheyfinanciallysound,insuredorbonded
Aretheygoingtobearound5yearsdowntheroad
Aretheylocalordotheyhavealocalrepresentative
Wouldtheirpreviousclientshirethemagain

IftheRFQand/ortheRFParewrittenclearlyandsuccinctly,theprocesswillfiltertheparticipants
andonlythosecompaniesthatspecializeinthesubjectinquestionwillrespond.
The benchmark can occur either at the client's site or the vendor's offices. Some tests like data
conversionarebestconductedatthevendorsitetominimizerelocatingstaffandequipmentfora
test. Hardware and software benchmarks are commonly conducted at both the vendor and client
site. The initial data loading, customization and testing is performed at the vendor site. Once the
operations are stable, the client is invited to view the results at the vendor site, or the system is
transportedtotheclientsite.

PreparingtheData
For a data conversion benchmark, provide each vendor with a set of marked up (scrubbed) set of
maps, documents and coding sheets as described in the pilot study section above. If possible,
providethedataconversionvendorwithanexampledatasetfromthepilotstudywhichshowsthe
appropriate data layering, tolerances and attributes to be captured. If not a dataset, clear
specifications for how the data should appear when complete. Specify what data format (*.dxf,
*.e00,*.mif,tar,zip,etc.)andwhattypeandsizeofmedia(1/4,8mmor4mmtapes)youwantthe
datadeliveredin.

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Forahardwareorsoftwarebenchmark,provideasampledatasetwhichcontainsallpossiblelayers
forinclusionintheGIS.Thedatacouldbepurchased,convertedduringthepilotstudyorcouldbe
theresultsfromadataconversionbenchmarknotedabove.Providesufficientdocumentationwith
thedatatodescribetheuseofthedata,theorganizationalstructureandcontents.

SchedulingTheBenchmarkTest
Oncethebenchmarkhasbeendefinedandagreedtobytheparticipants,setatimeforthetesting
to occur. Schedule a start date and a duration. Unless you specifically want to use company
responsiveness as part of the test (i.e. how fast can they respond to a problem), don't require an
immediate start date or extremely short time frame. There is no need to cause undue panic and
stress,youwantagoodtest.

TransmittingApplicationSpecificationsAndDataToParticipants
Beforetransmittingmaps,documentsordatatoanyvendor,makeaninventoryandbackupcopies
ofallitems.Eitherspecifytothevendorsthatthedatawillbeprovidedinasingledataformatona
specificmedia,ormakearrangementstoprovidethedatainaformattheycanread.Besuretotest
thereadabilityofthetapeordiskonatargetmachineinyourofficebeforesendingthedataout.
Once the data has been verified as complete and readable, make two copies of the tapes or
diskettes,onetosendandonetokeepasarecoverablebackupfordocumentationofthedelivery.
Providedetailedinstructionsastothecontentsofthetapesordisksandhowtoextractthedata.List
phonenumbersofresponsiblepersonsshouldproblemsarisewithdeliveryordataextraction.Ask
the vendor to perform an inventory at the receiving end to acknowledge receipt of the data or
documents.

OnSiteArrangements
Ifthetestsaretobeconductedatyoursite,makesureyouhavetheauthorizationandbackingof
managementandallpersonneltobeinvolved.Provideplentyofadvancednoticeandtimetosetup.
Ifyouareconductinghardwaretestsyouhavetodecideifmorethanonevendor'smachineswillbe
presentatthesametimeforcomparativetesting.Withbothmachinessetupinthesameroom,you
canconducttheexactsametestsin"realtime"andvisuallycomparetheresults,butthiswillrequire
moresetupspaceandlogisticleewayinthescheduletoaccommodatemultiplevendors.Makesure
youhaveasuitableenvironmentforequipmentwithadequatepower,airconditioningandsecurity.
Also make sure you have all required utility software in place to read and write compressed files
fromtapeandvirusdetectionsoftware
If you are performing software tests, make sure you have two or more machines with the exact
samehardwareandoperatingsystemconfigurations.Ifyoucan'thavemultiplemachines,besureto
backup and restore the current operating system files before testing each software package to
ensureafairtestofdiskspacerequirements,resourceusageandfunctionality.Alwaysusethesame
datasetsforeachtest.

IdentifyingDeficienciesInSpecifications
Although the tests were well thought out and carefully followed, you will probably wish you had
performedadditionaltestsduringthebenchmark.Ifshortcomingsarediscoveredearlyonandthey

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donotinvolvemajorchangesindirection,additionaltestscouldbeincorporated.Besuretonotify
thelocalmanagement,staffandvendorparticipantsofthechangeinobjectives.

Definingbenchmarkcriteria
DataConversionIssues
A standard set of tests need to be performed to evaluate the results of a data conversion
benchmark. Overlaying checkplots with the source documents on a light table is a straightforward
but time consuming way to compare the conversion results. Suggestions made in the Pilot Study
sectionofthisdocument,outlinemethodsforusingGISqueryanddisplayfunctionstodetermineif
all the data is present, layered correctly and attribute values are within range. Displaying map
features by attributes will highlight errors or items out of range in different colors or symbol
patterns.
GISSoftwarePerformance
Softwaretestscanbeclassifiedinto2groupscapabilitiesandperformance.Capabilitiestestsifthe
software can perform a specific task (i.e. convert DXF files, register image data, access external
databases,readAutoCADdrawings,etc.)Performancedealswithhowwellorhowfastthesoftware
performs the selected task. How fast can be measured with a stopwatch, how well is open to
interpretation.
The operating system on the machines in question will play a big factor in how GIS software will
perform.GISsoftwarewrittentorunona32bitoperatingsystemwillnotperformaswellina16bit
environmentwithoutworkarounds.Likewise,a16bitapplicationwillrunfasterona32bitmachine,
but will notrunaswellas32bitsoftwareona32 bitoperatingsystemlike UNIX, Windows95or
WindowsNT.
HardwarePerformance
Thegoalistofindthefastest,cheapesthardwaretomeetyourbudget.Takeadvantageofcomputer
magazinereviewsofhardware.Theyconductstandardbenchmarktestsinvolvingwordprocessing,
spreadsheetsandgraphicspackages.Thetestresultswon'tbeGISspecific,butwillshowtheoverall
performanceofagivencomputer.Oddlyenough,twocomputerswithseeminglyidenticalhardware
specifications(clockspeed,memory,anddiskspace)canperformverydifferentlybasedoninternal
wiring,graphicsaccelerationandchipconfigurations.
EvaluatingBenchmarkResults
If the questions were formulated clearly, and the results were recorded honestly, evaluating the
resultsofthebenchmarkshouldbetheprocessofsimpleaddition.Essayresponsesandcomments
willhavetobefollowedupwithfurtherteststoclarifyanyproblemsordifferencesencountered.

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Chapter5:ConceptualDesignoftheGIS
1.INTRODUCTION
This guide describes data modeling in general, spatial data modeling in specific, the setting of GIS
specifications, and an introduction to spatial data and metadata standards. These activities are
collectively called conceptual design of the GIS system. This activity takes the information
developedduringtheNeedsAssessmentandplacesitastructuredformat.Theresultofthisactivity
willbeaGISdatamodelandfunctionalspecificationsfortheGISsystem.
Conceptualdesignisthefirststepindatabasedesignwherethecontentsoftheintendeddatabase
areidentifiedanddescribed.Databasedesignisusuallydividedintothreemajoractivities

Conceptual data modeling: identify data content and describe data at an abstract, or
conceptual,level.ThisstepisintendedtodescribewhattheGISmustdoanddoesnotdeal
with how the GIS will be implemented the "how" question is the subject of logical and
physicaldatabasedesign;
Logicaldatabasedesign:translationoftheconceptualdatabasemodelintothedatamodel
ofaspecificsoftwaresystem;and
Physical database design: representation of the logical data model in the schema of the
software.

The conceptual design of the GIS system is primarily an exercise in database design. Database
planningisthesinglemostimportantactivityinGISdevelopment.Itbeginswiththeidentification
of the needed data and goes on to cover several other activities collectively termed the data life
cycle identification of data in the needs assessment, inclusion of the data in the data model,
creation of the metadata, collection and entry into the database, updating and maintenance, and,
finally, retained according to the appropriate record retention schedule. A complete data plan
facilitatesallphasesofdatacollection,maintenanceandretentionandaseverythingisconsideredin
advance, data issues do not become major problems that must be addressed after the fact with
considerabledifficultyandaggravation.
TheconceptualdesignoftheGISalsoincludesidentificationofthebasicGISarchitecture(functions
of hardware and GIS software), estimates of usage (derived from the needs assessment), and
scopingthesizeoftheGISsystem.Allofthisisdonewithreferencetotheexistingdataprocessing
environments(legacysystems)thatmustinterfacewiththeGIS.

PreparingAGISDataModel
AdatamodelisaformaldefinitionofthedatarequiredinaGIS.Thedatamodelcantakeoneof
several forms, the two used in this guideline are a structured list and an entityrelationship
diagram.Thepurposeofthedatamodel,andtheprocessofspecifyingthemodel,istoensurethat
thedatahasbeenidentifiedanddescribedinacompletelyrigorousandunambiguousfashionand
thatboththeuserandGISanalystagreeonthedatadefinitions.Thedatamodelisthentheformal
specificationfortheentities,theirattributesandallrelationshipsbetweentheentitiesfortheGIS.

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Buildingadatamodelisnotnecessarilyaneasytask.Mostprofessionalsinlocalgovernmentwillnot
havehadexperienceinthistask.TheGISanalystoftheprojectistheindividualwhoeithershould
buildthedatamodeloracquireassistance,suchasaqualifiedconsultant,tocompletethistask.If
theopportunityexistsfortheGISanalysttoattendadatabasedesigncourseorseminar,thiswould
enhancethisperson'sabilitytobuildthemodelbut,moreimportantly,providetheknowledgefor
using the final data model in building the GIS. To the extent that data models prepared for other
local governments match the needs of a particular GIS development program, or can be easily
adapted, they can be modified for use as the data model. However, the GIS analyst must have a
goodunderstandingoftheresultingmodelandhowitisusedtobuildandmanagetheGISdatabase.
The next sections of the guideline first discuss the nature of geographic data, then present the
methodologyusedfordatamodeling,andlastlydescribethedevelopmentofaGISdatamodelfrom
theinformationcollectedduringtheNeedsAssessment.Theexampleprovidedinthelastsectionis
actuallyasamplelocalgovernmentGISdatamodelandissuitablefordirectuse,withappropriate
modificationtospecificsituations.

2.NATUREOFGEOGRAPHICDATA
Geographicdatadescribeentitieswhichhavealocation.Thegeographicdataincludesthelocation
information and other information about the entity of interest. This other information will be
referred to as attributes of the entities. Historically several terms have been used to describe the
data in a GIS database, among them features, objects, or entities. The term feature derives from
cartographyandiscommonlyusedtoidentify"featuresshownonamap,"whileentityandobject
aretermsfromcomputerscienceusedtoidentifytheelementsinadatabase.Thenormaldictionary
definitionsofthesetermsare:
Object:athingthatcanbeseenortouched;materialthingthatoccupiesspace
Entity:athingthathasdefinite,individualexistenceinreality
Feature:themake,shape,formorappearanceofapersonorthing
A good GIS database design methodology requires the use of terms in a clear an unambiguous
manner.Thisguidelinewillusethetermentitytorepresentobjectsorthingstobeincludedinthe
databaseandattributewillbethetermforrepresentingthecharacteristicsormeasurementstobe
recorded for the entities. Other terms have commonly been used to describe the organization of
entitiesandattributesinaGIS,suchaslayer,coverage,basemap,theme,andothers.Eachofthese
will usually refer to a collection of one or more entities organized in some useful way which is
specific to the GIS software in use. These terms will become important during the logical/physical
database design activities where decisions about how the GIS data are to be stored in the GIS
databasearemade.Theconceptualdatabasedesignactivityisfocusedsolelyonspecifyingwhatis
tobeincludedintheGISdatabaseandshouldprovideclearandunambiguousrepresentationofthe
entireGISdatabase.

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Inadditiontoaclearandconcisedefinitionofentitiesandtheirattributes,datamodelingdescribes
relationshipsbetweenentities.Anexampleofarelationshipbetweenanemployeeandacompany
wouldbe"worksfor."
EmployeeWorksForCompany
Relationshipsmaybebidirectional,thus:
CompanyHasEmployees
Animportantaspectofarelationshipis"cardinality,"thatisiftherelationshipisbetweenonlyone
ofeachentityorifeitherentitymaybemorethanone.Forexample,onecompanyusuallyhasmany
employeeswhereasoneemployeeworksforonlyonecompany.Thepossiblecardinalitiesare:one
toone;onetomany;andmanytomany.Thus:
Has>
Company(One)<WorkFor(Many)Employees
Therearemanyvariationsofthenotationusedtoexpressthesefacts.Thenotationrecommended
forlocalgovernmentwillbedescribedlater.
Geographic, or spatial data, differs from other "regular" data that are included in computer
databasesinhowentitiesaredefinedandintherelationshipsbetweenentities.Entityidentification
for spatial data includes the definition of a physical or abstract entity (e.g., a building) and the
definitionofacorrespondingspatialentity(i.e.,apolygontorepresentthebuildingfootprint).This
latter,orsecondentitydoesnotexistforothertypesofcomputerdatabases.Theexistenceofthe
corresponding spatial entity is one of the major factors that distinguishes GIS from other types of
systemsandiswhatmakesitveryimportanttoutilizeproperplanninganddesigntechniqueswhen
buildingaGIS.Anexamplewillbeusedtoillustratethisdifference.

3.ENTITYRELATIONSHIP(ER)DATAMODELING
Tostartthediscussionofentityrelationshipmodeling,twoexampleswillbeshown.One,aregular
databaseandthesecond,asimpleGISdatabase.Thepersonneldatabaseinanylocalgovernment
couldhaveentitiesofemployee,dependentanddepartment.Relationshipsbetweentheseentities
wouldbeemployee"worksin"departmentanddependent"isamemberof"theemployee'sfamily.
Someoftheattributesforeachentitywouldbeasfollows:
Employee(name,age,sex,jobtitle)
Dependent(name,age,relationship_to_employee,i.e.,spouse,child,etc.)
Department(department_name,function,size)
Anexampleofasimplespatialdatabasewouldbeafollows:

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Parcel

ID#,owner_name,owner_address,site_address

Polygon

Building

Building_name,height,floor_area

Footprint

Occupant

Occupant_name,unit_number

None

This example has been presented using two standard notational forms for conceptual database
design: a relation, the entity name followed by a list of attributes; and an entityrelationship
diagram showing entities, their attributes, and the relationships between entities. There are two
thingstonotice:
The standard entity relationship diagram has no provision for representing the
correspondingspatialentity(point,line,polygon)ofthedata;and
The representation of the attributes (ellipses) can be somewhat awkward due to different
namelengthsandthenumberofattributestobeshown.
ThetwonotationalformsmodifiedtoaccommodateGISdatawillbeusedastheprimarytoolsfor
conceptual database design in this guideline; however, modifications will be made to adequately
representGISdata.Thenextsectionwillprovidetheformaldefinitionofthebasicentityrelationship
datamodelingmethod,themodificationsneededtorepresentGISdata,followedbyexamplesofGIS
dataentitiesandattributestypicalforlocalgovernmentandthebyadescriptionofhowtomodel
thesedatausingthemodifiedentityrelationshipdatamodelingtechnique.

BasicEntityRelationshipModeling
The basic entityrelationship modeling approach is based on describing data in terms of the three
partsnotedabove(Chen1976):

Entities
Relationshipsbetweenentitles
Attributesofentitlesorrelationships

Eachcomponenthasagraphicsymbolandthereexistsasetofrulesforbuildingagraph(i.e.,anER
model) of a database using the three basic symbols. Entities are represented as rectangles,
relationshipsasdiamondsandattributesasellipses.
ThenormalrelationshipsincludedinaERmodelarebasicallythoseof:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Belongingto;
Setandsubsetrelationships;
Parentchildrelationships;and
Componentpartsofanobject.

The implementation rules for identifying entities, relationships, and attributes include an English
language sentence structure analogy where the nouns in a descriptive sentences identify
entities,verbsidentifyrelationships,andadjectivesidentifyattributes.Theseruleshavebeendefined
byChen(1983)asfollows:
Rule1:Acommonnoun(suchasperson,chair),inEnglishcorrespondstoanentitytypeon
anERdiagram.

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Rule2:AtransitiveverbinEnglishcorrespondstoarelationshiptypeinanERdiagram.
Rule3:AnadjectiveinEnglishcorrespondstoanattributeofanentityinanERdiagram.
English statement: Mr. Joe Jones resides in the Park Avenue Apartments which is located on land
parcel#0185734ownedbytheApexCompany.
Analysis:.."JoeJones",""ParkAvenueApartments,""landparcel"and"ApexCompany"arenouns
and therefore can be represented as entities "occupant," "building," "parcel," and "owner."
"resides,""locatedon"and"ownedby"aretransitiveverbs(orverbphrases)andthereforedefine
relationships.

ExampleofSimpleERdiagrams
ManytimesitispossibletobuilddifferentERdiagramsforthesamedata.Forexample,insteadof
creatingtheentity"owner,"theowner'snamecouldbeanattributeofparcel.Duringtheprocessof
buildinganERdiagram(i.e.,theconceptualmodel)foradatabase,theanalystmustmakedecisions
astowhethersomethingisbestrepresentedasanentityorasanattributeofsomeotherentity.
TheprocessofconstructinganERdiagramuncoversmanyinconsistenciesorcontradictionsinthe
definition of entities, relationships, and attributes. Many of these are resolved as the initial ER
diagramisconstructedwhileothersareresolvedbyperformingaseriesoftransformationsonthe
diagram after its initial construction. The final ER diagram should be totally free from definitional
inconsistenciesandcontradictions.Ifproperlyconstructed,anERdiagramcanbedirectlyconverted
tothelogicalandphysicaldatabaseschemaoftherelational,hierarchicalornetworktypedatabase
forimplementation.

UniqueAspectsofGeographicData
In the simplest terms, we think of geographic data as existing on maps as points, lines and areas.
EarlyGISsystemsweredesignedtodigitallyencodethesespatialobjectsandassociateoneormore
feature codes with each spatial feature. Examples would be a map of land use polygons, a set of
points showing well locations, a map of a stream shown as line segments. For the purposes of
plotting(redrawingthemap)asimpledatastructurelinking(x,y)coordinatestoafeaturecodewas
sufficient.

Topology
AdistinguishingfeatureofamodernGISisthatsomespatialrelationshipsbetweenspatialentities
will be coded in the database. This coding is termed topologically coding. Topology is based on
graphtheory,whereadiagramcanbeexpressedasasetofnodesandlinksinamannerthatshows
logicalrelationships.Appliedtoamap,thisconceptisusedtoabstractthefeaturesshownonthe
mapandtorepresentthesefeaturesasnodesandarcs(pointandlines).Nodesaretheendpoints
of arcs and areas are formed by a set of arcs. If the concept and definitions of topologic data
structuresarenotfamiliartothereader,thefollowingreadingsarerecommended:

Geographic Information Systems: A Guide to the Technology, by John Antenucci, et. al,
pages9899.

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Fundamentals of Spatial Information Systems, by Robert Lauring and Derek Thompson,

pages206211.
ARC/INFO Data Model, Concepts, & Key Terms, by Environmental Systems Research
Institute,Inc.,pages112to115.

Coordinate strings without topology with associated feature codes were called "spaghetti" files
becausetherewasnotanyrelationshipbetweenanytwocoordinatestringsformallyencodedinthe
database.Forexample,the"GISsystem"wouldnot"know"iftwolinesintersectornotorwhether
theyhadcommonendpoints.Theserelationshipscouldbeseenbythehumaneyeifaplotwereto
bemadeoralternativelycouldbecalculated(oftenatimeconsumingprocess).Typicalofthistypeof
geographic data file are those produced by computeraided drafting systems (CAD), or known as
.dxf,.dwg,or.dgnfiles.

4.GEOGRAPHICDATAMODELS
The data models in most contemporary GISs are still based on the cartographic view. Other data
modelshavebegintoevolve,butarestillverylimited.Currentandpotentialgeographicdatamodels
include:

Thecartographicdatamodel:points,linesandpolygons(topologicallyencoded)withone,or
only a few, attached attributes, such as a land use layer represented as polygons with
associatedlandusedcode;
Extended attribute geographic data mode: geometric objects as above but with many
attributes,suchascensustractdatasets;
Conceptual object/spatial data model: explicit recognition of user defined objects, zero or
more associated spatial objects, and sets of attributes for reach defined object (example:
userobjectsoflandparcel,building,andoccupant,eachhavingitsownsetofattributesbut
withdifferentassociatedspatialobjects:polygonforlandparcel,footprintforbuilding,and
nospatialobjectofoccupant);
Conceptualobjects/complexspatialobjects:multipleobjectsandmultipleassociatedspatial
objects (example: a street network with street segments having spatial representations of
both line and polygon type and street intersections having spatial representations of both
pointandpolygontype).

CurrentGISarebasedonthecartographicandextendedattributedatamodels.Thetrendtoobject
orientedcomputersystemsanddatabaseswillrequirethatGISplannersviewtheirdatabasesfrom
an"objectviewpoint."

SpatialRelationships
GISsalsodifferfromothersystemsinthattheyincludespatialrelationships.Theserelationshipsare
included in the GIS either by the topologic coding or by means of calculations based on the (x,y)
coordinates. One common calculation is whether or not two lines intersect. Figure 7 shows the
spatial relationships, associated descriptive verbs, and the common implementation of each
relationshipbyaGIS.

P a g e |66

Connectivity and contiguity are implemented through topology: the linknode structure for
connectivity through networks and the arcpolygon structure for contiguity. Containment and
proximity are implemented through x,y coordinates and related spatial operations: containment is
determinedusingthepoint,line,andpolygononpolygonoverlayspatialoperationandproximity
isdeterminedbycalculatingthecoordinatedistancebetweentwoormorex,ycoordinatelocations.
The spatial relationship of coincidence may be complete coincidence or partial coincidence. The
polygononpolygonoverlayoperationinARC/INFOcalculatespartialcoincidentofpolygonsintwo
differentcoverages.TheSystem9GeographicInformationSystemrecognizescoincidentfeatures
througha"sharedprimitive"concept(thegeometryofapointorlineisstoredonlyonceandthen
referencedbyallfeaturessharingthatpieceofgeometry).FutureversionsofcommercialGISswill
likely implement coincident features through either the "belonging to" database relationship or
through x,y coordinates and related spatial operations, whichever is more efficient within the
particularGIS.
Insummary,therearethreetypesofrelationshipsthatwillberepresentedinageographicdatabase
withan"objectview"orientation:

Normaldatabaserelationships,whicharerepresentedinarelationaldatabasebymeansof
keys(primaryandsecondary)
SpatialrelationshipsrepresentedintheGISportionofthedatabasebytopology
Spatialrelationshipsthatexistonlyafteracalculationismadeonthe(x,y)coordinates

5.METHODOLOGYFORMODELING
ModelingageographicdatabaseusingtheERapproachrequiresanexpandedorextendedconcept
for:

Entityidentificationanddefinition;and
Relationshiptypesandalternaterepresentationalformsforspatialrelationships.

