Technical Series RC-26 RCA im Receiving Tube \ManualContents ELECTRONS, ELECTRODES, AND ELECTRON TUBES . . Electrons, Cathodes, Generic Tube Types, Diodes, Triodes, Tetrodes, entodes, Beam Power Tubes, Multi-Electrode and Multi-Unit Types, Receiving Tube Structure, Television Picture Tubes ELECTRON TUBE CHARACTERISTICS . . . - ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS... 2... General System Functions, Rectification, Detection, Amplification, TV" Scanning, ‘Syne, and Deflection, Oscillation, Frequency Con version, and Tuning Indication with Electron-Ray Tubes ELECTRON TUBE INSTALLATION... 2. 2 1 ss Filament and Heater Power Supply, Heater-to-Cathode Connection, Plate Voltage Supply, Grid Voltage Supply, Screen-Grid. Voltage Supply, Shielding, Dress of Circuit Leads, Filters, Output-Coupling Devices, High-Fidelity Systems, High-Voltage Considerations) for Television Picture Tubes, Picture-Tube Safety Considerations INTERPRETATION OF TUBE DATA... 0... ss APPLICATION GUIDE FOR RCA RECEIVING TUBES . . TECHNICAL DATA FOR RCA TUBE TYPES... . RCA TYPES FOR REPLACEMENT USE... 5. PICTURE-TUBE CHARACTERISTICS CHART . . RCA VOLTAGE-REGULATOR AND VOLTAGE-REFERENCE TUBES. . 2... 5+ ELECTRON TUBE TESTING ©... 0.2 oe RESISTANCE-COUPLED AMPLIFIERS ©... 2. 0s OUMLINES oe CROUTS Pace 3 3 re a1 93 » 107 481 536 sat ss 554 560 on Ifoomstion tumithed by RCA. belived to be acura and reliable, However, no respons. bly" woutned by RCA for hs ace: nor foe any infringements ol patente of er ries of parties whieh Uiner"any patent patent hte ot RCA Ay real ffom i've. No ems Is granted by Implication oF hereRCA Receiving Tube Manual THIS MANUAL, like its preceding editions, has been prepared to assist those who work or experiment with home-entertainment-type electron tubes and cit- cuits. It will be found valuable by engineers, service technicians, educators, experimenters, radio amateurs, hobbyists, students, and many others technically inter- ested in electron tubes. The material in this edition has been augmented and revised to include the recent technological advances in the electronics field. For more convenient referencing of the latest tube types, the Technical Data Section has been restricted to coverage of active RCA types; basic data for replacement and discontinued RCA tubes, the RCA Types for Replacement Use table. RCA / Electronic Components / Harrison, N. J. 07029 Copyright 1968 by Radio Corporation of America (All rights reserved under Pan-American Copyright Convention) Prioted in USA. 5/68perrer AND Surron >) ono Rabiator (So tee | senerome | a weeasse | eo no. camooe veaee sameElectrons, Electrodes and Electron Tubes HE. clectron tube is a marvelous device. Tt makes possible the per forming of operations, amazing in con- ception, witha precision and a certainty that are astounding. Its an exceedingly Sensitive and accurate instrument—the product of coordinated efforts of engi beers and craftsmen, Its construction Fequires materials from every corner ff the earth, Its use is world-wide. Tts future possibilities, even in the light of presentclay accomplishments, are but Gimly foreseen, for each development ‘opens new fields of design and appli- cation. The importance of the electron tube lies in its ability to control almost instanily the flight of the millions of electrons supplied by the cathode. Tt ‘accomplishes this control with @ mini- mum of energy. Because it is almost jnstantaneows in its action, the electron, tube can operate effcientiy and accu ly at clectrical_ frequencies much higher than those attainable with rotat- ing machines. Electrons All matter exists_in, the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. ‘These three forms’ consist entirely of minute. divi sions known as molecules, which, in furn, are composed of atoms. Atoms have a nucleus which isa positive charge of electricity, around which re~ volve tiny charges of negative electricity, Known a6 electrons. Scientists have es timated that electrons weigh only 1/30- billion, billion, billion, billionths of an ounce, and that they may travel at speeds of thousands of miles per second. Electron movement may be accele- ted by the addition of energy. Heat is one form of energy which can be con- veniently used to speed up the electron. For example, if the temperature of ‘metal is gradually raised, the electrons in the metal gain velocity. When the ‘metal becomes hot enough, some elec trons may acquire sufficient speed to Dreak away from the surface’ of the ‘metal. This action, which is accelerated ‘when the metal is heated in a vacutim, is utilized in. most electron tubes 0 produce the necessary electron supply. ‘An clectron tube consists of a cathode, which supplies electrons, and fone or more additional electrodes, Which control and collect these. elec” trons, mounted in an evacuated en- velope. The envelope may be made of sass, metal, ceramic, or & combination ‘of these materials, Cathodes A cathode is an essential part of an clectron tube because it supplies the tlectrons necessary for tube operation. When energy in some form is applied to the cathode, electrons are released. Heat is