Physics & Measurements

Learn about : Physical quantity , Fundamental quantities , derived unit , Meter , Kilogram ,
Second
Physical Quantity
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured i.e. a physical quantity is properly defined,
has proper units, and its value can be measured by an instrument.
Physical quantities are classified as fundamental and derived quantities.
Fundamental Quantities
Fundamental quantities are those that are defined directly by the process of measurement only.
They are not defined in terms of other quantities; their units are not defined in terms of other
units. In mechanics we treat length, mass and time as basic or fundamental quantities.
Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities, which can be obtained from fundamental units, are
called derived unit.
Name of System
Fundamental unit of
Length .. Mass ..Time
F.P.S Foot .. Pound . Second
C.G.S. Centimeter . Gram Second
M.K.S. (SI System) .. Meter Kilogram . Second
Illustration : Find the unit of speed.
Solution : Speed = distance/time = ms-1

Definitions of Base Units:

1. Meter:
Since 1983, the standard metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in
(1/299,792,458) th part of a second.
2. Kilogram:
Nowadays the standard kilogram is the mass of a cylinder made of platinum-iridium alloy and
stored in a special vaule in the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres in
France.
3. Second:
At present second is defined on the basis of an atomic clock, which uses the energy difference

between the two lowest energy states of the cesium atom. When bombarded by microwaves of
precisely the proper frequency, cesium atoms undergo a transition from one of these states to
other. One second is defined as the time required for 9,192,631,770 cycles of this radiation
In physics SI system is based on seven fundamental and two derived units.
Basic Physical Quantities. Fundamental Unit
Mass.. kilogram
Length meter
Time second
Temperature.. kelvin or Celsius
Electric current.. ampere
Luminous intensity. candela
Quantity of matter.. mole
Illustration : Fill in the blank by suitable conversion of units
1 kg m2s-2 = ________ g cm2s-2
Solution : 1kg m2s-2 = 1103 g (102cm)2s-2 = 107g cm2s-2
Exercise 1: (i) What is the value of one micron in centimeter ?
(ii) What is the value of a pressure of 106 dynes/cm2 in S.I unit ?
Exercise 2:Fill in the blanks :
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to ..m3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to .
(mm)2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km/h coversm in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is .g cm3 or ..kg m3.
Exercise 3: Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units :
(a) 1 kg m2 s2 = .g cm2 s2
(b) 1 m = .. ly
(c) 3.0 m s-2 = . km h-2
(d) G = 6.67 1011 N m2 (kg)-2 = . (cm) 3 s-2 g-1
Exercise 4: A calorie is a unit of heat or energy and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J = 1 kg m2 s-2.
Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals kg , the unit of length
equals m , the unit of time is s. Show that a calorie has a magnitude 4.2 -1 -2 2 in terms of
the new units.
Basic Forces in Nature

Learn about : Fundamental forces in nature , gravitational force , electromagnetic force ,

Strong force , weak force
THE BASIC FORCES IN NATURE:The following basic forces operate in nature

(i)Gravitational force: The force of attraction between two objects due to their masses is known
as gravitational force All object fall because of the gravitational force of attraction exerted on
them by the earth.
The gravitational force has the following properties
(i) It is always attractive in nature.
(ii) It is long range force.
(iii) It is the weakest force operating in nature
(iv) It obeys inverse square law.
(v) It is a central force.
(ii) Electromagnetic force : The force between two charges is called electrostatic force while
the force between two magnetic poles is called magnetic force.
The electromagnetic force has the following properties.
(i) It may be attractive or repulsive in nature.
(ii) It is also a long rang force.
(iii) It is about 1036 times stronger than gravitational force.
(iv) It obeys inverse square law.
(v) It is also a central force
(iii) Strong force : It is the force of nuclear origin within the atomic nucleus, the stronger
nuclear force holds the nucleons- Protons and neutrons together. It has the following properties
(i) Basically it is an attractive force.
(ii) It is short rang force of about the nuclear dimensions of 10-15m
(iii) It varies inversely with some higher power of distance.
(iv) It is the strongest force operating in nature.
(v) It is a non-central force.

(iv) Weak force : In the process of radioactive decay. The nucleus emits an electron and
neutron . The electron and the neutron interact with each other exclusive through the weak force.
The weak forces are about 1025 times as strong as gravitational forces.
Dimensional Analysis

Learn about : Dimension , Dimensional analysis , Dimensional equations

Dimension of a physical quantity is defined as the power to which the fundamental units have to
be raised to represent the derived unit of that quantity.
Uses of Dimensional equations
(i) Conversion of one system of units into another.
(ii) Checking the accuracy of various formulae.
(iii) Derivation of formula
Illustration : Check the accuracy of the relation

where is the frequency, l is length , T is tension and m is mass per unit length of the string.
Solution : The given relation is

Writing the dimensions on either side, we get

LHS = = [T-1] = [M0L0T-1]
RHS = 1/2lT/m = [T-1]
As LHS = RHS
Dimensionally the formula is correct
Exercise : What is the dimension of the practical unit Calorie?