There are three considerations in the identification and definition of entities in a geographic
database:

Correctidentificationanddefinitionofentities
Entitiesinageographicdatabasearedefinedaseitherdiscreteobjects(e.g.,abuilding,abridge,a
household,abusiness,etc.)orasanabstractobjectdefinedintermsofthespaceitoccupies(e.g.,a
land parcel, a timber stand, a wetland, a soil type, a contour, etc.). In each of these cases we are
dealingwithentitiesinthesenseof"things"whichwillhaveattributesandwhichwillhavespatial
relationshipsbetweenthemselves.These"things"canbethoughtofas"regular"entities.

Definingacorrespondingspatialentityforeach"regular"entity
AcorrespondingspatialentitywillbeoneofthespatialdatatypesnormallyhandledinaGIS,e.g.,a
point,line,area,volumetricunit,etc.Theimportantdistinctionhereisthatwehaveasingleentity,
itsspatialrepresentationandasetofattributes;wedonothavetwoseparateobjects.Alimitedand
simplesetofspatialentitlesmaybeused,oralternatively,dependingontheanticipatedcomplexity

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of the implemented geographic information system, an expanded set of spatial entities may be
appropriate.Thecorrespondingspatialentityfortheregularentitymaybeimpliedinthedefinition
oftheregularentity,suchasabstractentitieslikeawetlandwherethespatialentitywouldnormally
beapolygon,oracontourwherethespatialentitywouldbealine.Otherregularentitlesmayhave
a less obvious corresponding spatial entity. Depending on the GIS requirements, the cartographic
displayneeds,theimplicitmapscaleofthedatabaseandotherfactors,anentitymaybereasonably
represented by one of several corresponding spatial entities. For example, a city in a smallscale
database could have a point as its corresponding spatial entity, while the same city would have a
polygonasitscorrespondingspatialentityinalargescalegeographicdatabase.

Recognize multiple instances of geographic entities, both multiple spatial

instancesandmultipletemporalinstances
Multipurpose (or corporate) geographic databases may need to accommodate multiple
correspondingspatialentitiesforsomeoftheregularentitiesincludedintheGIS.Forexample,the
representationofanurbanstreetsystemmayrequirethateachstreetsegment(thelengthofstreet
betweentwointersectingstreets)beheldintheGISasbothasinglelinestreetnetworktosupport
addressgeocoding,networkbasedtransportationmodeling,etc.,andasadoubleline(orpolygon)
street segment for cartographic display, or to be able to locate other entities within the street
segment (such as a water line), etc. In each of these instances the "regular" entity is the street
segment,althougheachinstancemayhaveadifferentsetofattributesanddifferentcorresponding
spatial entities. Also, there may be a need to explicitly recognize multiple temporal instances of
regular entities. The simple case of multiple temporal instances will be where the corresponding
spatial entity remains the same, however, future GISs will, in all likelihood, have to deal with
multipletemporalinstanceswherethecorrespondingspatialentitychangesovertime.
Three symbols are defined to represent entities: entity (simple); entity (multiple spatial
representations); and entity (multiple time periods). The internal structure of the entity symbol
contains the name of the entity and additional information indicating the corresponding spatial
entity (point, line or polygon), a code indicating topology, and a code indicating encoding of the
spatial entity by coordinates. The coordinate code is, at the present time, redundant in that all
contemporaryGISsrepresentspatialentitieswithx,ycoordinates.However,itispossiblethatfuture
geographic databases may include spatial entities where coordinates are not needed. Similarly,
topologicalencodingisnormallyofonlyonetypeandcan,forthepresent,beindicatedbyasimple
code. However, different spatial topologies have been defined and may require different
implementationsinaGIS(ArmstrongandDensham,1990).Inthefuture,thetopologycodemaybe
expandedtorepresentaspecifictopologicstructureparticulartoaGISapplication.

ModelingSpatialRelationships
Thespatialrelationshipsaredefinedbythreerelationshipsymbols.Thetraditionaldiamondsymbol
can be used for normal database relationships. An elongated hexagon and a double elongated
hexagon, are defined to represent spatial relationships. The elongated hexagon represents spatial
relationships defined through topology (connectivity and contiguity) and the double elongated
hexagon represents spatial relationships defined through x,y coordinates and related spatial
operations (coincidence, containment and proximity). The appropriate "verbs" to include in the

P a g e |68

hexagonal symbols are the descriptors of the spatial relationships. The spatial operation will be
implicitlydefinedbytherelationshipsymbol(doublehexagon),thespatialentityandthetopology
code. For example, a spatial relationship named "coincident" between entities named "wetlands"
and"soils,"bothofwhichcarrytopologiccodesandx,ycoordinates,indicatesthespatialoperation
oftopologicaloverlay.Ifthisdoesnotsufficientlydefinethespatialoperationneeded,thenameof
the spatial operation can be used to describe the relationship, such as shortest path, pointin
polygon,radialsearch,etc.

6. DEVELOPING A SPATIAL DATA MODEL (ENTITYRELATIONSHIP

DIAGRAM)
TheinformationneededtodeveloptheERdiagramrepresentingthespatialdatamodelcomesfrom
theNeedsAssessmentactivityas:

TheGISapplicationdescriptions
Themasterdatalist:Lists,entities,correspondingspatialentitiesandattributes
Thelistoffunctionalcapabilities(spatialoperations)

TheprocessofbuildingtheERdiagraminvolvestakingentitiesfromthemasterdatalistoneata
timeandplacingeachoneonthediagram.Foreachnewentity,anyrelationshiptoanypreviously
enteredentityshouldbeentered.RelationshipsarefoundbyexaminingtheApplicationDescriptions
and determining if the GIS processes require a specified operation. For example, if an Application
Descriptionindicatedthatlandparcelsneededtobecomparedtoafloodplainarea,thenaspatial
relationshipof"coincidentarea"(ortopologicaloverlayoperation)shouldbedefinedbetweenthe
twoentities.
AseachentityisaddedtotheERdiagram,thelistofattributesshouldbereviewedandcheckedto
determine if the attribute is appropriate for the entity, does not duplicate any other attribute or
entity,andcanberigorouslydefinedforentrytocreatethemetadata(metadataisdiscussedinthe
nextsectionofthisguideline).

7.SUMMARYOFCONCEPTUALDATAMODELING
TheERdiagramwillbeusedtoverifywiththeexpectedusersthedatacontentoftheGISand,by
additionalreferencetotheGISneedsanalysis,therequiredspatialoperations.Onceverifiedbythe
users,theERrepresentationcanbemappedintoadetaileddatabasedesign(aswillbedescribedin
theDatabasePlanningandDesignGuideline)where:
1. Eachentityanditsattributesmapinto:
a. One or more relational tables with appropriate primary and secondary keys (this
assumesthedesiredlevelofnormalizationhasbeenobtained);
b. The corresponding spatial entity for the "regular" entity. As most commercial GISs
rely on fixed structures for the representation of geometric coordinates and
topology, this step is simply reduced to ensuring that each corresponding spatial
entitycanbehandledbytheselectedGISpackage;

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2. Eachrelationshipinto:
a. Regular relationships (diamond) executed by the relational database system's
normalquerystructure.Again,appropriatekeysandnormalizationarerequiredfor
thismapping.
b. Spatial relationships implemented through spatial operations in the GIS. The
functionalityofeachspatialrelationshipneedstobedescribed,andifnotastandard
operationoftheselectedGIS,specificationsfortheindicatedoperationneedtobe
written.

8.SPATIALDATASTANDARDSANDMETADATAREQUIREMENTS
Spatial data standards cover a variety of topics including the definition of spatial data entities
(including a formal data model), methods of representation of the spatial entities in a GIS,
specificationsforthetransferofspatialdatabetweendifferentorganizations,andthedefinitionof
the attributes of the spatial entities and the values these attributes may assume. Metadata is
"information about data," and should describe the characteristics of the data such as identifying
entities and attributes by their standard names and provide information on such items as data
accuracy,datasourcesandlineage,anddataarchivingprovisions.
MuchoftheworkonspatialdatastandardstodateasbeendoneundertheauspicesoftheFederal
Geographic Data Committee and only concerns federal spatial data directly. The relationship
betweentheexistingfederaldatastandardsandstateandlocalspatialdatastandardshaveyettobe
developed. Appendix A contains a list of current and pending reports on federal spatial data
standards. Work towards New York State spatial data standards will be conducted under the
proposedGISStandingCommitteeoftheInformationResourcesManagementTaskForce.

MetadataforLocalGovernmentsinNewYorkState
Metadatacanservemanypurposes.Someofthemoreimportantfunctionsofmetadataare:

Provideabasicdescriptionofadataset
Provideinformationfordatatransferstofacilitatedatasharing
Provideinformationforentriesintoclearinghousestocataloguetheavailabilityofdata

Themetadatastructureandcontentforlocalgovernmentrecommendedinthisguidelinehasbeen
preparedaccordingtothefollowingcriteria:

The metadata must first, and primarily, serve as a documentation and data management
toolforthedataadministratorinanagencyordepartment
Secondly, the metadata must encompass and support the data manager and records
management officer in a local agency in all aspects of data management including data
definition, source documentation, management and updating, and data archiving and
retentionrequirement.
Thirdly, the metadata information must be able to generate and supply database
descriptions for spatial data clearinghouses such as the prototype New York State Spatial
Data Clearinghouse developed under the GIS Demonstration Project conducted by the

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CenterforTechnologyinGovernment,SUNYAlbanyandanyrelevantfederalspatialdata
clearinghouses.
ThefollowingmetadatainformationisaprototypeforaNewYorkStateLocalGovernmentSpatial
Metadata Standard. This metadata is represented in a set of tables listed below and has been
implementedinMicrosoftAccess.Aworkingcopyofthismetadataprogramisavailabletoalllocal
governmentsinthestate.Thestructureandinformationonhowtousethesoftwarearedescribed
inauser'sguideavailablewiththeprogram.Thecontentofthemetadatatablesisasshowninthe
followinglists.

MetadataTables
1. OrganizationInformation
NameOfOrganization
Department
Room/Suite#
NumberAndStreetNames
City
State
ZipCode
PhoneNumber
FaxNumber
ContactPerson
PhoneNumber/Extension
EmailAddress
OrganizationInternetAddress
Comments
2. ReferenceInformation
Filename
FileFormat
Availability
Cost
FileInternetAddress
MetadataCreatedBy
DateMetadataCreated
MetadataUpdatedBy
DateMetadataUpdated
MetadataStandardName
Comments
3. Object/FileNameInformation
Filename
DataObjectName
4. DataObjectInformation
DistributionFilename(SameasFilenameinReferenceInformation)

71|P a g e

DataObjectName
Type
DataObjectDescription
SpatialObjectType
Comments
5. AttributeInformation
DataObjectName
DataAttributeName
AttributeDescription
AttributeFilename
CodesetName/Description
MeasurementUnits
AccuracyDescription
Comments
6. DataDictionaryInformation
DataObjectName
DataAttributeName
DataType
FieldLength
Required
Comments
7. SpatialObjectInformation
DataObjectName
SpatialObjectType
PlaceName
ProjectionName/Description
HCSName
HCSDatum
HCSXOffset
HCSYOffset
HCSXmin
HCSXmax
HCSYmin
HCSYmax
HCSUnits
HCSAccuracyDescription
VCSName
VCSDatum
VCSZmin
VCSZmax
VCSUnits
VCSAccuracyDescription

P a g e |72

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Comments
Sourcedocumentinformation
DataObjectName
SpatialObjectType
SourceDocumentName
Type
Scale
DateDocumentCreated
DateDigitized/Scanned
Digitizing/ScanningMethodDescription
AccuracyDescription
Comments
LineageInformation
DataObjectName
DataObject1
DataObject2
DescriptionofSpatialOperationandParameters
AccuracyDescription
Comments
UpdateInformation
DataObjectName
UpdateFrequency
Date
UpdatedBy
Comments
ArchiveInformation
DataObjectName
RetentionClass
RetentionPeriod
DataArchived
ArchivedBy
DatetobeDestroyed
SourceDocuments
SourceDocumentName
SourceDocumentID#
SourceOrganization
TypeofDocument
NumberofSheets(map,photo)
SourceMaterial(paper,mylar)
ProjectionName
CoordinateSystem
DateCreated

73|P a g e

LastUpdated
Control/Accuracy(map,photo)
Scale
Reviewedby
Reviewdate
Spatialextent
Fileformat
Comments
13. EntitiesContainedinSource
SourceID#
EntityName
SpatialEntity
EstimatedVolumeofSpatialEntity
Symbol
AccuracyDescriptionofSpatialEntity
Reviewedby
ReviewDate
ScrubNeeded(yes/no)
Comments
14. AttributesbyEntity
SourceID#
EntityName
AttributeDescription
CodeSetName
AccuracyDescriptionofAttribute
ReviewedBy
ReviewDate
Comments

AdditionalReading
(Thefollowingmaterialisquitetechnical,butagoodsetofsourcesonconceptualdatabasedesign.)
Armstrong, M.P. and P.J. Densham, 1990, "Database Organization Strategies for Spatial Decision
SupportSystems,"InternationalJournalofGeographicalInformationSystems,vol.4,no.1,320.
Calkins, Hugh W., "Entity Relationship Modeling of Spatial Data for Geographic Information
Systems,"InternationalJournalofGeographicalInformationSystems,January1996.
Chen, P.P., 1976, "The EntityRelationship Model Toward a Unified View of Data," ACM
TransactionsonDatabaseSystems,vol.1,no.1,March1976,pp.936
Chen, P.P., 1984, "English Sentence Structure and Entityrelationship Diagrams," Information
Sciences,29,127149

P a g e |74

Davis, C., et. al., eds., 1983, EntityRelationship Approach to Software Engineering, Amsterdam,
Netherlands:ElsevierSciencePublishersB.V.
Elmasri, R. and S.B. Navathe, 1989, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Redwood City, California:
TheBenjamin/CummingsPublishingCompany,Inc.
Jajodia, S. and P. Ng, 1983, On Representation of Relational Structures by EntityRelationship
Diagrams, EntityRelationship Approach to Software Engineering, P. Ng and R. Yeh (eds.),
Amsterdam,Netherlands:ElsevierSciencePublishersB.V.,pp.249263.
Liskov,B.andS.Zilles,1977,"AnIntroductiontoFormalSpecificationsofDataAbstractions,Current
Trends in Programming Methodology" Vol. 1: Software Specification and Design, R.T. Yeh (ed),
PrenticeHall,pp132.
Loucopoulos,P.andR.Zicari,1992,ConceptualModeling,Databases,andCASE:AnIntegratedView
ofInformationSystemsDevelopment,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
Teorey,T.J.andJ.P.Fry,1982,DesignofDatabaseStructures,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,Inc.
Ullman,J.D.,1988,PrinciplesofDatabaseandKnowledgeBaseSystems,2vols.(Rockville,Maryland:
ComputerSciencePress,Inc.)

AppendixA
DevelopingStandardsforSpatialDataandMetadata
Spatial data standards are needed in order to facilitate the exchange of spatial data between
geographic information systems. We refer to data as "spatial" because the common factor is a
geographicreference(areferenceinspace)whichallowsthedatatobeaccessedthroughaGIS.In
ordertoaccomplishthegoaloffacilitatingdataexchange,spatialdatastandardsshouldprovide:

DefinitionsoftermsforspatialobjectsorfeaturesincludedinGIS;
Astructure(orformat)fortheexchangeofspatialdata;
Amethodfordescribingtheaccuracyandlineageofthedata;and
Thedefinitionofmetadata(thedatathatdescribesthespatialdata).

Theprimarypurposeforspatialdatastandardsistofacilitatedatasharingandexchange,thusthe
focusonlyondataissues.TheCouncilconcludedthatItisnotnecessarytodevelopstandardsforGIS
hardwareorsoftwareatthistime.asthesestandardsareexpectedtoevolvefromgroupssuchas
the Open GIS Consortium, a nonprofit trade association formed to implement the Open Geodata
InteroperabilitySpecification.

TheCurrentStatusofStandards
At present, spatial data standards exist only at the Federal government level. Under the Federal
GeographicDataCommittee,threestandardsdocumentshavebeenprepared:

75|P a g e

TheSpatialDataTransferStandard(SDTSFIPS173)
This standard defines a method for the exchange of spatial data between different GIS software
systems. It also contains definitions of terms for the spatial objects of interest to Federal
governmentagencies.

ContentStandardsforDigitalGeospatialMetadata(proposed)
Thisstandarddefinesthecontentfordigitalgeospatialmetadata,theinformationaboutspatialdata
thatwouldbeenteredintoaclearinghouseorrepositorytoformacatalogofspatialdataavailable
tootherusers.

CadastralStandardsfortheNationalSpatialDataInfrastructure(draft)
This is a draft standard for cadastral (land ownership) data, one of twelve theme standards
documentsunderpreparation.
TheFederalGeographicDataCommitteehasalsoestablishedaNationalSpatialDataInfrastructure
(NSDI)forthepurposeofcoordinatinggeographicdataacquisitionandaccess.Themechanismfor
this will be a National Spatial Data Clearinghouse, a distributed network of geospatial data
producers, managers, and users linked electronically. It is envisioned that this network of
clearinghouseswouldcontaininformationaboutavailablespatialdata.Potentialuserswouldsearch
thisclearinghousetofinddataofinterest,accessthemetadataforadescriptionofdataofinterest,
andcouldacquirethedatafromthedistributingagency.Spatialdatamaybedepositeddirectlywith
aclearinghouseorretainedbytheoriginator.
The Federal effort towards standards development started in 1981 and The National Spatial Data
InfrastructureandFederalspatialdatastandardsarestillevolvingatthistime.Theremainingsubject
area (theme) standards reports are scheduled for release during the Spring of 1996 ( themes are:
base cartographic, bathymetric, cultural and demographic, geodetic, geologic, ground
transportation, international boundaries, soils, vegetation, water, and wetlands). The table below
showsthecurrentstatusoffederalspatialdatastandardsdevelopment.
ImplementationoftheFederalgeospatialdatastandardsisthroughExecutiveOrder12906signedby
thePresidentonApril11,1994.TheFGDCisdirectedto"...seektoinvolveState,local,andtribal
governmentsinthedevelopmentandimplementationoftheinitiativescontinuedinthisorder."The
Orderprovidesthat:
"Federalagenciescollectingorproducinggeospatialdata,eitherdirectlyorindirectly~e.g.through
grants,partnerships,orcontractswithotherentities)shallensure,priortoobligatingfundsforsuch
activities,thatdatawillbecollectedinamannerthatmeetsallrelevantstandardsadoptedthrough
theFGDCprocess."

StatusofFederalGeographicDataCommitteeStandards
Currentlyindevelopment:

Completedpublicreview:

NationalSpatialDataAccuracyStandard

CadastralContentStandard

StandardsforDigitalOrthoimagery

Federal Domain of Values for Data Content

P a g e |76

Standard
DraftStandardsforDigitalElevationData

CadastralCollectionStandard(Cadastral)

HydrographicandBathymetricAccuracyStandard ClearinghouseMetadataProfile(Cadastral)
StandardsforGeodeticControlNetworks

Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater

HabitatsoftheUnitedStates

Transportation Network Profile for Spatial Data

TransferStandard

TransportationrelatedSpatialFeatureDictionary
SoilsDataTransferStandard
VegetationClassificationStandards
RiverReachStandardsandSpatialFeature
Dictionary
FacilityIDCode
Content Standard for Cultural and Demographic
Data

Metadata
Source:FederalGeographicDataCommitteeNewsletter,November1995.

77

Chapter 6: Acquisition of Hardware &

Software
1.INTRODUCTION
This guide begins the description of the first of four steps of the GIS Development process which
dealswiththeactualassemblyoftheGISanditssubsequentoperation.
Allofthenecessaryplanning,designandtestingshouldhavebeencompletedduringtheexecution
of the previous seven steps of the GIS development process. The remaining steps and their main
purposeareasfollows:

GIS Hardware and Software Acquisition includes the final selection of the hardware and
software(bycompetitivebidinresponsetoaRequestforProposalsRFP,asnecessary);the
delivery and installation of the hardware and software; and all necessary renovation of
space,wiring,andenvironmentalremodeling.
GISSystemIntegrationbringingthefinaldatabaseandthehardwareandsoftwaretogether
andtestingtheircombinedoperation.
GIS Application Development preparing applications identified in the Needs Assessment
which require additional programming using the GIS macro language or other supporting
programminglanguages.
GISUseandMaintenancestartinguseoftheGISandinstitutionofdatabase,hardwareand
softwaremaintenanceprograms.Furtherapplicationdevelopmentandusertrainingarealso
continuingneeds.

2.GISHARDWAREANDSOFTWAREACQUISITION
ThisstepistheactualpurchaseoftheGIShardwareandsoftware.TheGIStobeacquiredisusually
subjecttocompetitivebidbytheinterestedvendors.Thesinglemostcriticalpartofthisprocessis
thepreparationofanadequate(anddetailed)RequestforProposals(RFP).
Acquiring the components for your GIS is an important step. Use all of the information you have
gathered up to this point to produce a document telling prospective bidders what you need. The
documentshouldclearlycommunicateyourneedsandhowbiddersshouldrespondtotheRFP.
Duringthisphaseremainobjective.Keepasmuchofthe"politicking"outoftheselectionprocess.
Youshouldbelookingforthebestvalueforyourmoney,notthelowestcost.

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3.STEPSINTHEGISACQUISITIONPROCESS
EvaluationTeam
The evaluation team should be made up of interested staff from departments involved in
implementingGISwithinthelocalgovernment.Theseindividualsneedtobeobjectiveandnothave
predefinedideasofwhatsystemtheywant.Theyneedtobeactionorientedandwillingtoputin
the time to do the job right. A successful RFP process involves a great deal of hard work and
coordination.Youwillneedtohavepeopleonthecommitteetohelpaccomplishthis.
OnceadraftRFPhasbeendeveloped,haveanobjective3rdpartylookatit.Youwantitascomplete
and readable as possible. This can be another local government (maybe one of the ones how
supplied you a copy of theirs) or a consultant helping you with the RFP process (make sure the
consultantisnotplanningonbiddingontheproject).