the form of energy. generally used, The method of heating the cath ‘ode may be used to distinguish between the diflerent forms of cathodes. For ex- ample, a directly heated cathode, or Mamentcathode, isa wire heated by the passage of an electric current. AR indifectly heated cathode, or eater- cathode, consists of a. filament, “or heater, enclosed in a metal sleeve, The sleeve carries the electron-emitting ma: terial on its outside surface and is heated by radiation and conduction from the heater. ‘A filament, or dicectly heated cath- code, such se that shown in Fig. I may4 RCA Recervine Tuse Manual be forher clasied by ideniying the Useful emission does not tke place Hien" cectoncmitog materia from te heater wes ‘The materials in reglar se are tng. ew dark heater insulating cot- Sten, thoriated tungsten, and. metals ing developed by RCA ha tet heat wich have been costed with allalie: trinsfer than carter slominum-otide Garth oxides. Tungsten filaments are tmade from the pore. meal. Because they must operate at high temperatures piven power Inputs Becave the lesile Geaartiog white) to emit suficient Svengih of the heater wire increases ectons, a relatively lange amount of at the lower operating tempertores flament power is required tubes sing dase eaters ave fcreased "Thofated-tunpsten fiaments are reliability, stably, and lie sade from tungsten impregnated with thorium oxide, Due to the presence of eee thorium, these filaments liberate elec- ‘rons at a more moderate temperature rages oe (of about 1700°C (a bright yellow) and ewes eS fare, therefore, much more economical eae ff filament power than are pure tung- Sten filaments Alkaline earths are usually applied nickel-alloy wire or as a coating on obon. This coating, which is dried In Fie, IFiament Fig, 2—Indirectly 2 relatively thick layer on the lament, 0” ety heated Ried cathode or Fequires only a relatively low tempera: ewhode. hestercathode ture of about 700-750°C (@ dull Ted) The heater-cathode construction is to produce & copious supply of clec- wet) gnapred for ee tn clecvon tuber trons. Coated filaments operate very intended for operation from ac power Gficienty and require relatively litle jiney and from storage batteries. The flament power, However, cach of these lines and from storage, batters, The Sathode, materials has special advan. heater functions, the electrical insula- {ages which determine the choice for a hewwer functions, the. clectrical insula: particular application, land the shielding eflect of the sleeve Directly heated fllament-cathodes fray all be utilized in the design of the require comparatively, litle heating une to minimize the introduction of power. They are used in tube types de fm from the ac heater supply and 10 Signed for battery operation because it inimize electrical interference, Which is, Of course, desirable to impose as ight enter the tube eicuit through the mall a drain as possible on the bat~ heater-supply line. From the viewpoint teries. They are also used ‘in rectifiers Of'eircun designs the heater-cathode such as the 1G3GT/IB3GT and the Construction offers advantages in con: sy3cr. rection flexibility because of the clee- ‘An indirectly heated cathode, or trical separation of the heater from the heater-cathode, consists of « thin metal cathode sleeve coated with electron-emitting ma- Another advantage of the heater. terial such as alkaline-earth oxides. The cathode construction is That jt makes ‘emistve surface of the cathode is main- practical the design of a rectifier tube fained” at the required temperature having close spacing between its cath: (Gpproximately 1050°K) by resistance- ode and plate and of an amplifier tbe heating of « tungsten or tungstemalloy having close spacing between its cath- Wire Which is placed inside’ the cathode and grid. In a close-spaced rectifier fde sleeve and electrically insulated tube. the voitage drop in the Tube is from it, as shown in Fig. 2. The heater tow, and, therefore. the regulation is is used only for the parpose of heat- improved. In. an amplifier tube,_ the ing the cathode sleeve.and sleeve coat- close spacing increases the sain oblain ing to an electron-emitting temperature. able from the’ tube. Because of theELEcTRons, ELECTRODES AND ELECTRON TUBES 5 advantages of the heater-cathode con- struction, almost all present-day receiv. ing tubes designed ‘for ac operation hhave heater-cathodes. Generic Tube Types Electrons are of no value in an electron tube unless they can be put to Wwork. ‘Therefore, tube is designed with the parts necessary to utilize elec- trons as Well as those fequired to pro- duce them. ‘These parts consist of a ‘athode and one of more supplemen- tary electrodes. The electrodes are en- closed in an evacuated envelope having the necessary connections brought out through air-tight seals. The air is re ‘moved from the envelope t0 allow free movement of the electrons and t0 Pi vent injury to the emitting surface of the cathode. ‘When the cathode is heated, elee- trons leave the cathode surface “and form an invisible cloud in the space around it. Any positive electric poten- tial within the evacuated