Illustration : Convert 1 N into dyne.

Solution: Dimensional formula of force is
F = [M1L1T-2]
Now we have to convert M.K.S system into C.G.S system
M = 1kg
M = 1g

L = 1m T = 1s (M.K.S)
L = 1cm T = 1s (C.G.S)

F = M1L1T-2
F (SI) = [1 kg] [1m] [s-2] = [103g] [102] [s-2] = 105 dynes.
Problem : If force, length and time would have been the fundamental units what would have
been the dimensional formula for mass?
Solution:

Let M = K FaLbTc

= [MLT-2]a [Lb] Tc
= [MaL(a+b)T(-2a+c)]
a=1,a+b=0

& 2a + c = 0

=> a = 1 , b = 1 , c = 2
Dimensional formula for mass : [FL1T2 ]
Problem : In the equation y = A sin(t kx) obtain the dimensional formula of w and k.
Given x is distance and t is time.
Solution:

The given equation is

y = A sin(t kx)
The argument of a trigonometrical function i.e. angle is dimensionless
i.e. t =
= /t = 1/T = [T-1] = [M0L0T-1]

Also

kx =

k = /x = 1/L = [ L-1 ] = [M0L-1T0]

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

Learn about : Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

1. Dimension does not depend on the magnitude of the quantity involved. Therefore, a
dimensionally correct equation need not be actually correct.
e.g. :
dimension of 1/T and 2/T are same
2. Dimensional method cannot be used to derive relations other than those involving products of
physical parameters.
e.g. :
y = a cos(t kx) can not be derived using this method.
3. This method cannot be applied to derive formula if in mechanics a physical quantity depends
on more than three physical quantities (mass, length, time).
e.g. :
T = 2(I/mgL) cannot be derived by using dimensions.
Exercise : The dimension of torque is equal to the dimension of work . Yet, the two quantities
are different. Explain
Significant figure

Learn about : significant figures , Rules of counting significant figure , Significant figures in
calculations
The number of significant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity gives the accuracy
of its value.
The number of digits in a measurement about which we are reasonably sure, plus the one
additional digit which is uncertain are significant.
Common rules of counting significant figure :

(a) All non-zero digits are significant.

(b) All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the decimal
point is, if at all.
(c) In a number less than one, all zeros to the right of decimal point and to the left of the first
non-zero digit are not significant. [In 0.002308, the underline zeroes are not significant]
(d) The terminal or trailing zeroes in a number without a decimal point are not significant. [Thus
123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has three significant figures, the trailing zeroes being not
significant].
(e) All zeros on the right of the last non-zero digit in the decimal part are significant. [The
numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 has four significant figures each]
Significant figures in calculations

Significant figures in Addition and subtraction

The accuracy of a sum or a difference is limited to the accuracy of the least accurate observation.
Rule: Do not retain a greater number of decimal places in a result computed from addition and
subtraction than in the observation, which has the fewest decimal places.
Illustration : Add and subtract 428.5 and 17.23 with due regards to significant figures
Solution: we have 428.50 _________________ 428.50
________________ 17.23 __________________17.23
Sum ____________445.73_________ Difference 411.27
Rounding off the results of the above sum and difference to the first decimal, we have Correct
sum 445.7 and correct difference 411.3
Significant figures in Multiplication and division

When the values of different observations are multiplied or divided, the number of digits to be
retained in the answer depends upon the number of significant figures in the weakest link.
Rule: Do not retain a greater number of significant figures in a result computed from
multiplication and or division than the least number of significant figures in the data from which
the result is computed.
Illustration : Multiply 312.65 and 26.4 with due regards to significant figures.
Solution : 312.65 x 26.4 = 8253.960

But as the weakest link i.e. the data 26.4 has only three significant figures, the correct result of
multiplication will be 8250. This is because in 8250, there are three significant figures. Hence,
312.65 x 26.4 = 8250
Exercise : State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 1024 kg
(c) 0.2370 g cm-3
(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m-2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
Errors in Measurement

Learn about : Errors in Measurement , Errors in sum & difference , Errors in products &
quotients , Errors in powers of quantities
The difference between the true and the measured values of a quantity is the error.
Propagation of Errors :