PreparationofRequestforProposal(RFP)
TheRFPdocumentisusedtocommunicateyourneedstopotentialbidders.Itwillalsotellbidders
howyouwantthemtorespondtotheRFP.
BeasspecificaspossibleindefiningwhatyouneedforyourGIS.Providedetaileddescriptionsofthe
functionality, services and support you are looking for. It is recommended that you do not use
specific brand names of software and hardware products in your RFP specifications. This will limit
thenumberofpotentialbiddersyoucanchoose.Therewillbesituationswherespecificproductsare
needed. An example is when your organization has a policy in place for using a type of operating
systemorhasalreadystandardizedanddevelopeddatasetsforuseinaparticularsoftwarepackage.
Focusmoreonwhatyouwantthesystemtodo.Youwillnotgetwhatyouneedunlessyouspecifyit
clearlyintheRFP.
InyourRFP,tellthebiddershowyouwantthemtorespond.Provideexamplesofwhatyouwant:
definehowpricingshouldbestructured,usestandardizedformsifappropriate,clearlystatecriteria
for evaluating the responses. You will receive responses that are more consistent and easier to
evaluateifyoudefinetheresponseguidelinesintheRFP.
To get started, contact other local governments who have recently developed similar RFPs. Use
these as a guide. It would be a good idea to contact the person responsible for evaluating the
responses.Askthemwhatworkedandwhatdidn'tworkwiththeRFP.AdjustyourRFPaccordingly.
Also adjust the scope of your RFP to fit your needs. If you are a small village, don't use a RFP
developedbyalargercity(orvisaverse)youwillnotgetwhatyouneedandthepotentialbidders
willbeconfusedormisdirected.

DistributionofRFP
YouwillwantyourRFPtogotoqualifiedbidders.Thebestsourceforthisistogototradeshowsor
GIS user group meetings and ask around. Again, try to stay objective. Don't get mislead by flashy
demosorexcessivehype.Talktootherlocalgovernmentsandgetrecommendationsofcompanies
theythinkarequalifiedtorespondtoyourRFP.

79|P a g e

Another method might be to post a notice in GIS trade journals (both regional and national). Be
preparedforalargeamountofcompaniesinquiringaboutyourproject.Thismethodisbetterused
forlarge,expensiveprojects.

Bidder'sMeeting
Abidder'smeetingshouldbescheduledwithinaweekortwooftheRFPbesentout.Makesurethe
timeandlocationisintheRFP.Thismeetingisusedtogetfeedbackfromthebiddersandtoclarify
anything not clearly stated in the RFP. It is always an interesting experience to have number of
competitors gathered together in one room. There will be a reluctance by the bidders to ask any
questions that might give away their bidding strategy to their competitors. Do not be surprised if
there are not many questions raised at the meeting. To get things going, have a short prepared
statementorpresentationthatoutlinesthehistoryoftheprojectandtherequirementsoftheRFP.
Itisimportanttoaskthebidderstosubmitwrittenquestionstoyouinaspecifiedperiodoftime.It
isalsorecommendedthatallwrittenquestionsandyourresponsesbecompiledandsentbacktoall
bidders.Thiswillprovideconsistencyandfairnessintheprocess.
The purpose of this meeting is to communicate to all bidders what you need and how you want
themtorespond.

Answeringquestions
In addition to the written responses from the bidder's meeting, you will need to provide some
mechanismforansweringadhocquestionsfrombidders.Thebestwaytodothisistorequirethat
all questions be faxed or emailed to a specific person and provide a response within 24 hours. It
would be impractical for your organization to provide these adhoc questions and answers to all
bidders.Itwouldbeagoodpolicytotakequestionsuptothesubmissiondateforproposals.After
that date no correspondence between a bidder and people involved with the selection process
shouldbeallowed.

Deadlineforsubmission
Establishadeadlineforsubmission.Allresponsesmustbeinbythespecifiedtimeandthespecified
location in order to be considered. Set your time to be a few hours before the close of business.
Inevitably a bidder will get stuck in traffic or a courier will be delayed. This will give you a little
cushionandallowyoutimetocheckinresponseswhilestillallowingyoutogohomeatareasonable
time.

4.EVALUATIONOFPROPOSALS
Evaluating proposals should be done by the RFP committee with all the members using the same
criteriaaslistedintheRFP.Thisprocessshouldbedocumentedincaseaprotestarises.Ifyouhave
beenspecificdefiningyourGISneedsanddefininghowbiddersneededtorespond,theevaluation
processshouldbestraightforward.
SampleQuestionsHasthebidder:

Proventheycanmeetallofthefunctionalityneeded?

P a g e |80

Providedpricingthatcanbecomparedwithotherresponses?
Describedthetypesofservicesandsupportinanunderstandableway?
Providedreferencesandrelatedexperienceforyoutocheckon?

CriteriaforEvaluation
Itisimportantthatthisprocessbedocumentedincaseaprotestissubmittedortoexplainwhya
proposalwasnotaccepted.Eachofthecriterianeedstobemeasurableorquantifiable.
Functionalcapabilities
In the Needs Assessment phase GIS functionality was identified and documented. This
documentationoffunctionalityshouldbedefinedintheRFPandusedforthisevaluation.Developa
checklist of the various functions and have each committee member fill out the checklist for each
proposal.
VendorSupport
Withoutpropersupportanysystemisdoomedtofailure.Partoftheevaluationistounderstandthe
type of support being offered. What kind of response time is being offered and what are the
standards.Willthevendorprovideanswerstoaproblemwithin24hoursofacall?Willtheyprovide
onsitevs.factoryserviceforhardwareproblem?Makesureyouarecomfortablewiththelevelof
servicebeingoffered.
Cost/MaintenanceFee
Therearealotofwaystostatethepriceofaproposal.Itisrecommendedthatyoubespecificas
possibleintheRFPandbidder'smeetingabouthowthepriceshouldbestructured.Themorepricing
can be itemized in the proposal the easier it will be to compare the responses to each other. A
suggestionistodevelopapricingformforeachbiddertofilloutandincludewiththeirproposal.As
aminimumhaveseparatepricingforsoftware,hardware,servicesandsupport.Moredetailforeach
ofthesesectionswouldbenice,justdon'tgettoocarriedaway.

Interviews/BenchmarkTest(seeBenchmarkTestGuide)
After the RFP committee has evaluated the written proposals, a "short list" of bidders should be
agreed upon. Any proposals that are not in compliance with the RFP or do not rank high in the
evaluation should be eliminated from consideration the remaining bidders compromise the short
list.Somemarginallyqualifiedbiddersmanyneedtobeeliminatedaswelltokeeptheshortlistof
bidders a manageable size. These short list bidders will be invited to a interview and/or a
benchmark.
Duringthisprocessyouwillbeevaluatingthebidderon:

Abilitytointeractwithyourorganization
Technicalability
Abilitytocommunicateeffectively

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SelectingaProposal
OncetheInterview/Benchmarkiscompleted.TheRFPcommitteemembersshouldcompileallof
their evaluations independently then meet as a group. This meeting should review all of the
proposalsandbegintofocusonwhichproposaltoselect.Atthismeetingquestionsmayarisethat
needtobeansweredinmoredetail.Takethetimetogettheseanswersfromthebidderbeforea
selectionismade(generallyaphonecallwillworkbutsometimesafollowupinterviewisneededif
practical).
Once all of the committee's questions are answered, it should move quickly to making a selection
andnotifyingthebidders.Atthispointacontractneedstobeputinplacethatdefinesthescopeof
work outlined in the RFP. This contract needs to be executed before any further phase of GIS
implementationisstarted.

5.GISDELIVERYANDINSTALLATIONPLAN
Onceyouhaveselectedavendor(s)foryoursystemyouwillneedtocoordinatethedeliveryandset
upofallofthecomponents.therearemanyresourcestocallontodothis.Themostobviousbeing
thevendor.TheyshouldhavedemonstratedthattheyhavesomelevelofexpertisewithGISandcan
helpyougetupandrunningquickly.Itisagoodinvestmenttobuytheirservicestoinstallandsetup
the system for you. These services can be contracted for on a timeandmaterial basis or under a
scopeofservicecontract.
The most effective means of describing how to prepare the RFP is to do so by example. The
remainder of this guideline consists of selected parts from an actual RFP, presented here to
illustrate the scope, content, and level of detail needed. A properly prepared RFP increases the
chancesthatthevendorresponseswillbemostappropriatetotheneedsofthelocalgovernment.

6.SAMPLEHARDWARESPECIFICATIONS
Specifications for a system configuration to support Geographical Information System (GIS)
development and operational applications follow. The system configuration consists of various
devicesthatwillbenetworkedtogethertosupportdatacapture,storage,processinganddisplayin
bothdigitalandhardcopyforms,including:

mapping/analysisworkstations(2)
colorlaserprinter(1)
blackandwhitelaserprinter(1)
cartridgetapedrive(1)
colorrasterplotter(1)

Theproposalshallincludetechnicalandfunctionalcapabilitiesofthedevicesofferedtomeetthese
specifications.Provisionofthefollowinginformationshouldbeincludedforeachdevice:

manufacturer
modelnumber

P a g e |82

capabilities/configurationofeachdeviceincomparisontothedevicespecifications
documentationprovidedwiththedevice(i.e.,manuals)
warrantyincludedinthepurchaseprice
the nature and duration of user support services included in the purchase price such as
maintenanceagreements,usersupportandservice,and theaveragetime periodbetween
requestsforusersupportandonsittechnicalserviceifavailable.

GISWorkstations
The Mapping/Analysis workstations will support a wide range of GIS activities, including database
development,databasequalitycontrol,userapplicationdevelopment,databasemaintenanceandall
GIS applications supported by fully functional GIS software such as cartographic production,
geographic database queries, and advanced geographic analysis using both spatial and attribute
information. One of the GIS workstations must support high capacity data storage, and multiuser
GIS processing, and should perform all GIS operations and applications within acceptable user
responsetimes.
GeneralSpecificationsforWorkstations:

Massstoragemaybeconfiguredwithintheworkstations'cabinetryand/orasexternaldrives
Theworkstationsshouldbeconfiguredwithasinglehighresolution(1280x1024orgreater)
colormonitorwithatleast19"minimumdiagonalscreendimension
Alldevicesshallincludeakeyboardandapointingdevicesuchasamouse
Each GIS workstation should be networkready, and should be capable of connecting to a
localareaEthernetnetworkandsupportingaminimumtransmissionspeedof10megabits
persecond(mbps).
Multiuser,multitaskingoperatingsystemsupportinglogicalsecuritymeasuressuchasuser
name/passwordvalidation,anduseraccessprivileges.
Thedevicesshouldsupportvirtualmemoryoperations,eitherthroughadedicatedhardware
controllers(s)orthroughsoftware(operatingsystem)functions.
Descriptions of options for upgrading speed and performance through the addition or
replacement of boards or other components in the existing cabinetry of the workstations
shouldbeprovided.

SpecificDetailsofWorkstations:

Bothworkstationsshouldsupportthefollowinghardwarespecifications:
The workstation should include a minimum of a 32bit processor supporting both 64bit
address and data buses. The CPUs should operate at a minimum of 75 MHz clock speed
and/or have enough processing speed and capacity to support other intelligent GIS client
devices.ThesewillconsistofXStationsorPCs.TheworkstationsmayhavemultipleCPUson
board.
Thedevicesshouldincludeatleast128MB(megabytes)ofmainmemoryandshallsupport
32MBmemorymodulesandbeexpandabletoatleast256MB.

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The devices should be configured with mass storage disk drive(s) for direct access of data
andsoftwarefunctions.Theywillhaveaminimumof3GBofmassstorageeach
TheworkstationswillbeconfiguredwithaquadspeedCDROMdrivesthatwillfacilitatethe
installation of upgrades to the operating system, installation and upgrade of application
software,anduseraccessandreviewofsystemsandapplicationdocumentation.
Thedevicesshouldalsobeequippedwithone1.44or2.88MBfloppydriveeach
Theservermustsupportmultiuser/multitaskingoperationsandmustconcurrentlysupport
bothserverandhostworkstationfunctions.
Vendorsshalldescribeoptionsforupgradingthespeedandperformanceoftheserverand
massstoragecapacitythroughtheadditionorreplacementofboardsorothercomponents
intheexistingcabinetry.Also,Vendorsshalldescribeoptionsforincreasedperformanceand
massstoragethatinvolveconnectionofdevicesexternaltotheexistingcabinetry.

SmallFormatColorPrinter
One(1)colorprinterwillbeusedfortheproductionofcolorhardcopygraphicplotsandnongraphic
reportgeneration.
Thecolorlaserprintershouldmeetthespecificationsorequivalentdescribedbelow:

Minimumof300dotsperinch(dpi)resolution
Minimum100sheetpapertray
Minimumof4MBmemoryonboardwithcapacityformemoryupgrades
Supportforletter,legalsize,and11"x17"papersizes
Builtinpostscriptcompatibility
Serialandparallelinterface

Samplehardcopyoutputsfromtheproposeddevice(s)shallbeincludedwiththeproposal.

CartridgeTapeDrive
The system should include one (1) 4mm DAT tape subsystem for the Planning and Zoning
Department.Thetapeshouldhaveacapacityofnotlessthan5GB.Thetapesubsystemwillprovide
amechanismforperformingsystemanddatabackups.

LargeFormatColorRasterPlotter
Acolorrasterplottershallbeincludedfortheproductionofhighquality,largeformatcartographic
products.Thisdevicemustprovideahighvolumecolorplottingcapacity.Theplottershallsupport
36"x42"plotsandproducecolorplotsataminimumresolutionof300dotsper.Theplottershallbe
compatiblewiththeproposedLANhardwareandcommunicationsprotocolsandmustbeaccessible
by all workstations on the LAN. A sample hard copy output from the proposed plotter(s) shall be
includedintheproposal.
Additionally,theplottershallmeetthespecificationsdescribedbelow:

Capableofsupportingtruecolorplotting
Minimumof8MBmemoryonboardwithcapacityformemoryupgrades

P a g e |84

Supportforallpapersizes,AthroughEsize
Builtinpostscriptcompatibility
Serialandparallelinterface

Providefour(4)replacementpaperrollswiththeprinter.Thepapershouldbeahighqualityglossy
bond.

7.NETWORKANDCOMMUNICATIONSSPECIFICATIONS
Thereisarequirementtoconnectnewhardwareintwodepartments.Existingsoftwareconsistsof
Intergraph's IDispatcher, emergency response dispatch system. Requirements for each level of
communicationsareoutlinedinthesectionbelow.Vendorsshallstatethelevelofcomplianceand
provideadescriptionandcostquotationforallhardwareandsoftwarecomponentsneededtomeet
therequirementsateachlevelofdatacommunications.Vendorsshouldincludeinthecostproposal
the cost of any specialized hardware devices that will be required to implement the proposed
communicationnetwork.

NetworkProcessingRequirements
Networkprocessingrequirementsareasfollows:

Storage of data which is accessible by users on the network by specifying particular files,
collectionsoffeaturesorattributes,andgeographicareas
AccesssecuritytoallowassignmentofdifferentlevelsofaccessrightstoportionsoftheGIS
databasebyusernameorphysicaldevice
Ability to support query workstations on the network, directly connected to the server, or
connected through remote communication lines so that network users can have access to
thesedevicesandviceversa
Ability to allow database queries directly from workstations on the network without the
needtodownloaddatatoworkstations
Abilitytoallownetworkwideaccesstoplottersandprinters,allwithprint/plotqueriesfor
generatinghardcopies

NetworkManagementandMonitoringCapabilities
Theproposedphysicalnetworkshouldalsobeabletoperformthefollowingnetworkmanagement
functions:

Accesstodataonremotenodesbyreferencetothenode,disk,directory,andfile
Accesstoprogramsonremotenodesbysimilarreference
Assignmentoflogicalnamesoraliasesforprogramsordatalocationsonremotenodes
Controlofperipheraldevicesfromanynodeonthenetwork
Passingofmailmessagesacrossnodes
Programtoprogramcommunicationsacrossnodes
Monitoringoftrafficanderrorsonthenetwork

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The proposal shall include all cabling and devices required to implement all data communication
connections,utilizingexistingfacilities.

NetworkSpeedandCapacity
Theproposedsystemmustoperateataminimumrawdataspeedof10megabitspersecond.The
Proposer shall provide information about the upper limit in numbers of mapping/analysis/query
workstations that can be supported without major degradationinresponse timeorerrorrateson
theproposednetwork.

TransactionsandDataExchangewithExistingSystems
Initially, the GISnetwork willnotsupportonlinelinkswith the existingIBM mainframe. Access to
dataresidingonthe mainframewillbeaccomplishedbydownloadingdataonto9tracktapesand
thenrewritingthisdataontocurrentindustrystandardmediasuchas4mmdatatapesorCDs.

8.SOFTWARESPECIFICATIONS
SoftwareComponentOverview
The GIS software components shall fully support and exploit the capabilities of the proposed
hardware platform and shall provide full functionality for entry, editing, maintenance, analysis,
display, and hard copy output of both graphics and tabular data on a continuous and interactive
basis.
For purposes of this procurement, software component capabilities have been grouped into the
functionalcategoriesof:

Databasestructure
Userinterface
Dataentry
Dataediting/maintenance
Dataqueryandanalysis
Datadisplay/output
Applicationdevelopment
Operatingsystemrequirements

DataEditingAndMaintenance
The proposer shall describe the tools and capabilities of the proposed system to modify and
manipulatespatialandattributedataintheGISforthefollowingcategories:

InteractiveGraphicEditing
AttributeEditing
FileCopying
DeletionofFeatures
EditControls
RubberSheeting

P a g e |86

CoordinateRegistrationandTransformations
QualityControl/ErrorDetection
Merging,Extraction,EdgeMatchingofData
Data Transactions, including the capabilities of the proposed system to translate data into
andoutofthefollowingformats:
o GFIStoProposedSystemFormat(specifyhowattributedataisaddressed
o AutoCadDXF(specifyhowattributedataisaddressed)
o AutoCadCWG(specifyhowattributedataisaddressed)
o IntergraphIGDS(specifyhowattributedataisaddressed)
o USGSDLGandDEM
o TIGERLineFiles
o ArcInfoExportFiles
o ExchangedatawithKVSComputerAssistedMassAppraisal(CAMA)System

DataQueryAndAnalysis
Theproposedsoftwareshallsupportthefollowingdataqueryandanalysiscapabilities:

GraphicDataQuery
Area/Perimeter/DistanceCalculation
AttributeDataQuery
SpatialAggregation
BufferAnalysis
AddressMatching
PolygonOverlayAnalysis
LinearNetworkAnalysis
AreaDistrictingandZoning

DataDisplay/Output
Thedatadisplayandoutputtoolcapabilitiesthattheproposedsoftwareshallsupportincludingthe
following:

GraphicDisplay
TabularDisplay
RasterImageDisplay/Production
VectorMapOverlay
HardCopyMapProduction
HardCopyReportProduction
MapPlot/DisplayRelationshipwithScale
Graph/ChartProduction
InteractiveMapComposition

ApplicationDevelopment
The Proposer shall propose one of more software components that, in a well integrated manner,
providethefollowingcapabilitiesandfeatures:

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MenuDesignandCustomApplicationDevelopment
ProgrammingFeatures
SupportingHighLevel(4GL)Programming
SubroutineLibraries

BasicOperatingSystemRequirements
The operating system component of the software shall be the primary operating system of the
proposed hardware platform and shall provide all of the traditional features of current operating
systemsasdescribedbelow:

MultiuserSupport
Multitasking,MultithreadingSupport
SecurityManagement
FileManagement
MemoryManagement
DatabaseBackups
ErrorMonitoring/DisasterRecover
SystemDiagnostics
AntiviralProtection
ElectronicMail(EMail)

NetworkManagementFunctions
Theproposedsystemshallprovidecapabilitiesformonitoringandmanagingalldataanddeviceson
theGISnetworkasoneunifiedsystemandsupportthefollowingcapabilities:

MultiuserDatabaseAccessandMaintenance
MonitoringofnetworkActivity
NetworkProblemDiagnostics
PrintandPlotManagement

9.GISDATABASESTRUCTURE
DatabaseModel
AGISdatabasemodeldefinesthenatureandusageofspatial(geographic)datawithadatabase.The
proposed software shall support a spatial data model that is capable of creating, managing, and
manipulating data sets, defined on the basis of spatial coordinates and associated attribute data
sets.
Feature Types: The data model shall support multiple feature types including point, node,
line,polygon,andtextfeatures
DataStorage:Featuresshallbestoredasdoubleprecisionxandycoordinates
DataTypes:Thedatamodelshallsupportmultiplegraphicandnongraphicdatatypes

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Database Organization: Vendors shall describe strategies for organizing data into logical
groupsonthebasisofdatathemes,andshalldescribethecapabilitiesofthedatamodelfor
supportingsimpleandcomplexfeaturetypes.

TopologicalDataStructures
The geographic data model shall support the creation and maintenance of topological data.
Topologyshallbecreatedthroughexecutionofasoftwarefunctiontostructuregraphicdatasets.
Vendorsshalldescribetheabilityoftheproposeddatamodeltosupportlogicalpolygons,networks,
anduserdefinedtopologicalstructures.

Design
Softwarecapabilitiesthatsupportlargescaleengineeringanddesignactivitiesshouldbeoutlinedas
wellasspecificengineeringfunctionsandappropriatemodules.

RasterImageData
The Proposer shall describe support for storage of raster map images (e.g., scanned bluelines,
orthophotos)andforrasterscanneddocuments.

ContinuousGeographicDatabase
The geographic data model shall support the creation and storage of a continuous geographic
database

RelationalDatabaseManagementSystem
TheProposershallrecommendarelationaldatabasemanagementsystem(RDBMS)thatwillbeable
tomaintainaminimumof30,000recordsofparcelownershipinformationinasingletableandshall
provide functionality for updating database content, queries, and production of reports. The
recommendedRDBMSmustbeeitherapartoftheGISsoftwareorhaveadirectaccesscapability.

10.SUMMARY
The RFP sections presented above give a good example of the scope of topics and level of detail
needed. This particular RFP did not present a conceptual data model for consideration by the
vendors, but rather specified general characteristics for the GIS data model required. An actual
conceptualdatamodel,ratherthanitsgeneralcharacteristics,couldbemoreusefultovendors,and
thusmoreproductivefortheuser'sorganization.