envelope of- fers a strong attraction to the electrons (unlike electric charges attract; ike charges repel). Such 2 positive electric potential can be supplied by an anode {positive electrode) located within the tbe in proximity to the cathode. ‘The simplest form of electron tube contains two electrodes, a cathode and fn anode (plate), and is often called a diode, the family name for a two-lec ‘rode’ tube. In 2. diode, the positive Potential is supplied by a suitable elec trical source “connected. between the plate terminal and a. cathode terminal, ‘of the postive plate potential, electrons ZH Fig, 3Basle diode erat flow from the cathode to the plate and return through the external plate-bat- tery circuit to the cathode, thus com- pleting the circuit. Ths fow of electrons {s knowa as the plate current. If a negative potential is applied to the plate, the free electrons in the space surrounding the cathode will be forced back to the cathode and no plate cur- rent will flow. If an alternating voltage is applied to the plate, the plate is a- femately made positive and. negative. Because plate current flows only during. the time when the plate is positive, cu rent flows through the tube in only one direction and is suid to be rectified Fig. 4 shows the rectified output current produced by an alternating input volt age. Fig. 4 Curent characteristics of rectifier ‘eireut. Diode rectifiers are used in ac re- ceivers to convert the ac supply voltage to de voltage for the electrodes of the other tubes inthe receiver. Rectifier tubes having only one plate and one cathode, such as the 35W4, are called half-wave rectifiers, because current can flow only during one-half of the alternating-current cycle. When two plates and one or more cathodes are Used in the same tube, current may be ‘obtained on both halves of the ac cycle. The 6X4, SY3GT, and SU4GB are ex- amples of this type and are called Tullvwave rectifiers, 'Not all of the electrons emitted by the cathode reach the plate. Some re- turn to the cathode, while others te ‘main in the space between the cathode land plate for a brief period to produce6 RCA REcEIvine TUBE MANUAL fn effect Known as space charge. This use of the tube, it is ordinarily less harge has'a repelling action on other than the full emission current. The electrons which leave the cathode sur- emission test, therefore, is used to ine face and impedes their passage to the dicate whether the cathode can supply plate. The extent of this action and the a sufiient number of electrons. for fimount of space charge depend on the satisfactory operation of the tube cathode temperature, the distance. be If space charge were not present 19 tween the cathode and the plate, and repel electrons coming from the cath- the plate potential. The higher the’plate Ode, the same. plate eurrent could: be Potential the Tess is the tendeney for produced ata lower plate voltage. One fleetrons to remain in the space-charge way to make the effet of space charge region and repel other electrons. This small is 10 make the distance between effect may be noted by applying icreas- plate and cthode small. This method ingly higher plate voltages to a tube fs used in rectifier types having heater- ‘operating at a fixed hester or lament cathodes, such as the SVAGA.and the voltage. Under these conditions, the 6AXSGT. tn these types the radial ds. ‘maximum number of available electrons tance between cathode and plate is only is fixed, but increasingly higher plate atout two hundredths of an inch, Voltages wil succeed in attracting a Another method of reducing space- treater proportion of the free electrons. charge effect is ulzed. in mercury- Beyond certain plate voltage, vapor rectfer tubes. When such tubes however, additional plate voltage has are operated, a small amount of mer lite effect in increasing the plate cur- cury contained in the tube is partially Fent because all Of the electrons emitted vaporized, filing the space inside the by the cathode are already being drawn bulb with mercury atoms. These atoms fo the plate, This maximum current, are bombarded by electrons on their strate in Fig 3, ale saturation Way to the plate Ht the lectone are current. Because it'is an indication of moving at a sufcietly high speed, the the Total number of elecrons emited, Colstoy tear off clecrons ‘rom’ the itis also Known as emission current or mercury atoms, The mercury. stom is simply emission, then sad tobe “onlaed” fe, it has lost fone or more electrons and, therefore, has a postive charge. Ionization is ev denced by a bluish-grcen glow between the cathode and plate. When ionization occurs, the space charge is neutralized by the positive mercury atoms s0 that increased numbers of electrons ate made aveilable. Mercury-vapor tubes are used primarily for power rectifiers 7 Toniccheated-eathode rectifiers de- ope vo pend on gas ionization for their opera Fig. 5—Current characterise of diode tion. These tubes are of the fullwave tube design and contain two anodes anda coated cathode sealed in a bulb con Although tubes are sometimes ining a reduced pressure of inert ga, tested by measurement oftheir