(a) Sum and difference of quantities:

x=ab
x = (a + b)
(b) Products and quotients of quantities:
x=axb

and

x = a/b

For both

(c) Powers of quantities:

x = an/bm
lnx = nlna mlnb
differentiating

For errors,
Maximum fractional error in x,

Illustration : The sides of a rectangle are (10.5 0.2) cm and (5.2 0.1)cm. Calculate its
perimeter with error limit.
Solution: Here, l = (10.5 0.2) cm
b = (5.2 0.1)cm
P = 2(l + b) = 2 (10.5 + 5.2) = 31.4cm
P = 2 (l + b) = 0.6
Hence perimeter = (31.4 0.6) cm.
Exercise : A force F is applied on a square plate of side L. If percentage error in determination of
L is 2 % and that in F is 4 %, what is permissible error in pressure ?
(a) 2 %

(b) 4 %

(c) 6 %

(d) 8 %

Exercise: The density of a cube is measured by measuring its mass and length of its sides. If
maximum error in measurement of mass and lengths are 4 % and 3 % respectively, the maximum
error in the measurement of density would be
(a) 9 %

(b) 13 %

(c) 12 %

(d) 7 %

Exercise: A thin copper wire of length l metre increases in length by 2 % when heated through
10C. What is the percentage increase in area when a square copper sheet of length l metre is
heated through 10C ?
(a) 4 %

(b) 8 % (c) 16 % (d) none of the above

Experiments in Physics

Learn about : Measurement of Length ,Vernier Callipers , Least count of Vernier Callipers ,
Zero error
Measurement of Length :

The simplest method measuring the length of a straight line is by means of a meter scale. But
there exists some limitation in the accuracy of the result:
(i) the dividing lines have a finite thickness.
(ii) naked eye cannot correctly estimate less than 0.5 mm
For greater accuracy devices like
(a) Vernier callipers (b) micrometer scales (screw gauge) are used
Vernier Callipers :

It consists of a main scale graduated in cm/mm over which an auxiliary scale (or Vernier scale)
can slide along the length. The division of the Vernier scale being either slightly longer and
shorter than the divisions of the main scale.
Least count of Vernier Callipers:

The least count or Vernier constant (v.c.) is the minimum value of correct estimation of length
without eye estimation. If N division of vernier coincides with (N-1) division of main scale, then
Vernier constant = 1 ms 1vs
=
= 1ms/N , which is equal to the value of the smallest division on the main scale divided by total
number of divisions on the vernier scale.
Zero error :

If the zero marking of main scale and vernier callipers do not coincide, necessary correction has
to be made for this error which is known as zero error of the instrument.
If the zero of the vernier scale is to the right of the zero of the main scale the zero error is said to
be positive and the correction will be negative and vice versa.
Illustration : Consider the following data :
10 main scale division = 1cm, 10 vernier division = 9 main scale divisions , zero of vernier scale
is to the right of the zero marking of the main scale with 6 vernier divisions coinciding with main
scale divisions and the actual reading for length measurement is 4.3 cm with 2 vernier divisions
coinciding with main scale graduations. Estimate the length .

Solution: In this case, vernier constant = (1mm/10) = 0.1 mm

Zero error = 6 x 0.1 = + 0.6 mm
Correction = -0.6 mm
Actual length = (4.3 + 2 x 0.01) + correction
= 4.32 0.06 = 4.26 cm
Screw Gauge
Screw Gauge (or Micrometer Screw)

In general vernier callipers can measure accurately upto 0.01 cm and for greater accuracy
micrometer screw devices e.g. screw gauge, spherometer are used. These consist of accurately
cut screw which can be moved in a closely fitting fixed nut by turning it axially. The instrument
is provided with two scales:

(i) The main scale or pitch scale M graduated along the axis of the screw.
(ii) The cap-scale or head scale H round the edge of the screw head.
Constants of the Screw Gauge
(a) Pitch : The translational motion of the screw is directly proportional to the total rotation of
the head. The pitch of the instrument is the distance between two consecutive threads of the
screw which is equal to the distance moved by the screw due to one complete rotation of the cap.
Thus for 10 rotation of cap 5 mm,
pitch = 0.5 mm
(b) Least count: In this case also, the minimum (or least) measurement (or count) of length is
equal to one division on the head scale which is equal to pitch divided by the total cap divisions.
Thus in the aforesaid Illustration, if the total cap division is 100, then least count = 0.5mm/100 =
0.005 mm
Zero Error: In a perfect instrument the zero of the main scale coincides with the line of
graduation along the screw axis with no zero-error, otherwise the instrument is said to have zeroerror which is equal to the cap reading with the gap closed. This error is positive when zero line

or reference line of the cap lies above the line of graduation and vice-versa. The corresponding
corrections will be just opposite