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Chapter7:SurveyofAvailableData
1.INTRODUCTION
OneofthemostimportantelementsofdevelopingaGISisfindingandutilizingtheappropriatedata.
The form of the data is critical to the overall database design and the success of the analyses
performedwiththesystem.ThequalityoftheresultsproducedfromGISanalysesandapplications
ultimatelyresidesinthequalityofthedataused.GISdatacanbeobtainedinvariousformatsfrom
many different sources. Application requirements based upon quality, scale and level of
completeness will depend upon the needs of the application. Once data requirements are
developed,thereareusuallyaplethoraofdataoptionswhichthepotentialusercanchoosefrom.
Someofthesechoiceswillincludewhethertoutilizegovernmentorprivatelydevelopeddata,cost
inthiscasewillbeamajordifference.Otherchoicesmayinvolvedatacurrency,scale,accuracy,and
dependingupontheapplication,thedatastructure,platformspecificationsorevenmediaformat.
This guideline will discuss various information surrounding available GIS data including evaluating
data requirements, various types and sources of available GIS data, potential data sets. This
guidelinewillalsodiscusspotentialopportunitiesfordatasharing.

2.DATAREQUIRED
MasterDataList(fromNeedsAssessment)
One of the products available from a Needs Assessment is a Master Data List. Based upon
descriptionsofthetasksfutureGISuserswillwanttoperform,alistingofthevariousrequireddata
isdeveloped.
FromtheNeedsAssessmentyouwillhaveidentified:

thedataentities
theattributesassociatedwiththeentities

TheMasterDatalistisusedtoprepareadatabaseplanwhichincludes:

alogical/physicaldesignoftheGISdatabase
proceduresforbuildingtheGISdatabase
proceduresformanagingandmaintainingthedatabase

Inthisguide,theproceduresforidentifyinganddocumentingexistingdatawillbedescribed.

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3.POTENTIALSOURCESOFDATA
TypesofData
TherearemanydifferenttypesofdatawhichcanbeutilizedbyaGISsystem.Eachdatatypehasits
ownuniquepropertiesandpotentialforcontributingtotheoverallqualityandfunctionalityofthe
GIS database. These various data types are mapped data, tabular data listings, remotely sensed
imagery,andscannedimages.Thefollowingsectionsdescribethesedatatypes.

MappedData/MapSeries
Mappeddatamayrefertopublishedmapsfoundinanexistingmapseriesorcollection.Thesemaps
shouldbelogicallyclassifiedbasedupontheirdatacontent(e.g.,topographical,hydrologicaldata).
Maps which meet National Map Accuracy Standards are usually produced by federal or state
governmentagencies.Papermaps,ifnotalreadyindigitalformat,canbeutilizedindevelopingthe
databasethroughvectortabletdigitizingorscanning.
Mappeddatacanalsobeidentifiedasgeographicdatawhichhasbeendigitizedintothevectordata
structure. Vector map data may be found with or without realworld coordinate information and
mayormaynothavetopologicalrelationships.Manyorganizationswhichdigitizedtheirmapdatain
the past, did so utilizing CAD (computer aided drafting), and thus were not able to establish
topologicalrelationshipsbetweentheirspatialelements.Today,thereexistssoftwarewhichallows
CAD data to be quickly converted into topologically correct geographic data which can then be
assignedcoordinatedatawithinaGIS.Manyalternativesourcesofdigitalspatialdatathusexist,in
addition to the volumes of topologically correct geographic data available from local, state and
federalgovernments.

AttributeTablesorLists
A readily available form of GIS input, data tables and listings are available from many different
organizationsandgovernmentagencies.VariousdatatablescanbeobtainedasGISinputtoprovide
additionalattributeswhichwillbeassociatedwithspatialdataelements.Theseelementsareeasily
linkedusingprimaryrelationshipkeys.Database,spreadsheetorASCIIdelimitedtexttablesinclude
someofthevariousimportformatsavailableinmanyGISsystems.Anyorganizationthatmaintainsa
database,orusesspreadsheetstoorganizetheirrecordsisabletocreatedigitallistings.Tablesand
lists are available from almost any government organization as long as the data does not involve
privacyissueswhichwouldimpedeaccessingsuchdata.

ImageData(RemotelySensedImages,AerialPhotos)
Image data is an excellent source of GIS input data. It mainly consists of remotely sensed images
which includes both aerial photographs (in analog or digital format) and satellite images. Aerial
photos are normally captured with analog cameras. These cameras produce photographs whose
data can be very important in a GIS system. Photographs, though not digital, can be digitized by
usingavectordigitizingtablet,ortheycanbescanned,andtheninputintotheGISasanimage.In
either case, the digital version will normally require rectification and rescaling in order to correct
cameradistortionscommonwithmostaerialphotography.

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Until they are converted into a raster GIS format, basic raster images such as satellite imagery or
scanned aerial photographs do not offer any topological connectivity or potential for GIS analysis.
Satellite imagery is captured in raster digital format. With the advent of an open display
architecture, many GIS packages are able to integrate both raster and vector data into the same
display. Remotelysensed image data is useful within an editing environment for display as a
backdrop for both headsup digitizing and updating of vector layers, for verification, or for
conversionintorasterGISlayersandthensubsequentlyintovectordatalayers.
Most remote sensing cameras allow for the capture of infrared images, separating different light
waves into varying bandwidths which together and/or alone may show much more information
than a normal camera reading only in the visible spectrum. Most GIS will allow for the display of
theseimagesandwillallowfortheassigningofdifferentcolorstothevariousbandsfortheeffective
display of the data. GIS packages today also allow for the processing of these images in order to
rectify, warp, and georeference the imagery as necessary so that they will be useful as scaled
images.Aftersuchprocedures,georeferencedimagescanbeoverlaidwithsimilarlygeoreferenced
vectorimageryforeffectivedisplay.

ScannedImages(Pictures,Diagrams)
Scanned raster images are able to be displayed in a GIS the same way that satellite images are
displayed. Any raster image, whether it be a scanned map, photograph or diagram, can be easily
input into a GIS for display purposes. Integrating scanned images into a GIS display, or converting
rasterdataintorasterGISformatarefairlyroutinecapabilitiesformosthighendGISpackages.As
discussedearlier,aGISallowsfortheassignmentofcoordinatestorasterimagedata.
Scannedmaps(asopposedtodigitizedvectorrepresentations)canbeeffectivebackgroundsupon
which other GIS vector layers can be displayed. Scanned maps usually contain much valuable
annotation which would be very timeconsuming to duplicate in a vector environment. Including
raster images allows for the enhancing of an application by providing the user with visual display
datawhichcanenhancetheuser'sunderstandingofthedata.Scannedphotographsareespecially
effective.InmanyGISpackages,linkscanbeestablishedbetweenanimageviewer,whichdisplays
scanned images, and vector geographic features so that when an event sequence is initiated (e.g.
selectingavectorfeature),therasterimageviewerappearswiththespecifiedscannedimage.

Formats
There are three major formats in which GISusable data can be obtained. They include
hardcopy/eyereadable format, analog image format, and in fully digital format. Unique types of
informationcanbeaccessedfromeachofthesedataformats.

Hardcopy(Paper,LinenOrFilm)/EyeReadable
Hardcopymapsareeasilyaccessedfromawidevarietyoforganizations.Hardcopymaps,asaform
ofGISsourcedata,canbedigitizedonadigitizingtabletintovectorGISformat,orscannedandthen
converted into raster GIS format. Although there are potential accuracy problems which are
associated with paper and linen maps (related to distortions due to shrinkage/expansion of the
media)incapturinggeographicfeatures,thereisstillmuchuniquegeographicdatawhichcanonly
befoundonthesemaps.Anexampleofuniquedatafrompaperorlinenmapsisseenwhenseeking

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geographic data for a certain time period. Much of the digital data which is readily available may
onlybethemostcurrent,updateddataforaregion.Forexample,inordertofindgeographicdata
from before 1970, the only choice may be to access a paper or linen map. Use a film copy of the
sourcedocumentwhereavailableasthiswillbethemoststablemedia.
Accessingdatedtabularinformationforthedevelopmentofanattributedatabasemaybeasimilar
endeavorrequiringtheuseofpaperdocuments.Organizationswhichhavebeeninexistencesince
beforethedawnofdigitalfilingsystemsallhadtokeeptheirdatainpaper"hardcopy"formatat
onetime.Someoftheseolderrecordsmayhavebeenconvertedintodigitalformatonepoint.In
other cases, there may be hardcopy documents which are the only versions of dated material. In
order to conserve space and the integrity of most documents, many might possibly have been
copiedontomicrofiche.

Image(Picture)
Aerial photography is found to be an abundant geographic data form. Photogrammetry (aerial
mapping)isacommonwayofcreatinganaccurateanduptodatelandbase.Aerialphotosprovide
the raw data which is necessary for various planimetric and topographic mapping applications.
Photographic images are a very rich data source in that many geographic features can be seen
clearly on a photograph but may not be seen in a paper map or a vector digital file (e.g., a large
clearing within a wooded area would not be differentiated on most paper maps, but it is clearly
visibleontheaerialphoto).
Aerial photography is available from many sources (i.e.: USGS, DOT, County agencies, etc.) The
federal government has recently developed the National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) in
which states that desire to have their counties flown may split the cost with the Federal
government.ManyusefulproductsarederivedfromtheNAPPincluding1:12,000hardorsoftcopy
orthophotographs.Anorthophotoisascannedaerialphotographwhichhasbeendigitallyrectified
usingcontrolpointsandadigitalelevationmodel.ThedigitalversionsareespeciallyusefulforGIS
applications. If the type of digital aerial photography needed is not available, organizations can
createarequestforproposaltosolicitbidsforaerialmapping,althoughthiscanbeveryexpensive.

Digital
Withinthedigitalformatgenre,therearemanydifferentvarietiesofdataavailable.Thesevarious
options are becoming as numerous as what is currently available in paper maps. In terms of map
graphics,thereareagaintwodifferentdatastructureswhicharequicklyintegratedintotoday'sGIS
systems:thesearerasterandvectordataformats.Tabulardatacanbefoundindigitaldataformat
mostfrequently.Variousformsofdigitalspatialdatawhicharecurrentlyavailableinrasterformat
mayincludesomeofthefollowing:

Scannedmapsandaerialphotography
SatelliteImagery
DigitalOrthophotography
DigitalElevationModels

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Someofthevariousformsofdigitalspatialdatawhicharecurrentlyavailableinvectorformatmay
includesomeofthefollowing:

Topologicalvectorlinework
Nontopologicalvectorlinework
Annotationlayers

SomeofthevariousformsofdigitalattributedatawhichcanbeinputintoaGISincludesfiletypes
associatedwithvarioussoftwarecomponents:spreadsheet,databaseandwordprocessing.Someof
thefileformatswhichcanbeutilizedinclude:dBase,Excel,andASCIIdelimitedtext.

GovernmentSources
Governmentisthelargestsinglesourceofgeographicdata.DataformostanyGISapplicationcanbe
obtainedthroughfederal,state,orlocalgovernments.Variousdataformats,whetherpaper,image
ordigital,canallbeobtained through government resources.Thefollowingsubsectionsgivebasic
descriptions of the datasets which are available through some federal, state and regional/local
governmentagencies.

FederalDataSources
The federal government is an excellent source of geographic data. Two of the largest spatial
databaseswhicharenationalincoverageincludetheUSGeologicalSurvey'sDLG(DigitalLineGraph)
database, and the US Census Bureau's TIGER (Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and
Referencing)database.Bothsystemscontainvectordatawithpoint,lineandareacartographicmap
features, and also have attribute data associated with these features. The TIGER database is
particularly useful in that its attribute data also contains census demographic data which is
associatedwithblockgroupsandcensustracts.Thisdataisreadilyusedtodayinavarietyofanalysis
applications.Manycompanieshaverefinedvariousgovernmentdatasets,includingTIGER,andthese
datasetsofferenhancementsintheirattributecharacteristics,whichincreasestheutilityofthedata.
Unfortunately,problemsassociatedwiththepositionalaccuracyofthesedatasetsusuallyremainas
these are much more difficult to resolve. Satellite and digital orthophoto imagery, raster GIS
datasets, and tabular datasets are also available from various data producing companies and
governmentagencies.
The following information on federal agencies was taken from the Manual of Federal Geographic
DataProductsdevelopedbytheFederalGeographicDataCommittee(FGDC).TocontacttheFGDC:
FederalGeographicDataCommitteeSecretariat
USGeologicSurvey
590NationalCenter
Reston,VA22092
Phone:(703)6484533
Thedepartmentsallhavedifferentagenciesandbureauswithinthemwhichoffervariouslistingson
thetypesofdatawhichareavailable(e.g.concerningdatastructure,scale,softwareexportformat,
source data, currency, what applications the data can be used for), and from which agencies they

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canbeacquired.Thereaderisencouragedtoconsultthismanualforfurtherinformationregarding
thegeographicdataproductsrelatedtotheseorganizations.
DEPARTMENTOFAGRICULTURE

TheAgricultureStabilization&ConservationService:R
ForestService:B,H,L,Sur,T
SoilConservationService:H,Sub,Sur

DEPARTMENTOFCOMMERCE

BureauoftheCensus:B,S,H,Sur
BureauofEconomicAnalysis:B,S
NationalEnvironmentalSatelliteData&Info.Service:A,Ged,Gep,H,R,Sub,Sur,T
NationalOceanService:Ged,H,R,Sub,Sur,T
NationalWeatherService:A,R,T

DEPARTMENTOFDEFENSE

DefenseMappingAgency:B,H,Sur,T

DEPARTMENTOFHEALTH&HUMANSERVICES

CentersforDiseaseControl:B,S

DEPARTMENTOFTHEINTERIOR

BureauofLandManagement:B,H,L,R
BureauofMines:Sub
BureauofReclamation:H,Sur
MineralsManagementService:B,H,L
NationalParkService:B,H,Sur,T
USFish&WildlifeService:H,Sur
USGeologicalSurvey:A,B,S,Ged,Gep,H,L,R,Sub,Sur,T

DEPARTMENTOFTRANSPORTATION

FederalHighwayAdministration:Sur

INDEPENDENTAGENCIES

FederalEmergencyManagementAgency:H
NationalAeronautics&SpaceAdministration:H,L,R,Sub,Sur
TennesseeValleyAuthority:B,S,Ged,H,L,R,Sub,Sur,T

FederalAgencyDataProductCode:

A=AtmosphericH=HydrologicSub=Subsurface

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B=BoundariesL=LandOwnershipSur=SurfaceandManmadeFeatures
Ged=GeodeticR=RemotelySensedT=Topography
Gep=GeophysicsS=Socioeconomic

NationalSpatialDataInfrastructure(NSDI)
Thereisawealthofgeographicdatawhichcanbeaccessedfromfederalandstateagenciesoverthe
Internet. Most federal agencies which deal with geographic data have File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
servers storing various geographic datasets. These servers allow organizations to download digital
dataovertheInternet.Oneofthemostpopulated serversistheUSGeologicalSurveyFTPserver,
whichholds allofthe USGSDigitalLineGraphfiles(the USGSserverFTPaddresscanbe foundby
calling the USGS at 1800USAMAPS). The Census Bureau also has an FTP server which allows
organizations to access portions of its TIGER/Line file database. Government FTP servers can be
searchedforontheInternetusingARCHIE.
Many federal and state agencies and corporations which deal with geographic data have Internet
homepageswhichcanbeaccessedontheWorldWideWeb.TheUSGeologicalSurvey(USGS)home
page,liketheUSGSFTPserver,containsawealthofinformationaboutUSGSgeographicdataand
howitcanbeused.FromtheUSGShomepageitispossibletosearchfor,view,anddownloadUSGS
data. One can also obtain USGS Fact Sheets, general information on the USGS, educational
resources,publications,researchpapers,andinformationalresourcesonotherInternetsites.Most
federal agencies have their own home page and are structured similarly to the USGS home page.
MostmajorGISsoftwarevendorsalsohaveInternethomepages.EnvironmentalSystemsResearch
Institute(ESRI),Inc.hasanexcellenthomepage(URLaddress:http://www.esri.com)whichcontains
awideassortmentofusefulinformation.

StateGovernmentAgencies
There are many New York State agencies which are good sources of GIS data. Three of these
organizations include the Department of Transportation, the Department of Environmental
Conservation,andtheOfficeofRealPropertyServices.
The New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) offers data in paper and digital file
formats.Papertopographicmapscanbeobtainedatvariousscales.MostapplicabletoGISneeds,
the NYSDOT has developed digital spatial files which are part of the New York State County Base
MapSeries.TheBaseMapfiles,thoughcreatedwithaCADD(ComputerAidedDesignandDrafting),
havebeendesignedforuseinaGIS.TheDepartmenthasdevelopedafilestructurewhichwillallow
fortheirconversionintoatopologicalGISformat.Therearevariousdatalayersavailablewithinthis
database including: Roads, Boundaries, Hydrography, Miscellaneous Transportation, and Names
(NYSDOT,1994).Forfurtherinformation,seeDigitalFilesfromtheCountyBaseMapSeriesfromthe
NYSDOT.
The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) is another state
organization which offers GIS data in varying formats. In 1990, the NYSDEC compiled an inhouse
inventory of its geographic data sources called the "Geographic Data Source Directory." The
directory contains information on all of the DEC's geographic data sources with potential GIS
applications. The DEC divided its data into the following categories: Air Resources, Construction

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Management, Fish and Wildlife, Hazardous Substances Regulation, Hazardous Waste Remediation,
LandsandForests,LawEnforcement,ManagementPlanningandInformationSystemsDevelopment,
Marine Resources, Mineral Resources, Operations, Regulatory Affairs, Solid Waste, and Water
(Warneckeetal,1992).AcopyofthedirectoryisavailablefromNYSDEC.Callyourlocalofficeorthe
mainofficeinAlbany.
TheNewYorkStateOfficeofRealPropertyServices(ORPS)hasdevelopedadatabaseknownasRPIS
(RealPropertyInformationSystem)whichcontainsinformationonalltaxparcelsinthestate.Each
parcel containsacoordinaterepresenting thecenterpointoftheparcelandattributeinformation
whichincludes:uniquelandbasedparcelidentificationnumbersand descriptiveinformation,such
as land use, locations, sales information, exemptions, and other parcel attributes. RPIS data is
available to local assessors, real property assessment offices , corporations and the general public
foranominalfee.
The New York State Department of Health (DOH) uses GIS in its work in analyzing and mapping
environmental health risk areas and hazardous waste sites. The DOH has a database containing
CensusBureauTIGERfilesandparcelmaps.TheseGISfilescanbeacquiredbythepublic.
SomeotheragencieswhichhaveGISdatabasesandwhichmayhavedatausableinaGISinclude:the
Adirondack Park Agency (APA); the Hudson River Valley Greenway; New York Metropolitan
Transportation Council; the Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation; Department of
Public Service; State Emergency Management Office; New York City Department of Environmental
Protection(Hilla,1995);StateDataCenterAffiliates(variousNYSCounties).Pleasenotetheseareall
examplesandnotintendedtobeanexhaustivelist.

RegionalAndLocalGovernments
Many regional and local government agencies and organizations maintain GIS databases. These
agencies may have data sharing arrangements with local companies and other municipalities.
Information identifying which government agencies and companies have available GIS data layers
maybefoundinregionalorlocalGISdatadirectories.Onesuchregionaldatadirectorydeveloped
within New York State is the Regional Directory of Geographic Data Sources for Genesee/Finger
Lakes Counties. The directory contains information on participating government agencies and
companies which have GIS data layers, then lists information regarding these layers, and provides
thename,addressandphonenumberofthepersonwithintheorganizationwhocanbecontacted
forfurtherdetailsordatasharingarrangements(GIS/SIG,1995).

PrivateDataFirms
There are companies that will develop data for a local government. These companies will develop
programs based on contract data conversion or public/private partnerships. Contract data
conversionfirmsareavailableforthoseorganizationsthatwishtohavecustomgeographicdatasets
developed. Usually, the development of these datasets involves the client organization providing
existingsourcedata(e.g.,papermaps)tothedatadevelopmentfirm,whichthenconvertsthedata
intodigitalformat.

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Inpublic/privatepartnerships,thecompanywillworkoutanagreementwiththelocalgovernment
thatwillprovidedataconversionbutalsoretaintheabilitytomarket,selland/orusethedigitaldata
that was created. Public/private agreements are just emerging as a method for creating GIS
databasescosteffectively.Whenconsideringapublic/privatepartnership,issuessuchasownership,
access,freedomofinformationrequirementsandlongtermdatamaintenancemustbeaddressed
aswellasthecostsharingofbuildingthedatabase.

4.DESCRIBINGANDEVALUATINGPOTENTIALDATA
Thenextstepistoactuallysurveythevariousdepartmentswithinthelocalgovernmentsandother
externalsourcestodeterminewhatdataisavailableforuseintheGISandwhatconditionthedatais
in.

MetadataDocumentation
Thefirststepwillbetodocumentthedatabydevelopingmetadatafilesforeachdatabaseavailable.
Themetadatafileisusedfortworoles.1)developinformationthatwillbeusedtoevaluatethedata
foruseinaGISand2)fulfillthemetadatarequirementsfordataonceitisusedinaGIS.
ForeachpotentialdatasourcefortheGISdatabase,themapseries,photos,tabularfiles,etc.justbe
identified, reviewed, and evaluated for suitability to use in the GIS. Maps, photos, and remotely
senseddataarethemostlikelysourcesandshouldbeevaluatedfor:

appropriatescale
projectionandcoordinatesystem
availabilityofgeodeticcontrolpoints
aerialcoverage
completenessandconsistencyacrossentirearea
symbolization of entities (especially positional accuracy of symbol due either to size of
symboloroffsetplacementonmap)
qualityoflineworkandsymbols
generalreadabilityandlegibilityfordigitizing(labels)
qualityandstabilityofsourcematerial(paper/mylar)
amountofmanualeditingneededpriortoconversion
edgematchbetweenmapsheets
existenceandtypeofuniqueidentifiesforeachentity(oftenentitiesshownoninmapseries
usedsocalled"intelligent"keysoridentifierswhereanidentifierforanobjectcontainsthe
mapsheetnumberand/orotherimbeddedlocationalcodesindatabasedesign,itismuch
bettertoavoid"intelligent"keysofthistype,particularlylocationalcodes).
positionalandattributeaccuracy

Alloftheaboveinformationneedstobedocumentedforeachpotentialdatasource.Ifaparticular
datasourceisthenusedtobuildpartoftheGISdatabase,someofthisinformationwillbecomepart
ofthepermanentmetadata.