emission The cathode becomes hot during tbe rally not advisable to operation, but the heating effect is, Value of emission be- caused by bombardment of the cath cause this value would be sufficiently ode by fons within the tube rather than large to cause change in the tube char- bY heater or filament current from an acteristics or even to damage the tube, external soure. Consequently, while the test value of The internal structure of an ionic. femission current is somewhat. larger heated-cathode tube is designed 10 that than the maximum current which will when sufficient voltage is applied to the be required from the cathode in the tube, ionization of the gas occurs be- oF elecraONsELECTRONS, ELECTRODES AND ELECTRON TUBES 7 tween the anode which is instan- taneously positive and the cathode. Under normal operating voltages, ioni- zation does not take place between the node that is negative and the cathode So that the requirements for rectifia tion are satisfied. The initial small flow of current through the tube is suficient to raise the cathode temperature quickly to incandescence, whereupon the cath- ‘ode emits electrons. ‘The voltage drop in such tubes is slightly higher than that of the usual hot-cathode gas rec- tiers because energy is taken from the fonization discharge to Keep the cath- fode at operating temperature. Proper operation of these rectifiers requires a ‘minimum flow of load current at all {imes to maintain the cathode at the temperature required to supply sufficient Triodes When a third electrode, called the sd, is placed between the cathode and late, the tube is known as a triode, the family name for a three-electrode tube. The grid usually consists of relatively fine wire wound on two support rods (siderods) and extending the length of the cathode. The spacing between turns of wire is large compared with the size of the wire s0 that the passage of elec- trons. from cathode to. plate is. prac- tically unobstructed by ‘the grid. In some types, 2 frame grid is used. The frame consists of two siderods supported bby four metal straps. Extremely fine lateral wire (diameter of 0.5 mil of less) i wound under tension around the frame. This type of grid permits the use of closer ‘spacings between grid Wires and between tube electrodes, and thus improves tube performance. ‘The purpose of the grid le 10 con: trol the flow of plate current. When a tube is used a5 an amplifier, a negative {de voltage is. usually applied 10 the trid! Under this conditon the grid does ot draw appreciable current. “The aumber of electrons attracted to the plate depends on the combined effect of the grid and plate polarities, at shown in Fig. 6. When the plate is posi- tive, as is normal, and the de grid vol age is made more and more negative, the plate is less able to attract electrons to it apd plate current decreases. When the grid is made less and less negative (more and more positive), the plate more readily attracts electrons to it and plate current increases. Hence, when the voltage on the grid is varied in ac- cordance with a signal, the plate cur rent varies with the signal. Because a small voltage applied to the grid can control a comparatively large amount fof plate current, the signal is ampli- fied by the tube. Typical three-electrode tube types are the 6C4 and GAP4A. Fig. 6—Basic triode circuit. ‘The grid, plate, and cathode of a triode form an electrostatic system, each electrode acting as one plate of a small Capacitor. The capacitances are those existing between grid and plate, plate and cathode, and grid and cathode, ‘These capacitances are known as inter- electrode capacitances. Generally, the Capacitance between grid. and. plate ff the most importance. In high-gain radiofrequency amplifier circuits, thi capacitance may act to produce unde- sired coupling between the input circuit, the circuit between grid and cathode, and the output cireuit, the circuit be- tween plate and cathode. This coupling is undesirable in an amplifier because it may cause instability and unsatisfac- tory performance. Tetrodes ‘The capacitance between grid and plate can be made small by mounting fan additional electrode, called the Sereen grid (grid No. 2), in the tube. With the addition of the grid No. 2, the tube has four electrodes and is, ac" cordingly, called a tetrode. The screen8 arid or grid No. 2 is mounted between the grid’ No. 1 (control grid) and the plate, as shown in Fig. 7, and acts as fan electrostatic. shield. between. them, thus reducing the grid-to-plate capaci tance, The effectiveness of this shield- ing action Is increased by bypass se Fig, 7—Basletetrode circult capacitor connected between screen grid and cathode. By means of the screen tid and this bypass capacitor, the grid- Plate capacitance of a tetrode is made very small, In practice, the grid-plate capacitance is reduced from. several picofarads (pF) for a triode to 0.01 pF Or less for a screen-grid tube. ‘The screen grid has another desir able effect in that it makes plate current practically independent of plate voltage ver a certain range. The sereen grid is operated at a positive voltage