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The metadata software accompanying this guideline provides three tables for recording the basic
metadata about a potential data source. The first table contains information on the source
document(orfile);thesecondtablecandescribeeachentitycontainedonasourcedocument;and
thethirdtablecandescribeeachattributeofanentity.Onceagain,onlythemostbasicentrieshave
beenincludedinthesupportingsoftwareinordertokeepthesoftwaresimpleanstraightforward.A
particularusermaywishtoexpandthetablesprovidedtomeethis/herspecificneeds.
Thefollowingliststhefieldsofthethreetablesthatcontainsourcedatainformation:
SourceDocuments
SourceDocumentName:

ParcelMap

SourceID#:

SourceOrganization:

TownofAmherst

TypeofDocument:

Map

NumberofSheets(map,photo,etc.):

200

SourceMaterial:

Mylar

ProjectionName:

UTM

CoordinateSystem:

StatePlane

DateCreated:

5Oct91

LastUpdated:

8Nov95

ControlAccuracyMap:

NationalMapAccuracyStandard

Scale:

Variable;1"=50ftTo1"=200ft

Availability:

Current

ReviewedBy:

LeeStockholm

ReviewDate:

19Dec95

SpatialExtent:

TownofAmherst

FileFormat:

N/A

Comments:

EntitiesContainedInSource
SourceID#:

EntityName:

Parcel

SpatialEntity:

Polygon

EstimateVolumeSpatialEntity:

126permapsheet

Symbol:

None

AccuracyDescriptionSpatialEntity:

NationalMapAccuracyStandard

ReviewedBy:

LeeStockholm

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ReviewDate:

02Jan94

ScrubNeeded:

Yes

Comments:

AttributesByEntity
SourceID#:

EntityName:

Parcel

AttributeName:

SBLNumber

AttributeDescription:

Section,Block,andLotNumber

CodeSetName:

N/A

AccuracyDescriptionAttribute:

N/A

ReviewedBy:

JohnHenry

ReviewDate:

08Feb93

Comments:

AdditionalCriteriaForEvaluatingPotentialDataSources
Asthesurveyisbeingconducted,itisimportanttoconsiderthefollowingissuesaboutthedata:

Isthedatacurrentandwhatisitscontinuingavailability?
Isthedatasuitableforintendedapplications?
Is the quality of the data appropriate for the type of applications needed? This should
includebothlocationalandattributeaccuracy.
Isthedatacosteffective?

FORFURTHERINFORMATION:
The Manual of Federal Geographic Data Products, developed by the Federal Geographic Data
Committee, is an excellent source for information on geographic datasets produced by agencies
within the federal government. Listed by federal agencies and bureaus within each federal
department, there are listings on the types of data which are available (e.g. concerning data
structure, scale, software export format, source data, currency, what applications the data can be
usedfor),andfromwhichagenciestheycanbeacquired.
Toordercontact:
FederalGeographicDataCommitteeSecretariat
USGeologicSurvey
590NationalCenter
Reston,VA22092
Phone:(703)6484533
NewYorkStateDepartmentofTransportationdatalisting:DigitalFilesfromtheCounty BaseMap
Series.

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MapInformationSection
MappingandGeographicInformationSystemsBureau
NewYorkStateDepartmentofTransportation
StateOfficeCampus
Building4,Room105
Albany,NewYork12232
Phone:(518)4573555
ExampleofaRegionalLevelGISDataDirectory:
1995 Regional Directory of Geographic Data Sources, developed by the GIS/SIG (Geographic
Information Sharing/Special Interest Group) for New York State's Genesee/Finger Lake Region
Counties. The directory is a listing of the various data sources which are available from local
companies,andlocalgovernmentagenciesintheGenesee/FingerLakesRegion.
The International GIS Source book, published by GIS World, Inc. is an annual publication which
contains an excellent "Data Source Listings" chapter. It provides a wealth of information on
companieswhichproduceGISdatasetsandalsoprovidesdescriptionsofthedatatheyproduce.The
chapter also lists the different types of spatial data produced by public agencies, and lists data
availabilityandcontacts.

REFERENCES
Hilla, Christine M. "The Revolution of Geographic Information Systems in Land Use and
EnvironmentalPlanninginNewYorkState,"EnvironmentalLawinNewYork,Vol.6,no.3.,March,
1995.
Montgomery,GlennE.andHaroldC.Schuch,1993.GISDataConversionHandbook.FortCollins,CO:
GISWorld,Inc.,pp.8991.
NYSDOT (New York State Department of Transportation), Digital Files from the County Base Map
Series,MappingandGeographicInformationSystemsBureau(1994).
Warnecke, L., J. Johnson, K. Marshall and R. Brown, State Geographic Information Activities
Compendium,294CouncilofStateGovernment(1991).

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Chapter8:GISSystemIntegration
1.INTRODUCTION
AtthispointintheGISdevelopmentprocesstheGIShardwareandsoftwarehavebeenacquiredand
data conversion is complete (or a substantial portion has been finished). Different components of
thehardwareandsoftwaremayhavebeenpurchasedseparately.Itisnownecessarytoputallthe
pieces together, test them to make sure they work as expected, and to initiate all procedures
necessarytousetheGIS.

2.GISSYSTEMCOMPONENTS
GISSoftware
Vendors will usually install and test their software. Acceptance criteria (often the performance
measuresusedduringthepilotstudyorbenchmarktest)willbeneededandthevendorsmustmeet
these criteria before you relieve them of their obligation to you. Check the functionality of the
program(s)toensurethatyoureceivedwhatyouexpected.Thevendorshouldfixanyproblemsthat
arise, either in software functionality or performance prior to you indicating acceptance of the
software.
CheckthatnotonlythemainGISsoftwareworks,butthatitworksinrelationtotheothersoftware
programs that are part of your "total system," which also includes all legacy databases, software,
and hardware. In addition to acceptable performance for each individual piece of software, make
sureallsoftwareworkstogether.Oncethetotalsystemisyourresponsibilityandproblemsariseit
canbeverydifficulttodeterminethepartofthesystemcausingthetrouble.Althoughnotnearlyas
commonasinthepast,thefirstresponseofavendorcanstillbe"blametheotherguy!"Makethe
vendorsresponsibleforprovidingyouwithoneintegratedsystem.Remembertheyaretheexperts.
Do not allow anything to be left up to you to check or test. If you are uncomfortable about
somethingordonotunderstandhowsomethingworks,talktothevendorrepresentativeandgetan
explanation.Additionally,technicalsupportisanextremelyvaluablenecessity.Allcontractsshould
includeonsitetechnicalsupportandthenongoingphonesupportaftertheinstallationiscomplete.

GISHardware
Implementing your hardware system is about the same as your software and must occur
simultaneously.Contractwiththevendortoinstallandtestthehardwarecomponents.Aswiththe
software, choose acceptance criteria for the hardware and operating system. Check functionality
and performance of the hardware and have the vendor resolve any problems. Make sure the
hardware is able to support the software, database, and network as required. Technical support,
bothonsiteandtelephone,shouldhavebeenincludedinthecontractwiththehardwarevendor.

Database
Integrating and testing hardware and software components are fairly welldefined processes and
vendors have good experience with these tasks. However, dealing with larger and more complex

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databases has not been nearly as common in the GIS area. Therefore, adequate procedures and
vendor experience may be lacking. There are two processes which remain basically user
responsibility:

buildingamasterdatabaseorlibrary(databaseintegration)
integratingthedatabasewiththeGIShardwareandsoftware

Theoverallprocessofbuildingthemasterdatabasefromtheconverteddatafiles(theproductofthe
digitizing or scanning process)deals with quality control checking, other editing procedures,
correction procedures, checking corrections for accuracy and finally placing the data file into the
master database (or library). It is assumed that organizing data entities into logical groups (i.e.,
layers)hasbeendefinedduringthepreviouslycompletedlogical/physicaldatabasedesignactivity.
Processing to enter data into the master database may involve restructuring the content of the
digital/scanned files from data conversion into the final database structure, usually combining
entitiesthatmayhavebeendigitizedseparately.
Otherdatabasebuildingprocessesthatmustbeaccomplishedwithintheactivitiesare:

linkingGISlayerstoattributetables
edgematchingbetweenareasusedindigitizingandrepartitioningthespatialextentintothe
finalorganization
initialization of all database related procedures needed for both establishing the database
anditscontinuedmaintenance

Proceduralcomponentsneededtocompletethedatabaseincludethoseonthefollowinglist.Many
oftheseprocedureswillhavebeendefined,atleastinitially,duringdatabasedesignand/orthepilot
studyandbenchmarkactivities.Theproceduresare:

namingconventionforallfiles(coveringversions,status,etc.)
definitionoferrorconditions
definitionofaccuracyrequirements
qualitycontrolroutines
manualeditingprocedures
checkingprocedures(verificationofcorrections)
errorrecording(flagsassociatedwithdataorothererror/accuracyinformationrecordedin
thedatabase

Thesecondmajorprocessistheintegrationofthedatabaseandallothersystemcomponents.

3.SYSTEMTESTING
Oncetheinstallationsarecomplete,youneedtotestyourintegratedsystem.Testhowthesoftware
programs work together, how the network is running, are the computers running slowly when
complexfunctionsarerequestedorallworkstationsarerunningsimultaneously,andifdataretrieval
is quick enough, to name a few. This process should continue at least a week, if not more. It is

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important to experiment with the system on multiple days, with different processes running, and
withdifferentnumbersofpeopleaccessingthedata.Askyourstafftodocumentanyproblemsand
reportthesetothevendor.Seethatresolutionsareprovidedbacktoyouinatimelymanner.Utilize
technicalsupportlinesandkeepinmindthatthevendorsareresponsibleforfollowingthroughon
whattheytoldyouwouldwork.

4.USERTRAINING
Mosthardwareandsoftwarevendorsofferclassestoteachnewusersabouttheirproducts.Youcan
usually include vendor instruction as part of your contract with them. User groups often offer
information sessions on software products where you can learn valuable information. Proper
instructionisimportant,however,andisastepthatshouldnotbedisregarded.

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Chapter 9: Evaluating GIS Hardware

andSoftware
1.INTRODUCTION
PurposeofGuide
AGISismorethanjust hardwareand software.Itisacomplex systemwith multiplecomponents:
Hardware, Software, People, Procedures and Data. The purpose of this guide is to focus on the
hardware and software components of the system and how to acquire information on what is
available.
Deciding what hardware and software to use for your GIS is a difficult yet important task. It will
makeupthefoundationonwhichyouwillbuildyoursystem.Thereisnoclearcutformulatouseto
maketheselectionprocesseasier.Inthisguidelinewewillgiveyousuggestionsthatyoucanuseto
evaluatevarioussystemsandsourcesforadditionalinformation.

2.SOURCESOFINFORMATIONABOUTGIS
TodevelopanunderstandingofGIS,youwillneedtogetinformationaboutGISsystems.Hereisa
samplingofreferencestostartwith.Thisisnotacomprehensivelisting.Useitasastartingpointand
spreadoutfromthere.

GISSourceBook
TheGISsourcebookisagoodreferencebookthatwillgiveyouagreatdealofinformationabout
softwarevendors,tradeassociations,productspecificationsandmore.Thisbookispublishedby:
GISWorld,Inc.
155E.BoardwalkDrive,Suite250
FortCollins,CO80525
Phone:3032234848
Fax:3032235700
Internet:[email protected]

OtherPublications
ConferenceProceedings
EachmajorGISconferencepublishestheproceedingsfromtheirevent.
ScholarlyJournals
There are a number of scholarly journals that deal with GIS. These are published on an ongoing
basis.
CartographicaContact:CanadianCartographicAssociation

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Cartography and Geographic Information Systems Contact: American Cartographic

Association
International Journal of Geographical Information Systems Contact: Keith Clark at CUNY
HunterCollege,NewYorkCity
URISAJournalContact:UrbanandRegionalInformationSystemsAssociation
TradeMagazines
ThereareanumberoftrademagazinesthatarefocusedonGIS.Theyare:
GISWorld
GISWorld,Inc.
155E.BoardwalkDrive,Suite250
FortCollins,CO80525
Phone:3032234848
Fax:3032235700
Internet:[email protected]

BusinessGeographics
GISWorld,Inc.
155E.BoardwalkDrive,Suite250
FortCollins,CO80525
Phone:3032234848
Fax:3032235700
Internet:[email protected]

GeoInfoSystems
AdvanstarCommunications
859WilliametteSt.
Eugene,OR.,974016806
Phone:5413431200
Fax:5413443514
Internet:[email protected]
Website:http://www.advanstar.com/geo/gis

GPSWorld
AdvanstarCommunications
859WilliametteSt.
Eugene,OR.,974016806
Phone:5413431200
Fax:5413443514
Internet:[email protected]
Website:http://www.advanstar.com/geo/gis

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AssociationNewsletters
ManyassociationshavenewslettersthatcoverGIStopicsandcanbeagoodsourceofinformation.
ContacttheorganizationslistedinattachmentAformoreinformation
Bookswithvendorspecificinformation
ThereisanumberofbookspublishedaboutGISandrelatedtopics.Herearesomeofthepublishers:
OnwordPress
2530CaminoEntrada
SanteFe,NM,875054835
Phone:5054745132
Fax:5054745030

JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
605ThirdAvenue
NewYork,NY,101580012

ESRI,Inc.
80NewYorkStreet
Redlands,CA923738100
Phone:9097932853
Fax:9097934801

GISWorld,Inc.
155E.BoardwalkDrive,Suite250
FortCollins,CO80525
Phone:3032234848
Fax:3032235700
Internet:[email protected]

VendorBoothsatTradeShows
Awealthofinformationisavailableattradeshowsfromvendorbooths.Thesecanrangefromthe
generalproductliteraturetowhitepapersandtechnicaljournals.Thisisalsoagoodtimetogathera
largeamountofinformationondifferentcompaniesinashortperiodoftime.

UserGroups
User Groups are another source of valuable information and support. There are a number of user
groups that have formed to provide support and professional networking. GIS user groups are
formedaroundageographicregionorbyusersofspecificsoftwareproducts.Newusersarealways
welcometothesegroups.

CurrentUsers
The best way to gauge a vendor is by talking to their installed sites. The information that you get
from talking to these users will be valuable insight into the type of company you will be working

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with.Askthevendorsyouwanttoexploreforalistofalloftheirusersintheareaorthataresimilar
toyourorganization.Askforcontactnamesandphonenumbers/emailaddresses.

3.SELECTIONPROCESS
Initially you will need to evaluate the software independently of hardware. The software will be
selected based on the functionality it offers. Your hardware selection will be based on the GIS
softwareyouselectandtheoperatingsystemstrategyyourorganizationuses.Youwillneedtotest
thehardwareandsoftwaretogethermakingsureitworksasadvertised.
The nature of hardware and software technology is that it changes. In recent years it has been
changing very quickly. Don't let this stop your efforts. It is easy to get intimidated. The important
thing to remember is to get a product that has been proven in the marketplace and continues to
haveacleardevelopmentpath.Avoidtechnologythatisoutdatedorisonthebleedingedgeandhas
notbeenproven.

Software
Softwareisevaluatedonfunctionalityandperformance.IntheNeedsAssessmentguidetheneedto
identifythefunctionalitywasdiscussed.Hereiswhereyouwillbegintousethisinformation.

Functionality
What is important here is the ability of the software to do the things you need it to do in a
straightforwardmanner.Asanexample,iftheintendedusersarerelativelynewtousingcomputers,
thesoftwarehastohaveaneasytousegraphicaluserinterface(GUI).Iftheorganizationneedsto
develop specific applications, the software should have a programming language that allows the
softwaretobemodifiedorcustomized.
IntheNeedsAssessmentGuide,thefinalreportcontainstablesandreferencestothefunctionality
youwillneed.Usethisindevelopingtheoverallfunctionalityrequiredforthesystem.

Standards
Standardsareawayofmakingsurethatthereisacommondenominatorthatallsystemscanuse.
Thiscanbeintheformofdataformatsthatcanimportandexportdataintothesystem,guidelines
used for developing software, supporting industry developed standards that allow different
applicationstosharedata.Standardsaregenerallydevelopedbyaneutraltradeorganizationorin
somecasesaredefinedbythemarket.
ThereisagroupthathasformedfortheGISindustrycalledOpenGIS.Thisorganizationisdeveloping
standardsfordeveloperstouseastheyengineersoftware.OpenGISismadeupofrepresentatives
fromthesoftwaredevelopercompanies.

Performance
The performance of the software is dependent on two factors, 1) how it is engineered and 2) the
speedofthehardwareitisrunningon.GISsoftwareiscomplexandwillusealargeamountofthe
system resources (memory, disk, etc.). The more complex the software, the more resources it will
need.

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Performancewillbeimpactedifyouhaveaminimallyconfiguredcomputer.Lookforthedeveloper's
softwarespecificationstoseewhatconfigurationisneeded torunthesoftware.Thiswillgiveyou
the minimum requirements. Follow this up by getting the recommended specifications from the
developerorausergroup.Theserecommendationswillgiveyouamoreaccurateideaofthetypeof
configurationyouwillneed.

Expandability
Thesoftwareneedsyouhavetodaywillchangeovertime.Morethanlikelyyoursystemwillneedto
expand.Isthesoftwarebeingevaluatedabletoprovidenetworkingcapabilities?Willitsharedata
with other applications? Will it grow as the organization's GIS grows? Evaluate software based on
theabilitytogrowwithyou.Thismaymeanthattherearecomplimentaryproductsthatcanbeused
inconjunctionwiththepackageyouareevaluatingtodayorthedeveloperhasclearlydefinedplans
for added functionality. Talk with other users to see if the developer has a good track record for
providingtheseenhancements.

Licensing
GIS software is not purchased, it is licensed. There is normally a onetime license fee with an on
goingmaintenancefeethatprovidesyouwiththemostcurrentversionsofthesoftwareastheyare
released. In large systems this will be spelled out in a licensing agreement with a corresponding
maintenance agreement. For desktop software a shrink wrap license is used with subsequent
releases being offered to existing users through a discounted upgrade. The maintenance fees and
upgradecostsgenerallyrunbetween15%to30%oftheinitiallicensefee.
Thetermsinmostsoftwarepackagesspellouthowthesoftwarecanandcannotbeused.Havethe
termsofthelicensereviewedbyanattorneybeforesigningup.Thiscansavehassleslaterasyouare
developingandusingyoursystem.

Hardware
Whendiscussinghardware,thereareterms/conceptsthatyouneedtounderstand.Thefollowingis
adiscussionofthese.However,GISsoftwareselectiondrivesthehardwarerequirements.Therefore
beforelaunchingafullscaleevaluationofhardware,makeyourselectionfortheGISsoftwareyou
willbeusing.
Hardwarecanbebrokendownintothefollowingbasiccomponents:

OperatingSystem
Processor
Disk
Memory
Communications

OperatingSystems
Anoperatingsystemisthesoftwarethatrunsthecomputerhardware.Itisthisprogramthattells
thecomputerwhattodoandhowtodoit.Youmayalreadybefamiliarwithsomeoftheoperating

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systemsthatareonthemarketsuchasMicrosoft'sWindowsproductorvariousbrandsoftheUNIX
operatingsystem.
ItisimportanttohaveanOperatingSystemplanwithinyourorganization.Theplanshouldtakeinto
accountthedepartmentsthatwillbeusingthecomputersystem,thetypeofnetworkbeingused(or
being planned), what operating systems are currently being used, how large the database is and
whatkindoftechnicalsupportskillsyouhaveaccessto(inhouseorcontractor).
The GIS will need to fit into your operating system plan. This will be important as you add other
departmentsontothesystem.

Processor
The processor or CPU (central processor unit) is the part of the computer that actually does the
calculationsor"processes"theinstructionsbeingsenttoit.Themostcommontermthatdescribe
theprocessor'scapabilitiesistheclockspeed.ThisisstatedintermsofMHz(megahertz).Theclock
speedsimplydescribeshowmanycyclespersecondtheprocessorworks.Thehighertheclockspeed
thefastertheprocessor.
Anotherdescriptionoftheprocessor'scapabilityishowmanybitsitcanaccessatonetime.Manyof
the new processors are 32bit processors. This means that the CPU can access or grab 32 bits of
information during each cycle. Older computers such as a "386" machine were 16bit machines.
There are some machines on the market that manufacture a 64bit machine (such as Digital
Equipment Corporation). These are very fast CPUs but are hampered by the lack of a 64bit
operating system that can take advantage of its speed. It is the direction the hardware industry
seemstobeheading.

Disk
Thediskorharddriveisthedeviceusedtostoretheoperatingandapplicationsoftware.Itisalso
usedtostoredataandimages.InworkingwithaGISyouwillquicklyfindoutthatGISusesalarge
amountofdiskspace.Itisnotuncommontohavemultiplegigabytesofharddriveonasingleend
usermachineand1020gigabytesonacentraldataserver.Luckilythepricesofharddriveshave
beencomingdownandwillcontinuetobeaffordable.

Memory
Memory or random access memory (RAM) is used as a temporary storage space by the operating
system and by the application software which is running on the computer. Most applications run
better as the amount of memory increases. This is true up to a point. At some point, the
performance increases will begin to taper off as additional memory is added. Most software
developerscangiveyouconfigurationdatathatindicateswherethispointis.

Communications
Thetrendinmostsystemstodayistolinkupusersthroughouttheorganizationonanetwork.Thisis
anareainthecomputerindustrythatisadvancingveryrapidly.Itisrecommendedthatyouretaina
competentconsultantwhoworkswithnetworkstogiveyoudetailedandcurrentinformation.

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Insimpleterms,anetworkisaconnectionbetweencomputersthatallowsinformationtobepassed
aroundfromcomputertocomputer.Inatypicalorganization,thisisalocalareanetwork(LAN).In
ordertoconnectacomputertothenetworkitwillneedanetworkcardforthewiringtopluginto
and network software to allow the computer to transmit and receive signals over the wiring. Of
coursethephysicalnetwork(wiring)isalsoneeded.
A small network within a department is inexpensive and can allow the users to share network
resources such as printers and database servers. The network can provide services like email and
disksharing.Itcanalsobetheentrywayintolargernetworksthatgooutsidethebuildingorcampus
yourorganizationislocatedon.ThisiscalledaWideAreaNetwork(WAN).AWANrequiresamore
structurednetworkarchitecture.Itdoesgiveusersaccesstomoreresources.
AnotherimportantpointtoconsiderisdevelopingaccesstotheInternet.Thisspecializednetworkis
growingrapidlyandprovidesanincredibleamountofresourcesforauser.TheInternetisanareato
shareideasinaGISforum,downloaddataforuseinthesystem,gettechnicalsupportforaproblem,
getthelatestinformationonaproductfromavendors'homepageordeveloponeofyourown.The
amount of information is overwhelming and too diverse to list in this guide. The point is that you
should seriously be considering getting a connection to the Internet. When considering your
network,factorthisintotheequation.