and, therefore, attracts electrons fromthe cathode. However, because of the com: paratively large space between wires of the screen grid, most of the electrons drawn to the screen grid pass through ito the plate. Hence the screen rid supplies an electrostatic force pulling tlectrons from the cathode to the plate ‘At the same time the screen grid shields the electrons between cathode and screen grid from the plate so that the plate exerts very Tittle electrostatic force on electrons near the cathode So long as the plate. voltage is higher than the sereen-grid voltage, plate curcent in a sereen-grid tube de pends to a great degree on the screen arid voltage and very litte on the plate Noltage. ‘The fact that plate current in a sereemgrid tube is largely independ ent of plate voltage makes it possible to. obtain much higher amplification with a tetrode than with a triode. The RCA Recervine TusE MANUAL low gridsplate capacitance makes it possible to obtain this high amplifica- tion without plateo-grid feedback and resultant instability. In receiving-tube applications, the tctrode has been re- placed to a considerable degree by the pentode. Pentodes In all electron tubes, electrons striking the plate may, if moving at sul- ficient speed, dislodge other electrons. Tn two. and three-electrode types, these lislodged electrons usually 40 not cause twouble because no postive electrode other than the plate itself is present 10 Attract them. These electrons, therefore, are drawn back to the plate. Emission caused by bombardment of an electrode by electrons from the cathode is called secondary emission because the effect is secondary t0 the original eathode emis In the case of screen-grid tubes, proximity of the positive screen the plate offers a strong attraction to these secondary electrons, and particu larly so if the plate voltage swings lower than the sereen-grid voltage. This effect reduces the plate current and limits the useful plate-voltage swing for tetrodes. ‘The effects of secondary emission fare minimized when a fifth electrode is Placed within the tube between the Screen grid and plate. ‘This fifth elec- ‘rode is known as the suppressor grid (grid No. 3) and is usually connected {0 the cathode, as shown in Fig. 8. Be- cause of its ‘negative potential with respect to the plate, the suppressor grid retards the flight of secondary electrons and diverts them back to the plateELECTRONS, ELECTRODES AND ELECTRON TUBES 9 ‘The family name for a five-lec- trode tube is “pentode.” In power-out- But pentodes, the suppressor grid makes possible higher power output with lower ridadriving vollage; in radio-frequency Amplifier pentodes, the suppressor grid ‘makes possible high voltage ampliica- tion at moderate values of plate volt- age. “These desirable features result, from the fact that the. plate-voltage swing can be made very large. In fact, the plate voltage may be as. low as, ff lower than, the screen-grid voltage Without serious loss in signal-gain capa- bility. Representative pentodes used for power amplification are the 6CL6 and GK6GT; representative pentodes used for voltage amplification are the 6AU6A, BAG, and 5899. Beam Power Tubes A beam power tube is a tetrode or pentode in Which directed electron beams are used to increase substantially the power-handling capability of the tube. Such a tube. contains a cathode, a control grid (grid No. 1), a screen rid (grid 'No. 2), a plate, and, op- tionally, a suppressor grid (grid No. 2). When a beam power tube is designed without an actual suppressor grid, the 80 spaced that secondary emission from the plate is suppressed by space-charge effects between screen arid and plate, The space charge is produced by the slowing up of electrons fraveling from a high-potential screen grid to a lower-potential plate. In this Tow-velocity region, the space charge duced is suifcient to repel second ry electrons emitted from the plate and 10 cause them to return to’ the plate. ‘Beam power tubes of this design employ beam-confining electrodes at fethode potential to assist in producing the desired beam effects and to prevent stray electrons from the plate from re- turning to the screen grid outside of the ‘beam. A feature of a beam power tube is ts low screen-grid current. The sereen arid and the control grid are spiral wires ‘Wound so that each turn of the sereen rid is shaded from the cathode by a rid turn, This alignment of the sereen ‘grid and control grid causes the elec- trons to travel in sheets between the turns of the sereen grid so that very few of them strike the screen grid Because of the effective suppressor ac: tion provided by space charge and be- cause of the low cirrent drawn by the screen grid, the beam power tube has the advantages of high power output, high power sensitivity, and high eff. ciency. Fig. 9 shows the structure of a beam power tube employing space- charge suppression and illustrates: how showing, beansconfing tion. the electrons are confined to beams. ‘The beam condition ilustrated ie that for a. plate potential Tess than the seteen-grid potential, The high-density space-charge region is indicated by the heavily dashed lines in the beam, Note that the edges of the beam-confining electrodes coincide with the dashed por tion of the beam. In this way the space-charge potential region is ex tended beyond. the beam’ boundaries and stray secondary electrons are pre~ ented from returning to the screen rid outside of the beam. The space- charge effect may also be obtained by tse of an aetual suppressor grid. Ex: amples “of beam power tubes are GAQSA, 6LOGC, 6VEGTA, and SOCS. Multi-Electrode and Multi-Unit Tubes Early in the history of tube devel10 RCA Recervine Tus MANuaL ‘opment and application, tubes were de- Receiving Tube Structure Signed for a general service; that is, @ Single tube type—-a triode—was used as Receiving tubes generally utlize a ‘radio-frequency amplifier, an inter- glass or metal envelope and a base. Imediate-frequency amplifier, an audio. Originally, the base was made of metal frequency amplifier, an oscillator, or a or molded. phenolic material. Types detector. Obviously, with this diversity having a glass envelope and a molded ‘of application, one tube did not meet all phenolic base include the “octal” types Tequirements to the best advantage. Such as the SU4GB and the 6SN7GTB. Tater and present trends of tube Types having a metal envelope and design are the development of “spe- molded phenolic octal base include the Cally” types. These types are Intended GF and the 6L6. Many modern types fither 10 give optimum performance in uilize integral glass bases. Present day {particular application or to combine conventional tube designs utilizing glass jn'one bulb functions which formerly envelopes and integral glass bases in- fequired two or more tubes, The first clude the seven-pin and nine-pin minl- Class of tubes includes such examples ature types, the nine-pin novar and of specialty types as the 6CBGA and neonoval types, and the twelve-pin dao- GBYS. ‘Types of this class generally decar types. Examples of the seven-pin require more than three electrodes {9 miniature types are the 6AUGA and Dbiain the desired special characteristics 6BNG. Examples of the aipe-pin mini- ‘and may be broadly classed as multi ature types afe the IZAUTA and EAB lectrode types, The 6BY6 is an espe. Examples of the novar types are the cially interesting type in this class. 6BH3 and 7868. The nine-pin base for ‘This tube has an unusually large num- the novar types has a relatively large ber of electrodes, namely seven, ex- pin-circle diameter and. long pins (0 clusive of the heater. Plate current in insure firm retention of the tube in its the tube is Varied at two different fre- socket. ‘quencies at the same time, The tube is ‘The muvistor concept provided a designed primarily for use as a com- new approach to electron tube design. bined syne separator and syne clipper Nuvistor tubes utilize a lightweight in television receivers. cantlever-supported cyclindrical_elec- ‘The second class includes multi- twode structure housed in a. ceramic- unit tubes such as the twindiode triodes metal envelope. These tubes, combine ‘6CN7 and AVG, as well s triode-pen- new materials, Processes, and fabrica- fodes such as the 6UBA and 6X8. This Gon technigues.. Examples of the mu- class also includes class A twin triodes Vistor are the 6CW4 and the 6DV4. Such as the 6CG7 and T2AX7A, and types such as the 6CM7 containing dis- Television Picture Tubes Similar triode units used primarily as Combined vertial oscillators and Yer The picture tube, of kinescope, is tical deflection amplifiers In television 4 multrclectove te xed principally receivers. Fullowave rectiits are also jp television receivers for picture dis. smultcunit types. play. It consists essentially Of an clec- ‘A third class of tubes combines fea- tron. gun, a. glass or-metal-andcglass tures of each of the other two classes. envelope and” faceplate “combination, ‘Typical of this third class are the penta- and a fluorescent screen. gridcconverter types GBE6 and 6SA7. ‘The electron gun includes a catn- ‘These tubes are similar to the multi; ode for the production of tree elec- electrode types in that they have seven trons, one or more control electrodes tlectrodes, all of which affect the elec- for “accelerating. the electrons. in the tron stream: and they are similar to the beam, and, optionally, a device for imultiunit tubes in that they perform “tapping™ unwanted. fons. out of the simultaneously the double function of electron, beam. ‘oscillator and miner in superheterodyae Focusing of the beam js accom receivers. plished either electromagnetically byELECTRONS, ELECTRODES AND ELECTRON TUBES 1 means of a focusing coil placed on the neck of the tube, of electrostatically, as shown in Fig. 10, by means of & focusing electrode (grid No. 4) within the envelope of the tube. The sereen is a whiteuorescing phosphor P4 of either the silicate or the sulfide type. Deflection of the beam is accom plished either electrosatically by means of deflecting electrodes within the enve- Tope of the tube, or electromagnetically by means of a deflecting yoke placed fon the neck of the tube. Fig. 10 shows the structure of the gun section of a Picture tube and