BenchmarkingaSystem
BenchmarkingaGIS can beaveryinvolvedprocess.Thelevelofeffortneededforthebenchmark
should be proportional to the size and complexity of the overall system being developed. A
benchmarkistheprocessoftestingvariouscombinationofhardwareandsoftwareandevaluating
their functionality and performance. The benchmark is usually part of an RFP process and is only
done with a limited number of selected vendors (i.e.: those that have been short listed). Each
combinationistestedundersimilarconditionsusingapredefineddatasetthatisindicativeofyour
database.Thisdatasetshouldbeusedwithallofthehardware/softwareconfigurationsselectedfor
evaluation.Whencompleted,anorganizationwillhaveresultsthatcanusedtoobjectivelyevaluate
thesystems.
SettingItUp
When putting a benchmark together there is strength in numbers. Get a committee together. A
committee will take the burden off of one person and give the process more objectivity. Have
representationfromalltheinteresteddepartmentsandagencieswithintheorganization.Aworking
groupofabout810committeemembersisreasonable.
The committee will develop the criteria that will be used to evaluate the systems. Use the Needs
Assessment documentation as a reference for this. These criteria will form the basis of the
benchmark.Developaseriesoftasksthateachvendorwillneedtocompleteduringthebenchmark.
Thetasksshouldbemeasurable(i.e.:time,easeofuse,canthefunctionbedone).Alsopreparea
formthateachofthecommitteememberswillusetoratethetasksperformedinthebenchmark.
Inyourbenchmarkyouwillnotonlybetoratingvariousaspectsofthesystem,youarealsogoingto
be rating the vendor. Be sure to include some measurement for teamwork, communication, and

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technicalskillsofthevendor.Itmightbeusefultoworkwithaconsultantthathasexperiencesetting
upbenchmarksortoget advice (andexamplesofdocumentation)fromanotherlocalgovernment
whohasrecentlycompletedabenchmark.
Well in advance of the scheduled benchmarks, send out information that outlines the tasks the
vendorwillneedtoperformandanyrulestheywillneedtofollow(howmuchtimeforsetup,time
giventoperformvarioustasks,howmanypeoplecanbepresentforthebenchmark,etc.).

VendorSupport
The vendor you select will become an extended team member for your GIS. There needs to be a
good"fit".Thevendorwillbeagoodsourceofsupportandinformation.Allvendorsprovidesome
type of technical support. Ask current users how it has worked for them. If there have been
problemsinthepast,doexistingusersseeimprovement?TheGISindustryhasbeengrowingvery
fastoverthelastfewyears,thereareboundtobesomegrowingpains.Whatyoushouldbelooking
forisavendorwholistenstowhatyouneedandmakesimprovementsbasedonuserinput.

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Chapter10:GISApplicationDevelopment
1.INTRODUCTION
Throughtime,asusersbecomemoreexperiencedwithGIS,theyrequiremorecomplexapplications.
The initial Needs Assessment will contain some applications of a complex nature, however the
majority of initial applications will be straightforward, using the basic functionality that is part of
every commercial GIS (e.g., query, display). The more complex applications usually are not
supportedbythebasicfunctionsofaGISbutmustbeprogrammedusingtheGISmacrolanguageor
other programming language. This guideline identifies several categories of applications that must
bepreparedbyusersandhowoverallrequirementschangeovertime.

2.WHYAPPLICATIONSARENEEDED
Sales brochures, live demos and journal articles touting the impressive and extensive array of GIS
capabilities creates the impression that application development is a nonissue. The vendors, it
wouldseem,havealreadydevelopedfullyfunctional,outofthebox,meetyourbusinessneeds,GIS
software.GIScanandshoulddoanythingandeverything.
Sowhyarewetalkingaboutapplicationdevelopment?
Applications are the icing on the GIS layer cake; the highest level of customizable software. The
underlying "cake" provides the functionality common to all user disciplines. Commercial GIS
packages tend to focus on the common or basic applications the "cake." When it comes to
specialized uses, application development fills the needs for functionality. Though there is a great
deal of commonalty in the basic spatial query and display functions, there is still a need for other
advanced applications. We need additional applications because needs are different between
organizations.
Commercial GIS development is driven by market pressure. The software vendors only respond to
whatmakeseconomicsensefortheirmarketshare.What'simportanttoyourorganizationmaynot
be important to others. Because of this, there are no truly "offtheshelf" applications that will
matchallofyourneeds.Youeitherhavetoadaptyourusestotheirdatamodelandfunctionalityor
youdevelopapplicationstofityouruseenvironment.

3.CATEGORIESOFAPPLICATIONS
ApplicationdevelopmentisnotrewritingtheGISsoftware,butinsteadcustomapplicationstomeet
specific needs. The applications may be as simple as a set of preferences that are stored for each
user group or individual and are run as a macro at startup time. Or they may be a very complex
querythatselectsagroupoflayers,identifiesfeaturesofinterestbasedonattributeranges,creates
variablewidthbuffers,performsaseriesofoverlaysandproducesahardcopymap.Ineithercase,
anapplicationisrequiredtoconverttheuser'sideasintoausable,stableproduct.

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4.DATABASEAPPLICATIONS
Applications are not restricted to userdefined needs. One of the shortcomings of the needs
assessmentmethodologypresentedearlier,isthefocusononlyenduserquery,analysis,anddisplay
requirements. Collective needs, particularly those related to systemwide functions, are not
identifiedbyindividualusers.Themostimportantofthesearethedataadministrationfunctionsfor
maintaining the quality and integrity of the database, such as quality control, verification, editing,
backuproutines,andsecurity.
Databaseapplicationsfallintothefollowingcategories:

databasesetup(describedaspartofGISSystemIntegration)
databasemanagement
databasemaintenance
dataarchivingandretention

Each step needs to be fully defined, as appropriate to the specifics of the GIS program. The main
pointhereisnothowthesestepsarecompletedbutrathertoidentifyallofthenecessarystepsand
toemphasizetheimportanceofplanningandexecutingeachone.
The MS Access metadata software tool accompanying these guides sets forth a structure for
creatingdocumentation neededforthemanagementand maintenanceof the GIS database.Table
definitionsforthemetadatatoolareintheappendixtotheGISuseandMaintenanceGuideline.

FormalSpecificationsforAdvancedApplications
The documentation of applications in the Needs Assessment guideline describes methods suitable
forpreparingfullandformalspecificationsforallapplications.However,mostapplicationsinanew
GISwillbeofthesimpler,morebasictype(display,query,mapoverlay).Theseapplicationswilllikely
besatisfiedbythenormalfunctionalitythatisincludedinmostcommercialGIS.
Morecomplexapplications,eitherdatabaseorspatialanalysis,willrequiredevelopmentusingthe
GIS macro programming language. For these applications the process of preparing formal
specifications, similar to what any large programming project uses, should be followed. The
techniquesrecommendedintheNeedsAssessmentguidelinearedatamodelingbyapplication(ER
technique)anddataflowdiagramming.Thesetechniquesaresuitabletoprovideanoverviewofa
complexapplication.Additionaltechniquesshouldbeused,asappropriate,including:

structuralanalysisandprogramming
rapidprototyping

As the application development needs increase, there will be a need for additional staff with the
appropriateprogrammingskillsandexperienceusingthemacroprogramminglanguageoftheGIS.

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Chapter 11: Database Planning and

Design
1.INTRODUCTION
TheprimarypurposeofthisphaseoftheGISdevelopmentprocessistospecify"how"theGISwill
performtherequiredapplications.Databaseplanninganddesigninvolvesdefininghowgraphicswill
be symbolized (i.e., color, weight, size, symbols, etc.), how graphics files will be structured, how
nongraphicattributefileswillbestructured,howfiledirectorieswillbeorganized,howfileswillbe
named,howtheprojectareawillbesubdividedgeographically,howGISproductswillbepresented
(e.g.,mapsheetlayouts,reportformats,etc.).,andwhatmanagementandsecurityrestrictionswill
beimposedonfileaccess.Thisisdonebycompletingthefollowingactivities:

Select a source (document, map, digital file, etc.) for each entity and attribute included in
theERdiagram
Setuptheactualdatabasedesign(logical/physicaldesign)
Definetheproceduresforconvertingdatafromsourcemediatothedatabase
Defineproceduresformanagingandmaintainingthedatabase

The database planning and design activity is conducted concurrently with the pilot study and/or
benchmark activities. Clearly, actual procedures and the physical database design cannot be
completedbeforespecificGIShardwareandsoftwarehasbeenselectedwhileatthesametimeGIS
hardware and software selection cannot be finalized until the selected GIS can be shown to
adequately perform the required functions on the data. Thus, these two activities (design and
testing)needtobeconductedconcurrentlyanditeratively.
In many cases, neither database design matters nor hardware and software selection are
unconstrained activities. First, the overall environment within which the GIS will exist must be
evaluated. If there exist "legacy" systems (either data, hardware or software) with which the new
GIS must be compatible, then design choices may be limited. Both GIS hardware and software
configurations and database organizations that are not compatible with the existing conditions
shouldbeeliminatedfromfurtherconsideration.Secondly,otherconstraintsfromanorganizational
perspective must be evaluated. It may, for example, be preferable to select a specific GIS or
databasestructurebecauseotheragencieswithwhomdatawillbesharedhaveadoptedaparticular
system.Finally,assumingthattheintendedGIS(whetheritwillbelargeorsmall)willbepartofa
corporateorshareddatabase,therespectiverolesofeachparticipantneedtobeevaluated.Clearly,
greater flexibility of choice will exist for major players in a shared database (e.g., county, city, or
regional unit of government) than for smaller players (town, village, or special purpose GIS
applications).Thisdoesnotmeanthatthelattermustalwaysgowiththemajority,butsimplythat
the shared GIS environment must be realistically evaluated. In fact, one way for the smaller
participantsinasharedGIStoensuretheirneedsareconsidered,istofullydocumenttheirneeds
andresourcesusingproceduresrecommendedintheseguidelines.

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Finally, with the completion of both the database planning and design and the pilot
study/benchmark activities, sufficient detailed data volume estimates and GIS performance
information will be known to calculate reliable cost estimates and prepare production schedules.
This becomes the final feasibility check before major resources are committed to data conversion
andGISacquisition.

WhatisalreadyknownabouttheGISrequirement
PriorphasesoftheGISdevelopmentprocessshouldhaveproducedthefollowinginformationwhich
isneededatthistime:

Acompletelistofdata,properlydefinedandcheckedforvalidityandconsistency(fromthe
masterdatalist,ERdatamodelandmetadataentries).
Alistofpotentialdatasources(maps,aerialphotos,tabularfiles,digitalfiles,etc.)cataloged
and evaluated for accuracy and completeness (from the available data survey). This
inventory would also include all legacy data files, either within the agency or elsewhere,
whichmustbemaintainedaspartoftheoverallshareddatabase.
ThelistoffunctionalcapabilitiesrequiredoftheGIS(fromneedsassessment).

2.SELECTINGSOURCESFORTHEGISDATABASE
This activity involves matching each entity and its attributes to a source (map, document, photo,
digitalfile).Theinformationavailableforthistaskisasfollows:
Listofentitiesandattributesfromtheconceptualdesignphase
Table 1: Master Data
Attributes
ListEntity

SpatialObject

Street_segment

name,address_range

Line

Street_intersection

street_names

Line

Parcel

section_block_lot#,

Polygon

owner_name,owner_address,sites_address,

area,depth,front_footage,assessed_value,

last_sale_date,last_sale_price,size

(owner_name,owner_address,assessed_value

(asofpreviousJanuary1st))

Building

building_ID,date_built,

Footprint

building_material,building_assessed_value

Occupancy

occupant_name,
occupant_address,occupancy_type_code

None

Street_segment

name,type,width,length,pavement_type

Polygon

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Street_intersection

length,
width,
intersecting_streets

traffic_flow_conditions,

Water_main

type,size,material,installation_date

Line

Valve

type,installation_date

Node

Hydrant

type,
installation_date,
last_pressure_test_date

Service

name,address,type,invalid_indicator

None

Soil

soil_code,area

Polygon

Wetland

wetland_code,area

Polygon

Floodplain

flood_code,area

Polygon

Traffic_zone

zone_ID#,area

Polygon

Census_tract

tract#,population

Polygon

Water_District

name,ID_number

Polygon

Zoning

zoning_code,area

Polygon

pressure,

Polygon

Node

ThelistofsurveyeddatasourcesfromtheAvailableDataSurveyandtheirrecordedcharacteristics
inthemetadatatablesSourceDocuments,EntitiesContainedinSource,andAttributesbyEntity.

SourceDocuments
SourceDocumentName:

ParcelMap

SourceID#:

SourceOrganization:

TownofAmherst

TypeofDocument:

Map

NumberofSheets(map,photo,etc.):

200

SourceMaterial:

Mylar

ProjectionName:

UTM

CoordinateSystem:

StatePlane

DateCreated:

5Oct91

LastUpdated:

8Nov95

ControlAccuracyMap:

NationalMapAccuracyStandard

Scale:

Variable;1"=50ftTo1"=200ft

Availability:

Current

ReviewedBy:

LeeStockholm

ReviewDate:

19Dec95

SpatialExtent:

TownofAmherst

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FileFormat:

N/A

Comments:

EntitiesContainedInSource
SourceID#:

EntityName:

Parcel

SpatialEntity:

Polygon

EstimateVolumeSpatialEntity:

126permapsheet

Symbol:

None

AccuracyDescriptionSpatialEntity:

NationalMapAccuracyStandard

ReviewedBy:

LeeStockholm

ReviewDate:

02Jan94

ScrubNeeded:

Yes

Comments:

AttributesByEntity
SourceID#:

EntityName:

Parcel

AttributeName:

SBLNumber

AttributeDescription:

Section,Block,andLotNumber

CodeSetName:

N/A

AccuracyDescriptionAttribute:

N/A

ReviewedBy:

JohnHenry

ReviewDate:

08Feb93

Comments:
Ifthereisachoicebetweensources,thatis,twoormoresourcesareavailableforaparticularentity
attribute,thencriteriafordecidingbetweenthemwillbeneeded.Ingeneral,thesecriteriawillbe:
Accuracyofresultingdata
Costofconversionfromsourcetodatabase
Availabilityofthesourceforconversion
Availabilityofacontinuingflowofdatafordatabasemaintenance.
Occasionally,alternativesourcesmayresultindifferentrepresentationsinthedatabase,suchasa
vectorrepresentationversusascannedimage.Inthissituation,theabilityofeachrepresentationto
satisfytherequirementsoftheGISapplicationswillneedtobeevaluated.

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Onceasourcehasbeenselected,themetadatatablesthatrecordsourcedatainformationneedto
becompletedasappropriate.Theseare:

DataObjectInformation
AttributeInformation
SpatialObjectInformation
SourceDocumentInformation

Tocompletetheaccuracyinformation,theaccuracyexpectedfromtheconversionprocesswillneed
tobedetermined.Thisaccuracytargetwillalsobeusedlaterinthedatabaseconstructionphaseby
the quality control procedures. The metadata tables that need to be completed at this time are
shownbelow:
DataObjectInformation
DataObjectName

Parcel

Type:

Simple

DataObjectDescription:

Landownershipparcel

SpatialObjectType:

Polygon

Comments:

AttributeInformation
DataObjectName:

Parcel

DataAttributeName:

SBLNumber

AttributeDescription:

Section,Block,andLotNumber

AttributeFilename:

Parcel.PAT

CodesetName/Description:

N/A

MeasurementUnits:

N/A

AccuracyDescription:

N/A

Comments:

SpatialObjectInformation
DataObjectName:

Parcel

SpatialObjectType:

Polygon

PlaceName:

Amherst

ProjectionName/Description:

UTM

HCSName:

StatePlaneCoordinateSystem

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HCSDatum:

NAD83

HCSXoffset:

1000000

HCSYoffset:

800000

HCSXmin:

25

HCSXmax:

83

HCSYmin:

42

HCSYmax:

98

HCSUnits:

Feet

HCSAccuracyDescription:

NationalMapAccuracyStandard

VCSName:
VCSDatum:
VCSZmin:

VCSZmax:

VCSUnits:
VCSAccuracyDescription:
Comments:

SourceDocumentInformation
DataObjectName:

Parcel

SpatialObjectType:

Polygon

SourceDocumentName:

ParcelMap

Type:

Map

Scale:

Variable:1"=50feetTo1"=200feet

DateDocumentCreated:

17Nov89

DateLastUpdated:

05Oct94

DateDigitized/Scanned:

24Apr95

Digitizing/ScanningMethodDescription:

ManualdigitizedwithWildB8

AccuracyDescription:

90%ofalltestedpointswithin2feet

Comments:

For some of the above tables, information will be available for only some of the entries. The
remainingentrieswillbecompletedlaterasthedatabaseisimplemented.Theexamplesshownare
fromthemetadataportionoftheGISDesignsoftwarepackagethataccompaniestheseguidelines.
This package is a Microsoft Access program that runs "standalone" (you do not need a copy of
MicrosoftAccess)onaregularPC.Wherethesameinformationisneededformultipletables,this

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information is only entered once. The information is then automatically transferred to the other
tableswhereitisneeded.

3.THELOGICAL/PHYSICALDESIGNOFTHEGISDATABASE
This activity involves converting the conceptual design to the logical/physical design of the GIS
database(hereafterreferredtoasthephysicaldesign).TheGISsoftwaretobeuseddictatesmostof
the physical database design. The structure and format of the data in a GIS, like ARC/INFO,
Intergraph,MapInfo,System9,etc.havealreadybeendeterminedbyeachvendorrespectively.
Ifoneseparatestheconceptualentityanditsattributesfromthecorrespondingspatialentityandits
geometricrepresentation,itcanbeseenthatthephysicaldatabasedesignforthespatialentityhas
beencompletelydefinedbythevendorandtheGISdesignerdoesnotneedtodoanythingmorefor
thispartofthedata.The attributesoftheentities may,however,beheldinarelationaldatabase
management system linked to the GIS. If this is the case, the GIS analyst needs to design the
relationaltablesfortheattributeinformation.
ItwillnotalwaysbethecasewhereoneentityfromtheERdiagramtranslatesintoasinglelayer.
More complex representations will be needed. Generally this will involve two or more entities
formingasinglelayerwith,possibly,severalrelationaldatabasetables.
Thewatermainsegments,thevalvesandthefirehydrantshavebeenplacedtogetherinonelayeras
linesegments,andtwosetsofnodes.However,eachentityhasitsownrelationaltabletorecordits
respectiveattributes(seeTable1).Therelationshipismaintainedbyuniquekeysforeachinstance
ofeachentity.
EveryentityshownontheERdiagrammustbetranslatedtoeitheraGISlayer,arelationaltable(s),
orboth,asindicatedbytheinformationtobeincluded.Inaddition,everyrelationshipofthetype
"relationship represented in database" (single line hexagon on the ER diagram) must be
implementedthroughtheprimaryandsecondarykeysinthetablesfortheentitiesrepresented.
Theentity"parcel"may"contain"theentity"building."Thetableforeachentitywouldhaveitsown
primary key (ID#), however, the table for building must also have a secondary key (parcel ID#) to
maintaintherelationshipinthedatabase.
Thecompletedphysicaldatabasedesignmustaccountforallentitiesandtheirattributes,thespatial
object with topology and coordinates as needed, and all relationships to be contained in the
database.TheremainingitemsontheERdiagram,thetwotypesofspatialrelationships,mustbe
accounted for in the list of functional capabilities, that is, the implied spatial operations must be
possibleinthechosenGISsoftware.

4.PROCEDURESFORBUILDINGTHEGISDATABASE
DevelopingaGISdatabaseisfrequentlythoughtofassimplyreplicatingamapinacomputer.Ascan
be inferred by the nature and detail of the activities recommended up to this point in these
guidelines,buildingaGISdatabaseinvolvesmuchmorethan"replicatingamap."Whilesubstantial

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portionsoftheGISdatabasewillcomefrommapsourcedocuments,manyothersourcesmayalso
beused,suchasaerialphotos,tabularfiles,otherdigitaldata,etc.Also,the"map"representationis
onlypartoftheGISdatabase.Inadditiontothemaprepresentationandrelationaltables,aGIScan
holdscannedimages(drawings,plans,photos),referencestootherobjects,namesandplaces,and
derivedviewsfromthedata.Thecollectionofdatafromdiversesourcesanditsorganizationintoa
usefuldatabaserequiresdevelopmentofprocedurestocoverthefollowingmajoractivities:

GettingtheDatawhichmayincludeacquiringexistingdatafrombothinternalandexternal
sources,evaluatingandcheckingthesourcematerialsforcompletenessandquality,and/or
creating new data by planning and conducting aerial or field surveys. Contemporary GIS
projectsattempttorelyonexisting,ratherthannew,dataduetothehighcostoforiginal
data collection. However, existing data (maps and other forms) were usually created for
some other purpose and thus have constraints for use in a GIS. This places much greater
importanceonevaluatingandcheckingthesuitabilityofsourcedataforuseinaGIS.
Fixinganyproblemsinthedatasource,oftenfocusedonlyonmapsourcedocuments,this
activity has been called "map scrubbing." Depending on the technology to be used to
convertthemapgraphicimageintoitsdigitalform,thesourcedocumentswillhavetomeet
certainstandards.Someconversionprocessesrequirethemaptobealmostperfectwhich
otherprocessesattempttoautomateallneeded"fixes"tothemap.Whatisrequiredhereis
for the GIS analyst to specify, in detail, a procedure capable of converting the map
documents into an acceptable digital file while accounting for all known problems in the
map documents. This procedure should be tested in the pilot project and modified as
needed.
Convertingtodigitaldata,thephysicalprocessofdigitizingorscanningtoproducedigital
filesintherequiredformat.Themajordecisionhereiswhetherornottouseanoutsidedata
conversion contractor or to do the conversion within the organization. In either case,
specifications describing the nature of the digital files should be prepared. In addition to
includingthephysicaldatabasedesign,specificationsshoulddescribethefollowing:
o Accuracy requirements (completeness required, positional accuracy for spatial
objects,allowableclassificationerrorratesforattributes).
o Qualitycontrolproceduresthatwillbeconductedtomeasureaccuracy.
o PartitioningoftheareacoveredbytheGISintoworkingunits(mapsheets)andhow
these will be organized in the resulting database (including edge matching
requirements).
o Document and digital file flow control, including logging procedures, naming
conventions,andversioncontrol.
Changecontrol,mostmapseriesarenotstaticbutareupdatedonaperiodicbasis.Oncea
portion of the map has been sent to digitizing (or whatever process is used), a procedure
mustbeinplacetocaptureanyupdatestothemapandentertheseintothedigitalfiles.
BuildingtheGISDatabase,oncedigitizinghasbeencompleted,thesponsoringorganization
has a set of digital files, not an organized database. The system integration process (a
subsequent guideline document) must take all the digital files and setup the ultimate GIS
databaseinaformthatwillbeefficientfortheusers.Theseveralconsiderationsrequiredfor

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thisprocessarecoveredunderGISDataDatabaseConstruction,GISSystemIntegrationand
GISmaintenanceanduse.