illustrates how the electron beam is formed and how the beam is deflected by means of an elec tromagnetic deflecting yoke. In this type of tube, ions in the beam are prevented from damaging the fluores: ent screen by an aluminum film on the gun side of the sereen. This film ot only “Wraps” unwanted ions, but also improves picture contrast. In many types of nom-aluminized tubes, ions are separated from the electron beam by meane of a tlted-gun and fon-trap- magnet arrangement. ‘Color television picture tubes are similae to black-and-white picture tubes, but differ in three major ways: (1) The ‘of phosphor dots deposited in an inter- laced pattern. Each dot ofa trio is capa- ble of emitting light in one of the three primary colors (red, green, or blue). (@) A shadow mask mounted near the Screen of the tube contains over 300,- (000 apertures, one for each of the Door Jt trios. Tis mask provides Color separation by shadowing to the’ three phosphor dots of ete tro, (G) Three closely spaced electron guns, built as 2 unit, provide separate beams for excitation of the three different color-phosphor-dot arrays, Thus it is possible to control the brightness of tach of the three colors independently of the other two. Fig. II shows a cut- Away view of a color television picture tube, "The three electron guns are mounted with their axes tilted toward the central axis of the envelope, and are spaced 120 degrees with respect (0 each other, The focusing electrodes of the three guns are interconnected i: ternally, and their potential is adjusted to cause the separate beams to focus at the phosphor-dot screen, All three beams must be made to converge at the screen while they are simultaneously being deflected. Convergence is accom- Uemiting nrcen made opts ped bythe acon a sae and cers | 2 “ aganger A “ WL DEFLECTED ms 4 y ch i = S Gerver) ELECTRON BEAM mows seuss ference ne Fig. 10—Siructure of television picture tube electron un12 dynamic magnetic fields set up by the radial-converging magnet assembly mounted on the neck of the tube. ‘These feds are coupled into the radial- conversing pole pieces within the tube. ‘Another pair of pole pieces in the tube is activated by the lateral-converg: ing magnet also mounted on the neck fof the tube. These pole pieces permit lateral shift in position of ‘the blue ‘beam in opposition to the lateral shift of the green and red beams. RCA RecEIvING TUBE MANUAL A purifying magnet is used with color picture tubes to provide a mag- netic field, adjustable in magnitude and direction, to effect register over the ea- tire area of the screen, A. magnetic Shield is used to minimize the eflects of the earth's magnetic field. Deflection of the three beams is accomplished simultaneously by a de- fleeting yoke using four electromagnetic coils similar to the deflecting yoke used for black-and-white picture tubes. for sexeen Shvace OF ACERT) Fig. 11—Cutaway view of color television pleture tubeElectron Tube Characteristics HE term “characteristics” is used t0 ‘identity the distinguishing electrical features and values of an electron tube. ‘These values may be shown in curve form or they may be tabulated. When the characteristics values are given in curve form, the curves may be used for the determination of tube performance and the calculation of additional tube factors. ‘Tube characteristics are obtained from electrical measurements of a tube in various circuits under certain definite conditions of voltages. Characteristics may be further described by denoting the conditions of measurements. For ‘example, Static Characteristics are the Walues obtained with different de po- tentials applied to the tube electrodes, while Dynamic Characteristics are the Values obtained with an ac vollage control grid under various con tions of de potentials on the electrodes. ‘The dynamic characteristics, therefore, are indicative of the performance capa- Dillties of a tube under actual working conditions Static characteristics may be shown by plate characteristics curves and transfer (mutual) characteristics curves. ‘These curves present the same inform: but in two different forms. to crease its usefulness. The plate char- acteristic curve is obtained by varying plate voltage and measuring plate cur- Tent for different grid-bias "voltages, While the transfer-characteistic curve is obtained by varying grid-bias voltage and measuring plate current for differ ent plate voltages. A plate-characterstic family of eurves is shown in Fig. 12. Fig. 13 gives the transfer-characterstic family of curves for the same tube. 13 Dynamic characteristics include amplification factor, plate resistance, control-grid—plate transconductance, and certain detector characteristics, and ‘may be shown in curve form for varia- tions in tube operating conditions. 