5.PROCEDURESFORMANAGINGANDMAINTAININGTHEDATABASE
Because the physical world is constantly changing, the GIS database must be updated to reflect
thesechanges.Onceagain,thecredibilityoftheGISdatabaseisatstakeifthedataisnotcurrent.
Usually,theeffortrequiredtomaintainthedatabaseisasmuchas,ormorethanthatrequiredto
createit.Thisongoingmaintenanceworkisusuallyassignedtoinhousepersonnelasopposedtoa
contractor.Theentireprocessshouldbeplannedwellinadvance.Onceagain,theequipmentand
personnelmustbereadytotakeoverthemaintenanceofthedatabasewhenthedataconversion
effortanddatabasebuildingprocessesarecomplete.
Database maintenance requires two supporting efforts: ongoing user training and user support.
Ongoing user training is needed to replace departing users with newly trained personnel. This will
enablethedatamaintenancetobecarriedoutonacontinuousandtimelybasis.Itisalsoimportant
toofferadvancedtrainingtoexistinguserstoprovidethemwiththeopportunitytoimprovetheir
skillsandtomakebetteruseofthesystem.
GISisacomplicatedtechnology,makingoperatingproblemsinevitable.Usersupportwillhelpusers
solve these problems quickly. It will also customize the GIS software to enable them to execute
processingtasksmorequicklyandmoreefficiently.Usersupportisusuallyprovidedbyinhouseor
contract programmers. It requires a knowledge of the operating system and macro programming
languageaswellastroubleshootingcommoncommandandfileproblems.

6.GISDATASHARINGCOOPERATIVES
Theestablishmentofdatasharingcooperativeswithinthepublicsectorisacosteffectivemeansof
database development and maintenance which is encouraged. Cooperativemultiparticipant
databaseprojectsallowfordataexchange,andtheopportunitytocreatenewmeansfordeveloping,
maintaining,andaccessinginformation.Thesharingofdatainthepublicsector,especiallybetween
government agencies and offices which are funded by the same financial resources, should be
expected.ItdoesnotmakefiscalsenseforpublicfundstobeutilizedinthedevelopmentoftwoGIS
databases of the same geographic area for two different agencies. Benefits of data sharing thus
would include: the development of a much larger database, for far less cost; the development of
moreefficientinteractionbetweenpublicagencies;andthroughtheutilizationofasingle,seamless
databasetheavailabilityofmoreaccurateinformation,sinceallagencieswouldsharethesame,up
todateinformation.
Thegoalofadatasharingstrategyistomaximizetheutilityofdatawhileminimizingthecosttothe
organization.Itisimportantthatallpartiesinvolvedhaveclearandrealisticexpectationsaswellas
common objectives to make the data sharing work. Under any circumstance, however, database
managementandmaintenancewillrequireustoredefineourrelationshipswiththoseweroutinely
exchange data with, whether they are within an organization or part of a multiparticipant effort

123|P a g e

including outside agencies. Work flow and information flow must be reviewed and changed if
necessary. Procedures and practices for the timely exchange and updating of data must be put in
placeanddataqualitystandardsadheredto,whetheritbehardcopydatawhichmustbeconverted
for inclusion or digital files which might be available for importing to our system. Systematic
collectionandintegrationofnewand/orupdateddatamustbeemployedinordertosafeguardthe
initial investment, maintain the integrity of the database and assure system reliability to meet
functionneeds.

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Chapter12:GISUseandMaintenance
1.INTRODUCTION
ThelaststepinGISimplementationistoputthesystemtouse.Withsystemintegrationandtesting
completeandatleastsomeapplicationsavailableforuse,thesystemcanbereleasedtousers.Two
broadcategoriesofactivitymustbeinplaceatthistime:

usersupportandservice
systemmaintenance(database,hardware,software)

Whilewearedescribingtheactivitieshere,itshouldbenotedthatmostofwhatisrecommendedin
thisfinalguidelineshouldhavebeendefinedduringthedetaileddatabasedesignstep.So,ifyou
arereadingthesedocumentsforthefirsttimeandhaveyettobeginanindepthsystemplanning
activity, you should add everything that follows to the Database Planning and Design and Pilot
Study/Benchmarksteps.
Onefinalcommentusuallysubstantialtimepassesbetweentheinitiationoftheneedsassessment
andthetimeaGISisreadytouse.Alotwillchangeduringthistimeperiod.TheGISdesignactivityis
initselfachangeagentuserswillunderstandmoreaboutaGISanditsassociatedtechnologyafter
the needs assessment is concluded and will consequently expect more. The applications originally
identified, plus all subsequent derived information, will change; the available GIS hardware and
softwarewillchange;andtheunderlyingcomputertechnologywillchange. Sobasically,whileyou
theGISdesigneristryingtocometoasetofdefinitivedecisionstoimplementtheGIS,everythingis
constantly changing. The best you will be able to do is to monitor all areas of possible change, at
bestadifficulttask,andtodecideontheGISwiththeknowledgethatthemaintenancephasewill
have to accommodate substantial change. Any and all procedures we have discussed as
"maintenance"intheseguidelineswillneedtobeputinplaceimmediatelyafterthecorresponding
documentiscreatedordecisionismade.

2.USERSUPPORTANDSERVICE
Usersupportfallsintothefollowingcategories:

basicorientationinGISispreparationfortheneedsassessment
continuedbriefingsduringtheplanning,design,andimplementationphases
usertrainingcoursesasneededincomputing,generalpurposesoftware,databases,GIS,and
spatialanalysis
userinvolvementandevaluationduringpilotstudyandbenchmarktests
usertraininginspecificapplicationuse
technicalsupportservicewhileGISisinuse
userfeedbackproceduretoidentifysystemenhancementsGISfunctions/applicationsand
database
dataerror/problemreportingandresolutionprocedures

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userfeedbackondataaccuracyandsystemperformance
userinvolvementindecisionsonallsystemupgradesdata,software,andhardware

It is difficult to identify which of the above is most important. This will vary by situation and over
time.However,thefirstmainpointinuserdissatisfactioncomeswiththetimeperiodbetweenthe
needsassessment,whereexpectationsareraised,andthefirstoperationaluseofthesystem.This
userdissatisfactioncanbesuchthatthereisatemptationtodevelopquickandeasyapplicationsfor
early use, to take shortcuts in database development, or to extend a pilot study into actual use.
Suchasituationcannotalwaysbeavoided,howeveranyprematureuseofthistypewilllikelyleadto
moreuserdissatisfactioninthelongterm.

GISSystemandDatabaseMaintenance
Three driving components of maintenance and change are: system enhancements, database
expansion, and routine system maintenance (updates). Figure 1 indicates the type of change that
mayoccurineachcomponentandidentifiesthebenefitsandcostsassociatedwiththeongoingGIS
maintenance activity. As users can be negatively affected by changes, major enhancements or
expansionsneedtobesubjectedtouserreview,evenifthechangeisonlyinternaltotheGISandon
thesurfacewouldnotaffectusers.

3.DATAMAINTENANCEPROCEDURES
ManagingExistingData
Backup/Restore
Areliablebackupsystemisnecessaryforanydatabase.Shouldanythinghappentoyourhardware
(i.e. the file server disk drive crashes), you will be able to restore your backup data to another
machineandbeoperationalagaininminuteswithoutlosingthedatabase.Determineaschedulefor
regularbackupsofthesystem.Thiscanbedonedaily,weekly,ormonthlydependingonthesizeof
thedatabaseandamountofchangesbeingmadetoit.Ifyourstaffonlymakeseditsonceaweek,a
weeklybackupshouldbeenough.However,ifchangesareconstantlybeingmade,adailybackupis
important.Ifyouhavealargedatasetthatwouldbetimeconsumingtobackupeveryday,consider
backinguponlypartofthedatabasedailyandthendoafullbackuponceperweek.
GrantingAccessToData
OftentimesGISapplicationscallforuserstodisplayand/oranalyzethedataonly,withouteditingit.
Bygrantingreadonlyaccesstothedatatothesetypesofusers,youeliminateanychancesfordata
to be deleted or otherwise altered. If you have other users who edit data, such as supervisors or
trainedtechnicians,grantthemreadandwritepermissionstothedata.Dataaccesscanusuallybe
handled by the GIS application, by the database software, and/or by network (if you are running
one)softwaresecurityoperations.
Anotherimportantfunctionindatamaintenancetoconsideristransactionmaintenance.Thistype
of application registers items in the database such as when a record was updated, by whom, and
fromwhatsourcethechangescamefrom.Ahistorylogiskeptoneachrecordandoldrecordsbeing
updatedcanbesenttoanarchivefile.Thisstepmayseemunnecessaryinthebeginning,butasthe

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database enlarges an application such as this will be of great value. If there are problems or
questionswithdata,youwillknowexactlywhototurntotoquestionitsaccuracyandquality.
RecordsManagementAndRetention
Fourimportantquestionsshouldbelookedatwithregardstomanagementandretention:whatto
keep,howlongtokeepit,howtokeepit,andhowoftentokeepit.TheNewYorkStateArchivesis
currently developing additional guidelines to regulate and define records management and
retention policies for GIS in local government. Until these guidelines are completed, please see
"LawsandRegulationsRelatingtoLocalGovernmentRecords,"TechnicalInformationSeries#39for
moreassistance.ArecordinaGISisdifficulttodefine.Itcaninclude:datainthedatabase,maps,
aerialphotographs,datadictionaries,andmetadata.Tohelpdeterminehowlongtokeepyourdata,
obtainaretentionschedulefromtheStateArchives.Theseareusedforhardcopydataretentionbut
can be modified and used for your purposes. Electronic media is generally used for data storage.
Again,theStateArchivesisdevelopingregulationsonthis,soitwouldbebesttocontactthemfor
guidance.

ReviewingCurrentDataForPotentialErrorsandChanges
DevelopasystemforQC ofthedata. Mostlikely thedatasetwillbetoolargetobeabletocheck
everything.Determinewhatwillbecheckedandwhatdegreeofaccuracyyourequire.Severalthings
youshouldlookforaredescribedbelow.
Incompleteness
Beginbycheckingtomakesureallthelayersofdatathatshouldbeinthedatabasearethere.Also,
makesurenolayersarerepeated.Defineaprocessforcheckingsomeoftheindividualfeaturesof
eachlayer.Determineifthereisanymissingdataandmakesuredataisnotrepeatedinmorethan
onelayer.
Errors
There are two types of errors you should be concerned with: positional and attribute. Positional
errorsaredefinedasabsoluteorrelative."Relativeaccuracyisameasureofthemaximumdeviation
between the interval between two objects on a map and the corresponding interval between the
actualobjectsinthefield.Forexample,ameasurementonamapfromawatervalvetothestreet
centerlinemustbewithinacertainrelativeaccuracyrequirementtobeaccepted.Relativeaccuracy
doesnotrelatetoareferencegridandthecorrectgeographicpositionoftheobjectisnotrelevant.
Absoluteaccuracyisameasureofthemaximumdeviationbetweenthelocationwhereafeatureis
shownonthemapanditstruelocationonthesurfaceoftheearth(MontgomeryandSchuch,132
133)."Attributeerrorsareproblemswiththefeatureitself,notwhereitislocated.
TopologicalErrors
ManyGISsoftwarepackagesareequippedtofindtopologicalerrorsinyourdataset.Useavailable
tools, or develop your own, to detect the following types of errors: closure (unclosed polygons),
connectivity (unconnected arcs that should be connected), and coincident features. Coincident
features(sharedarcs)aredifficulttolocate;theymayappeartohaveonearcbetweentwofeatures,
but it turns out to be two arcs, one on top of the other. This should be corrected because it can
resultinsliverpolygons(smallgapsbetweentwopolygons).

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DetectingChangeandIdentifyingSourcesforUpdates
As a local government several internal sources for data updates would include: building permits
issued, real estate transactions, subdivisions proposed and/or approved by the town council, and
zoning changes. This is all important information you might want to include in your GIS. External
sources of data updates might include: aerial photo surveys, subdivision contractor drawings, the
DepartmentofTransportation,theU.S.PostalService,theOfficeofRealPropertyServices,andstate
andfederalagencies(i.e.environmentalgroups,soilsurveys,andtheCoastGuard).

CollectionofNewInformation
Once you have determined that there are new pieces of information you want to capture in your
GIS,youmustdecidehowyouwillcollectit.Dataconversioncanbeexpensive;however,youknow
whattheaccuracyandqualityofthedatawillbeandyouwillgettheinformationwhenyouwantit.
Manyofthesourceslistedintheabovesectionwillhavedigitaldatatheywouldbewillingtosell.
Considersigningacontracttoreceiveanyupdatestheymake.A thirdoptionfordatacollectionis
findingawaytoworkitintothestaff'sdailyroutine.Thismakesdatacollectiontakelonger,butit
does not disrupt workflow and it costs less. Determine what field crew or staff would be able to
capture the data without it being a burden on their job and decide which people know the most
aboutthedatayouareattemptingtocapture.

ApplyingtheEditsandTrackingChanges
Editingthedatabasecanbecomeatedioustask.However,itisimportanttothedataintegritythat
theeditsaredoneaccuratelyandconsistently.Allchangesshouldbetrackedinaway,asdescribed
above,thatwillallowyoutodeterminewhentherecordswereupdated,bywhom,andwhatlevelof
confidencethedatawasrated.Whennecessary,ahistorylogcanbedisplayedforeachrecordand
allchangestothedatawillbenoted.Archivingdataisagoodwaytokeepoutofdateinformation
from cluttering the system, while allowing easy recall should there be something wrong with the
updatesornewdata.

VerifyingtheCorrections
Develop a QC process or use the procedure you've already implemented to check the corrections
made. You will not want to verify every change made, but you could select a random number of
recordsandconfirmthatcorrectionsweremadecorrectly.

UpdatingtheMasterDatabase
Once edits are made and you've verified that they were updated correctly in the database the
masterdatabasecanbeupdated.Ifeditsarebeingmadeonadailybasis,themasterdatabasemay
beupdatedonadailybasisaswell,butbesurenottoskipthecorrectionverifyingstep.

DistributingtheUpdatestoUsers
This will depend on the technology being used. Some users will have access to a modem and can
dialup and download any edits you make. Other users will have to receive the data on a tape or
disk. Determine a schedule and plan for distributing edits to your users that best suits your
organization.

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Montgomery, Glenn E. and Harold C. Schuch, GIS Data Conversion Handbook, GIS World, Inc. and
UGCConsulting,FortCollins,1993.

129

Glossary
A
Accuracy - Degree of conformity with a standard, or the degree of correctness attained in a
measurement. Accuracy relates to the quality of a result. If accuracy is relative, the position
of a point is defined in relation to another point. It is less expensive to build a GIS in the
context of relative accuracy. If accuracy is absolute, the position of a point is defined by a
coordinate system. Building a GIS in the context of absolute accuracy requires use of the
global positioning system.
Accuracy Requirement - statement of how precise the desired results must be to support a
particular application.
Adjoining Sheets - Maps that are adjacent to one another at the corners and on one or more
sides.
Aerial - Relating to the air atmosphere, being applicable in a descriptive sense to anything in
space above the ground and within the atmosphere.
Aerial Photography - The method of taking photographs from an aerial platform (aircraft).
1. Vertical photography, some times called orthophotography, is used for photogrammetric
mapping and requires a high degree of accuracy. 2. Oblique photography is used for general
information, sometimes to verify certain attributes, but does not provide accurate
measurements for photogrammetric mapping.
Aerial Survey - A survey utilizing aerial photography or from remote sensing technology
using other bands of the electromagnetic spectrum such as infrared, gamma or ultraviolet.
Algorithm - A set of instructions; ordered mathematical steps for solving a problem like the
instructions in a computer program.
Alignment - Relates to survey data transposed to maps. The correct position of a line or
feature in relation to other lines or features. Also the correct placement of points along a
straight line.
Alphanumeric - A combination of alphabetic letters, numbers and or special characters. A
mailing address is an alphanumeric listing.
Analog Data - Data represented in a continuous form, not readable by a computer.
Area - Level of spatial measurement referring to a two-dimensional defined space; for
example, a polygon on the earth as projected onto a horizontal plane.
Attribute - 1. A numeric, text, or image data field in a relational data base table that
describes a spatial feature such as a point, line, node, area or cell. 2. A characteristic of a
geographic feature described by numbers or characters, typically stored in tabular format, and

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linked to the feature by an identifier. For example, attributes of a well (represented by a

point) might include depth, pump type, location, and gallons per minute.
AM/FM - Automated mapping/facilities management. A GIS designed primarily for
engineering and utility purposes, AM/FM is a system that manages databases related to
spatially distributed facilities.
B
Base Data - Set of information that provides a baseline orientation for another layer of
primary focus, e.g., roads, streams, and other data typically found on USGS topographic
and/or planimetric maps.
Base Line - A surveyed line established with more than usual care upon which surveys are
based.
Base Map - A map showing planimetric, topographic, geological, political, and/or cadastral
information that may appear in many different types of maps. The base map information is
drawn with other types of changing thematic information. Base map information may be as
simple as major political boundaries, major hydrographic data, or major roads. The changing
thematic information may be bus routes, population distribution, or caribou migration routes.
Base Station - A GPS receiver on a known location that may broadcast and/or collect
correction information for GPS receivers on unknown locations.
Bench Mark - A relatively permanent point whose elevation above or below an adopted
datum is known.
Beta Test - Hardware or software testing performed by users in a normal operating
environment; follows alpha testing, which is generally done in the developer's facility.
Bezier - (computer graphics) A curve generated by a mathematical formula in CAD
programs that maintains continuity with other Bezier curves.
Binary - The fundamental principal behind digital computers. Binary means two, computer
input is converted into binary numbers made up of O and 1 (see bit).
BIT - (computers) A binary digit with a value of either 1 or 0.
Block (Tax) - A group of municipal tax lots that can be isolated from other parcels by a
boundary, usually a roadway, waterway or properly labeled lot line.
Boundary Line - A line along which two areas meet. In specific cases, the word "boundary"
is sometimes omitted, as in "state line", sometimes the word "line" is omitted, as in
"international boundary", "county boundary", etc. The term "boundary line" is usually applied
to boundaries between political territories, as "state boundary line", between two states. A
boundary line between privately owned parcels of land is termed a property line by

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preference, or if a line of the United States public land surveys, is given the particular
designation of that survey system, as section line, township line, etc.
BPS - Bits per second, the speed of data transfer.
Buffer - A zone of a given distance around a physical entity such as a point, line, or polygon.
C
CAD/CADD - (computers) Computer-Aided Design/ Computer-Aided Design and Drafting.
Any system for Computer-Aided rather than manual drafting and design. Displays data
spatially. on a predefined coordinate grid system, allowing data from different sources to be
connected and referenced by location. Speeds conventional map development process by 1.
permitting replication of shapes, floor plans, etc. from an electric library rather than requiring
every component to be drawn from scratch. 2. Plotters and terminal screens are faster and
more accurate than manual drafting. 3. Portions of drawings can be edited, enlarged, etc.
quickly. 4. Related information can be stored in files and added to drawings in layers.
CAD - (communication) Computer-Aided Dispatching. Used with emergency vehicles, CAD
can be very sophisticated. Online maps of a city can display emergency vehicles as moving
dots on the map, their status (enroute to an emergency, awaiting a call, call completed,
returning to base, etc.) indicated by different colors. (The acronym for computer-aided
dispatch is sometimes confused with computer-aided design.)
Cadastre - A record of interests in land, encompassing both the nature and extent of
interests. Generally, this means maps and other descriptions of land parcels as well as the
identification of who owns certain legal rights to the land (such as ownership, liens,
easements, mortgages, and other legal interests). Cadastral information often includes other
descriptive information about land parcels.
Cadastral - Relating to the value, extent and ownership of land for tax purposes. Cadastral
maps describe and record ownership. Also called property map.
Cadastral Survey - A survey relating to land boundaries and subdivisions, made to create
units suitable for transfer or to define the limitations to title. Derived from "cadastre", and
meaning register of the real property of a political subdivision with details of area, ownership,
and value. The term cadastral survey is now used to designate the surveys for the
identification and resurveys for the restoration of property lines; the term can also be applied
properly to corresponding surveys outside the public lands, although such surveys are usually
termed land surveys through preference. See also boundary, survey.
Cartographic (Planimetric) Features - Objects like trees or buildings shown on a map or
chart.
Cartography - The technology of mapping or charting features of Earth's topography.
Centroid - The "center of gravity" or mathematically exact center of an irregular shaped
polygon; often given as an x, y coordinate of a parcel of land.

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Clearinghouse - A physical repository structure used to accumulate and disseminate digital

data and information concerning that data. In the GIS context a clearinghouse can contain all
or a portion of spatial, meta data and informational data.
Client - A software application that works on your behalf to extract some service from a
server somewhere on the network. Basic idea, think of your telephone as a client and the
telephone company as a server.
COGO - Acronym for Coordinate Geometry achieved via a computer program.
Computer-aided Design or Drafting (CAD) - A group of computer software packages for
creating graphic documents.
Control Point - A point in a network, identifiable in data or a photograph, with a given
horizontal position and a known surface elevation. It is correlated with data in data set or
photograph.
Contour - An imaginary outline of points on the ground which are at the same altitude
relative to mean sea level.
Contour Line - A line on a map or chart that connects to points which are at the same
elevation.
Contour Map - A map that defines topography (hypsography) by interpreting contour lines
as relief.
Control - Also called ground control. A system of survey marks or objects called control
points that have established positions and/or elevations verified by ground survey. The marks,
or control points, serve as a reference correlating other data such as contour lines determined
from aerial surveys.
Conversion - 1. The translation of data from one format to another (e.g., TIGER to DXF; a
map to digital files).S 2. Data conversion when transferring data from one system to another
(E.g., SUN to IBM).
Coordinate - The position of point is space in respect to a Cartesian coordinate system (x, y
and/or z values). In GIS, a coordinate often represents locations on the earth's surface relative
to other locations.
Coordinate System - The system used to measure horizontal and vertical distances on a
planimetric map. In a GIS, it is the system whose units and characteristics are defined by a
map projection. A common coordinate system is used to spatially register geographic data for
the same area. See map projection.
CRT - Cathode Ray Tube. A computer screen or monitor.
CTG - Center for Technology in Government

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D
Data Capture - Series of operations required to encode data in a computer-readable digital
form (digitizing, scanning, etc.).
Data Dictionary - Description of the information contained in a data base, e.g., format,
definition, structure, and usage. It typically describes and defines the data elements of the
data base and their interrelationships within the larger context of the data base.
Data Element - Specific item of information appearing in a set of data, e.g. well site
locations.
Data Model - 1. A generalized, user-defined view of the data related to applications. 2. A
formal method for arranging data to mimic the behavior of the real world entities they
represent. Fully developed data models describe data types, integrity rules for the data types,
and operations on the data types. Some data models are triangulated irregular networks,
images, and georelational or relational models for tabular data.
Data Quality - Refers to the degree of excellence exhibited by the data in relation to the
portrayal of the actual phenomena.
Data Sets - A collection of values that all pertain to a single subject.
Data Standardization - The process of achieving agreement on data definitions,
representation, and structures to which all data layers and elements in an organization must
conform.
Data Structure - Organization of data, particularly the reference linkages among data
elements.
Database - Usually a computerized file or series of files of information, maps, diagrams,
listings, location records, abstracts, or references on a particular subject or subjects organized
by data sets and governed by a scheme of organization. "Hierarchical" and relational" define
two popular structural schemes in use in a GIS. For example, a GIS database includes data
about the spatial location and shape of geographic entities as well as their attributes.
Database Management System (DBMS) - 1. The software for managing and manipulating
the whole GIS including the graphic and tabular data. 2. Often used to describe the software
for managing (e.g., input, verify, store, retrieve, query, and manipulate) the tabular
information. Many GlSs use a DBMS made by another software vendor, and the GIS
interfaces with that software.
Datum - A mathematical reference framework for geodetic coordinates defined by the
latitude and longitude of an initial point, the azimuth of a line from this point, and the
parameters of the ellipsoid upon which the initial point is located.
DEC - New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

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Differential Correction - The method (usually done through post processing) of using two
GPS receivers, one on a known location and one on an unknown location, using information
from the one on the known location to correct the position of the unknown location.
Digital Accuracy - Refers to the accuracy of digital spatial data capture.
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) - A file with terrain elevations recorded at the intersections
of a fine grid and organized by quadrangle to be the digital equivalent of the elevation data on
a topographic base map.
Digital Data - A form of representation in which distinct objects, or digits, are used to stand
for something in the real world--temperature or time--so that counting and other operations
can be performed precisely. Data represented digitally can be manipulated to produce a
calculation, a sort, or some other computation. In digital electronic computers, two electrical
states correspond to the Is and Os of binary numbers, which are manipulated by computer
programs.
Digital Exchange Format (DXF) - 1. ASCII text files defined by Autodesk, Inc. (Sausalito,
CA) at first for CAD, now showing up in third-party GIS software . 5 2. An intermediate file
format for exchanging data from one software package to another, neither of which has a
direct translation for the other but where both can read and convert DXF data files into their
format. This often saves time and preserves accuracy of the data by not reautomating the
original.
Digital Line Graph (DLG) - 1. In reference to data, the geographic and tabular data files
obtained from the USGS for exchange of cartographic and associated tabular data files. Many
non-DLG data may be formatted in DLG format. 2. In reference to data, the formal standards
developed and published by the USGS for exchange of cartographic and associated tabular
data files. Many non-DLG data may be formatted in DLG format.
Digital Map - A machine-readable representation of a geographic phenomenon stored for
display or analysis by a digital computer; contrast with analog map.
Digital Orthophoto - A geographically correct digital image with the same accuracy as a
vector digital map, but preserving the information content of the original photography.
Digital Orthophoto Quarter-Quad (DOQ) - A 3.75 minute square distortion free image of
the surface of the earth. The imagery has been geographically and photographically rectified
to remove all distortion, and meet requirements of the USGS.
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) - A computer graphics software technique for converting
point elevation data into a terrain model displaced as a contour map, sometimes as a threedimensional "hill and valley" grid view of the ground surface.
Digitize - A means of converting or encoding map data that are represented in analog form
into digital information of x and y coordinates.

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Digitized Terrain Data - Transposed elevation information from maps or photographs to XY-Z digital coordinates for storage on magnetic media.
Digitizer - A device used to capture planar coordinate data, usually as x and y coordinates,
from existing analog maps for digital use within a computerized program such as a GIS; Also
called a digitizing table.
Digitizing - Refers to the process of manually converting an analog image or map or other
graphic overlay into numerical format for use by a computer with the use of a digitizing table
or tablet and tracing the input data with a cursor (see also scanning).
DIME - Dual Independent Map Encoding Provides vector data such as streets to census data
addresses. Superseded by Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
(see TIGER).
DIME File - A geographic base file produced by the U.S. Census Bureau with Dual
Independent Map Encoding. Now being superseded by TIGER files.
DLG - See Digital Line Graph.
DOB - New York State Division of the Budget
DOQ - See Digital Orthophoto Quarter-quad.
DOT - New York State Department of Transportation
DTF - New York State Department of Taxation and Finance
E
Edge Match - An editing procedure to ensure that all features crossing adjacent map sheets
have the same edge locations, attribute descriptions, and feature classes.
F
Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) - Official source within the federal
government for information processing standards. They were developed by the Institute for
Computer Sciences and Technology, at the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST), formerly the National Bureau of Standards.
Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) - Established by the Federal Office of
Management and Budget, is responsible for the coordination of development, use, sharing,
and dissemination of surveying, mapping, and related spatial data.
Fifth Generation Computer - A computer designed for applications of artificial intelligence
(Al). Some elements of spatial data management, especially the CADD output side, are
beginning to integrate Al computing.

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FOIL - Freedom of Information Law

Format - 1. The pattern in which data are systematically arranged for use on a computer. 2.
A file format is the specific design of how information is organized in the file. For example,
DLG, DEM, and TIGER are geographic data sets in particular formats that are available for
many parts of the United States.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - A standard protocol that defines how to transfer files from
one computer to another.
FORTRAN - A high-level programming language and compiler originally designed to
express math formulas. Developed in 1954 by IBM it is still the most widely used language
for scientific and engineering programming.
G
GBF/DIME - See Geographic base file/dual independent map encoding .
Geocode - The process of identifying a location as one or more x, y coordinates from another
location description such as an address. For example, an address for a student can be matched
against a TIGER street network to locate the student's home.
Geodetic Monumentation - A permanent structure that marks the location of a point taking
into account the earth's curvature.
Geographic - Pertains to the study of the Earth and the locations of living things, humans
and their effects.
Geographic Base File/dual Independent Map Encoding (GBF/DIME) - A data exchange
format developed by the US Census Bureau to convey information about block-face/street
address ranges related to 1980 census tracts. These files provide a schematic map of a city's
streets, address ranges, and geostatistical codes relating to the Census Bureau's tabular
statistical data. See also TIGER, created for the 1990 census.
Geographic Database - Efficiently stored and organized spatial data and possibly related
descriptive data.
Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis (GIRAS) - Data files from the US
Geological survey. GIRAS files contain information for areas in the continental United
States, including attributes for land use, land cover, political units, hydrologic units, census
and county subdivisions, federal land ownership, and state land ownership. These data sets
are available to the public in both analog and digital form.
Geographic Information System (GIS) - An organized collection of computer hardware,
software, geographic data, and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update,
manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced information. Certain
complex spatial operations are possible with a GIS that would be very difficult, timeconsuming, or impractical otherwise.

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Geographic Object - A user-defined geographic phenomenon that can be modeled or

represented using geographic data sets. Examples include streets, sewer lines, manhole
covers, accidents, lot lines, and parcels.
Geographical Resource Analysis Support System (GRASS) - 1. A public-domain raster
GIS modeling product of the US Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering
Research Laboratory. 2. A raster data format that can be used as an exchange format between
two GlSs.
Georectify - The process of referencing points on an image to the real world coordinates.
Georeference - To establish the relationship between page coordinates on a paper map or
manuscript and known real-world coordinates.
Geospatial - A term used to describe a class of data that has a geographic or spatial nature.
Geostationary Satellite - An earth satellite that remains in fixed position in sync with the
earth's rotation.
GIS - Geographic information system. A computer system of hardware and software that
integrates graphics with databases and allows for display, analysis, and modeling.
Grid-Cell Data - Grid-cell data entry places a uniform grid over a map area, and the area
within the cell is labeled with one attribute or characteristic, such as elevation averaged over
all points. Grid cells can be layered with differing types of information.
Global Positioning System (GPS) - A system developed by the U.S. Department of Defense
based on 24 satellites orbiting the Earth. Inexpensive GPS receivers can accurately determine
ones position on the Earth's surface.
Ground Truth - Information collected from a survey area as remote sensing data is being
collected from the same area (see control).
H
Hierarchical - A way of classifying data, starting with the general and going to specific
labels.
Hydrography - Topography pertaining to water and drainage feature.
Hypsography - 1 ) The science or art of describing elevations of land surfaces with reference
to a datum, usually sea level. 2) That part of topography dealing with relief or elevation of
terrain.
I
Image - A graphic representation or description of an object that is typically produced by an
optical or electronic device. Common examples include remotely sensed data such as satellite

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data, scanned data, and photographs. An image is stored as a raster data set of binary or
integer values representing the intensity of reflected light, heat, or another range of values on
the electromagnetic spectrum. Remotely sensed images are digital representations of the
earth.
Imagery - A two dimensional digital representation of the earth's surface. Examples are a
digital aerial photograph, a satellite scene, or an airborne radar scan.
Index - A specialized lookup table or structure within a database and used by an RDBMS or
GIS to speed searches for tabular or geographic data.
Infrastructure - The fabric of human improvements to natural settings that permits a
community, neighborhood, town, city metropolis, region, state, etc., to function.
Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) - An interim standard format for
exchanging graphics Polygon data among computer systems.
Internet - A system of linked computer networks, worldwide in scope, that facilitates data
communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, and newsgroups.
The Internet is a way of connecting existing computer networks that greatly extends the reach
of each participating system.
Internet Protocol (IP) - The most important of the protocols on which the Internet is based.
It allows a packet to traverse multiple networks on the way to its final destination.
Interpolate - Applied to logical contouring by determining vertical distances between given
spot elevations.
IT - Information Technology
L
Land Information System (LIS) - The sum of all the elements that systematically make
information about land available to users including: the data, products, services, the operating
procedures, equipment, software, and people.
Land Information System (LIS) - NJ State 45:8-28(e) - Any computer coded spatial
database designed for multi-purpose public use developed from or based on property
boundaries.
Latitude - The north-south measurement parallel to the equator.
Layer - A logical set of thematic data, usually organized by subject matter.
Layers - Refers to the various "overlays" of data each of which normally deals with one
thematic topic. These overlays are registered to each other by the common coordinate system
of the database.

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Longitude - The angular distance, measured in degrees, cast or west from the Greenwich
meridian, or by the difference in time between two reference meridians on a globe or sphere.
Lot Number - A numerical parcel designation, that when combined with a block number is
unique to a single parcel of land within a given municipality.
M
Manual Digitizing - Conversion of an analog measurement into a digital form by using a
manual device such as a calculator.
Map - A representation of a portion of the earth, usually drawn on a flat surface. (From Latin
mappa, a napkin, sheet or cloth upon which maps were drawn.)
Map Projection - A mathematical model for converting locations on the earth's surface from
spherical to planar coordinates, allowing flat maps to depict three dimensional features. Some
map projections preserve the integrity of shape; others preserve accuracy of area, distance, or
direction.
Map Units - The coordinate units in which the geographic data are stored, such as inches,
feet, or meters or degrees, minutes and seconds.
Metadata - Data describing a GIS database or data set including, but not limited to, a
description of a data transfer mediums, format, and contents, source lineage data, and any
other applicable data processing algorithms or procedures.
N
NCGIA - National Center for Geographic Information Analysis
Network Analysis - Addresses relationships between locations on a network. Used to
calculate optimal routes, and optimal locations for facilities.
NSGIC - National States Geographic Information Council
NSDI - National Spatial Data Infrastructure
O
OPRHP - New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historical Preservation
ORPS - New York State Office of Real Property Services (formerly Equalization and
Assessment)
Orthophoto - A photograph of the earth's surface in which geographic distortion has been
removed.
Overlay - A layer of data representing one aspect of related information.

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P
Parcel - Generally refers to a piece of land that can be designated by number.
Photogrammetry - The system of gathering information about physical objects through
aerial photography and satellite imagery.
Plane-Coordinate System - A system for determining location in which two groups of
straight lines intersect at right angles and have as a point of origin a selected perpendicular
intersection.
Planimetric Map - A map which presents the horizontal positions only for the features
represented; distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief in measurable
form. The natural features usually shown on a planimetric map include rivers, lakes and seas;
mountains, valleys and plains; and forests, prairies, marshes and deserts. The culture features
include cities, farms, transportation routes and public-utility facilities; and political and
private boundary lines. A planimetric map intended for special use may present only those
features which are essential to the purpose to be served.
Plat - A scale diagram void of cultural, drainage and relief features, showing only land
boundaries and subdivisions together with data essential to its legal description.
Plotter - Equipment that can plot a graphic file using multiple line weights and colors. Types
available today are: pen, laser, and electrostatic plotters.
Point Data - Level of spatial definition referring to an object that has no dimension, e.g., well
or weather station.
Points - Items such as oil wells, utility poles, etc. Specific objects with exact location noted.
Polygon - A vector representation of an enclosed region, described by a sequential list of
vertices or mathematical functions.
Positional Accuracy - Term used in evaluating the overall reliability of the positions of
cartographic features relative to their true position.
Precision - Refers to the quality of the operation by which the result is obtained, as
distinguished from accuracy.
Protocol - A definition for how computers will perform when talking to each other. Protocol
definitions range from how bits are placed on a wire to the format of an electronic mail
message. Standard protocols allow computers from different manufacturers to communicate;
the computers can use completely different software, providing that the programs running on
both ends agree on what the data means.
Q

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Quadrangle - A four-sided region, usually bounded by a pair of meridians and a pair of

parallels.
Quality Control - Process of taking steps to ensure the quality of data or operations is in
keeping with standards set for the system.
R
Raster - A grid-type data format used to interpret gray-scale photographs and satellite
imagery. Imagery is stored as dots or pixels, each with a different shade or density.
Raster Data - Machine-readable data that represent values usually stored for maps or images
and organized sequentially by rows and columns. Each "cell" must be rectangular but not
necessarily square, as with grid data.
RDBMS - See relational database management systems.
Rectified - Referencing points, lines, and/or features of two dimensional images to real world
geographic coordinates, to correct distortion in the image.
Rectify - The process by which an image or grid is converted from image coordinates to realworld coordinates. Rectification typically involves rotation and scaling of grid cells, and thus
requires resampling of values.
Registration - The procedure used to bring two maps or data layers into concurrence via
known ground location control points or the procedure of bringing a map or data layers into
concurrence with the earth's surface.
Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) - A database management system
with the ability to access data organized in tabular files that may be related together by
common field (item). An RDBMS has the capability to recombine the data items from
different files, thus providing powerful tools for data usage.
Remote Sensing - Recording imagery or data and information from a distance. Photography
is a form of remote sensing. Satellites provide a remote sensing platform for developing
geology and soils analysis with sensors sensitive to various bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Resolution - 1. The accuracy at which the location and shape of map features can be depicted
for a given map scale. For example, at a map scale of 1:63,360 (1 inch=1 mile), it is difficult
to represent areas smaller than 1/10 of a mile wide or 1/10 of a mile in length because they
are only 1/1 0-inch wide or long on the map. In a larger scale map, there is less reduction, so
feature resolution more closely matches real world features. As map scale decreases,
resolution also diminishes because feature boundaries must be smoothed, simplified, or not
shown at all. 2. The size of the smallest feature that can be represented in a surface. 3. The
number of points in x and y in a grid (e.g., the resolution of a USGS one-degree DEM is
1.201 x 1.201 mesh points).

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Rubber-sheet - A procedure to adjust the entities of a geographic data set in a non-uniform

manner. From- and to- coordinates are used to define the adjustment.
S
Scale - The relationship between a distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the
earth. Often used in the form I :24,000, which means that one unit of measurement on the
map equals 24,000 of the same units on the earth's surface.
Scanner - A scanner is an optical device that recognizes dark and light dots on a surface and
converts this recognition into a digital file. However, scanners generally do not create a map
database in a logically correct format, so additional computer-aided manipulation and often
manual editing are used to add intelligence required by a specific GIS platform.
Scanning - Also referred to as automated digitizing or scan digitizing. A process by which
information originally in hard copy format (paper print, mylar transparencies, microfilm
aperture cards) can be rapidly converted to digital raster form (pixels) using optical readers.
Schematic Map - A map prepared by electronically scanning or digitizing in which the lines
are not dimensionally or positionally accurate.
SDTS - Spatial Data Transfer Standard
SED - New York State Education Department
SEMO - New York State Emergency Management Office
Server - Software that allows a computer to offer a service to another computer. Other
computers contact the server program by means of matching client software. Also a computer
using server software.
Source Material - Data of any type required for the production of mapping, charting, and
geodesy products including, but not limited to, ground-control aerial and terrestrial
photographs, sketches, maps, and charts; topographic, hydrographic, hypsographic, magnetic,
geodetic, oceanographic, and meteorological information; intelligence documents; and
written reports pertaining to natural and human-made features.
Spatial Data - Data pertaining to the location of geographical entities together with their
spatial dimensions. Spatial data are classified as point, line, area, or surface.
Spatial Index - A means of accelerating the drawing, spatial selection, and entity
identification by generating geographic-based indexes. Usually based on an internal
sequential numbering system.
Spatial Model - Analytical procedures applied with a GIS. There are three categories of
spatial modeling functions that can be applied to geographic data objects within a GIS: (1)
geometric models (such as calculation of Euclidian distance between objects, buffer
generation area, and perimeter calculation); (2) coincidence models (such as a polygon

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overlay); and (3) adjacency models (pathfinding, redistricting, and allocation). All three
model categories support operations on geographic data objects such as points, lines,
polygons, TlNs, and grids. Functions are organized in a sequence of steps to derive the
desired information for analysis.
Stakeholders - Any constituency in the environment that is affected by an organization's
decisions and policies.
Standards - In computing, a set of rules or specifications which, taken together, define the
architecture of a hardware device, program, or operating system.
State Plane Coordinate System - The plane-rectangular coordinate systems established by
the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (now known as National Ocean Survey), one
for each state in the United States, for use in defining positions of geodetic stations in terms
of plane-rectangular (X and Y) coordinates. Each state is covered by one or more zones, over
each of which is placed a grid imposed upon a conformal map projection. The relationship
between the grid and the map projection is established by mathematical analysis. Zones of
limited east-west dimension and indefinite north south extent have the transverse Mercator
map projection as the base for the state coordinate system, whereas zones for which the above
order of magnitude is reversed have the Lambert conformal conic map projection with two
standard parallels. For a zone having a width of 158 statute miles, the greatest departure from
exact scale (scale error) is 1 part in 10,000. Only adjusted positions on the North American
datum of 1927 and NAD 1983 may be properly transformed into plane coordinates on a state
system. All such geodetic positions which are determined by the National Ocean Survey are
transformed into state plane-rectangular coordinates on the proper grid, and are distributed by
that bureau with the geodetic positions. State plane coordinates are extensively used in
recording land surveys. and in many states such use has received approval by legislative
enactment.
SUNY - State University of New York
System - A group of related or interdependent elements that function as a unit.
T
Tax Map - An accurate map of a municipal territory prepared for the purpose of taxation.
Showing among other things, the location and width of streets, roads, avenues and each
individual lot of land within the municipality.
Text Data - Information in a GIS system such as property owners' names and lot dimensions.
Thematic Layer - Mapping categories, consisting of a single type of data such as population,
water quality, or timber stands, intended to be used with base data.
Thematic Map - A map that illustrates one subject or topic either quantitatively or
qualitatively.

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Theme - A collection of logically organized geographic objects defined by the user.

Examples include streets, wells, soils, and streams.
TIGER - Supersedes DIME files.
TIGER - See Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing.
Topographic Map - A map of land-source features including drainage lines, roads,
landmarks, and usually relief, or elevation.
Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing data (TIGER) - A
format used by the US Census Bureau to support census programs and surveys. It is being
used for the 1990 census. TIGER files contain street address ranges along lines and census
tract/block boundaries. These descriptive data can be used to associate address information
and census/demographic data to coverage features.
Topology - The spatial relationships between connecting or adjacent coverage features (e.g.,
arcs, nodes, polygons, and points). For example, the topology of an arc includes its from- and
to- nodes and its left and right polygons. Topological relationships are built from simple
elements into complex elements: points (simplest elements), arcs (sets of connected points),
areas (sets of connected arcs), and routes (sets of sections) that are arcs or portions of arcs).
Redundant data (coordinates) are eliminated because an arc may represent a linear feature,
part of the boundary of an area feature, or both. Topology is useful in GIS because many
spatial modeling operations don't require coordinates, only topological information. For
example, to find an optimal path between two points requires a list of which arcs connect to
each other and the cost of traversing along each arc in each direction. Coordinates are only
necessary to draw the path after it is calculated .
Transformation - The process of converting data from one coordinate system to another
through translation, rotation, and scaling .
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - One of the protocols on which the Internet is based.
V
Vectors - Lines defined by "x", "y" and "z" coordinate endpoints. Roads, rivers, contour
lines, etc. presented as vector lines.
Vector Data - A coordinate-based data structure commonly used to represent map features.
Each linear feature is represented as a list of ordered x, y coordinates. Attributes are
associated with the feature (as opposed to a raster data structure, which associates attributes
with a grid cell). Traditional vector data structures include double-digitized polygons and arcnode models.
Vector Display - A vector display on a computer screen is produced by drawing vectors on
the screen. A raster display, in contrast, is produced on a screen as rows of dots of "on" or
"off' which produce the picture.

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W
Wide Area Network (WAN) - A network that uses high-speed, long distance
communications networks or satellites to connect computers over distances greater than those
traversed by local area networks (LANs)--about 2 miles.
Workstations and Terminals - A workstation is a device or a combination of devices
integrated to provide the user with graphic data entry, display, and manipulation. These
devices are used for map digitizing and map-related applications, geographic analysis and ad
hoc query. Most systems still use some type of inexpensive edit-query workstations or
terminals to provide low-cost access to both maps and related data.