7 Fig, 12—Family of plaie-characersies ‘The amplifcation factor, or wis the ratio of the change in plate voltage {oa change in control-lectrode voltage in the opposite direction, under the condition that the plate current remains 4g 7 F | se | Fig. 13—Family of transfercharacteises unchanged and that all other electrode voltages are maintained constant. For example, if, when the plate voltage14 RCA RecEIVING Tuse Manual. is made 1 volt more positive, the con- voltage change of (0.5 volt causes a trol-electrode (grid-No. 1) voltage must plate-current change of 1 milliampere be made 0.1 volt more negative to hold (0.001 ampere), with all other voltages plate current unchanged, the amplifica- constant, the transconductance is 0.001 tion factor is 1 divided by 0.1, or 10. divided by 0.5, or 0.002 mho. A “mho” In other words, 2 small voltage varia- is the unit of conductance and was tion in the grid circuit of a tube has named by spelling ohm backwards. For the same effect on the plate current as convenience, a millionth of a mho, oF ‘2 large plate-voltage change—the Iat- a micromho umbo), is used to express ter equal to the product of the grid. transconductance. ‘Thus, in the exam- voltage change and amplification factor. ple, 0.002 mho is 2000 mieromhos. The y of a tube is often useful for "Conversion transconductance (G.) calculating stage gain. This use is dis- is a characteristic associated with the cussed inthe Electron Tube Applica. miter (first detector) function of tubes ‘ons section, fand may be defined as the quotient of Plate resistance (,) of an electron the intermediate-frequency (if) current tube is the resistance ‘of the path be- in the primary of the if transformer di tween cathode and plate o the flow of vided by the applied radio-frequency alternating current. It is the quotient (¢f) voltage producing it; more pre- ‘of a small change in plate voltage di- cisely, it is the limiting value of this vided by the corresponding change in quotient as the rf voltage and if current plate current and is expressed in ohms, approach zero. When the performance the unit of resistance. Thus, if a change of a frequency converter is determined, ‘of 0.1 milliampere (0.0001 ampere) is conversion transconductance is used in produced by a plate-voltage variation of the same way as control. gridto-plate T volt, the plate resistance is 1 divided transconductance is used in single fre- bby 0.0001, o 10000 ohms. ‘quency amplifier computations. Control grid-to-plate transeonduct- ‘The plate efficiency of a power am- tance, or simply transconductance (gr), Plier tube is the ratio of the ac power is'a factor which combines in one term output (P.) to the product of the-aver- the amplification factor and the plate age de plate voltage (Ey) and de plate resistance, and is the quotient of the current (I) at full signal, or frst divided by the second, This term bas also been known as mutual conduct ance. Transconductance may be more SMritly defined asthe quotient of asmall_ The power sensitivity of a tube is change in plate current (amperes) di- the ratio of the power output to the Vided by the small change in the con. square of the input signal voltage (Eu), trol-grid. voltage. producing it, under and is expressed in mhos as follows: the ‘condition that all other voltages femain unchanged. ‘Thus, if a grid- POW semsivky (mos) = gee TE Plate eicieney ___P. yan ebampea *116 Electron Tube Applications TPE, nerfed aprcation ofan aun siga og lev ec! pro ‘electron receiving tube have, within duce the desired volume in a speaker. the scope of this section, been ‘treated In addition, the receiver usually includes under seven headings: Rectification; some means of producing automatic Detection; Amplification; TV Scanning, gain control (age) of the modulated Syne, and Deflection; Oscillation: Fre- signal before the audio information is ‘quency Conversion; and Tuning Indica- separated from the carrier. tion with Electron-Ray Tubes. Although ‘The transmitted rf signal picked up these operations may take place at by the radio receiver may’ contain either either radio or audio frequencies and amplitude modulation (AM) or fre- may involve the use of different cir- quency modulation (FM). (These mod- cuits and different supplemental parts, lation techniques are described ater the general considerations of each kind in the section on Detection) In either ‘of operation are basic case, amplification prior to the detector stage_is performed by tuned amplifier General System Functions circuits designed for the proper fre- When speech, music, or video in- quency and bandwidth. Frequency con- formation is transmitted from a radio Version is performed by mixer and fof television station, the station radiates oscillator circuits or by a single con- modulated radio-frequency (ef) car- verter stage which performs both mixer Tier. The function of 2 radio or tele- and oscillator functions. Separation of Vision receiver is simply 10 reproduce the modulating signal is normally ac- the modulating wave from the modu- complished by one or more diodes in lated carer. f detector or diseriminator eieuit. Am- ‘As shown in Fig. 14, superhetero: plification of the audio signal is then dyne radio receiver picks up the trans- performed by one or more audio am- mitted modulated rf signal, amplifies it plifir stages. find converts it to a modulated inter- _ Audio-amplifier systems for phono- mediate frequency (if) signal, amplifies graph or tape recordings are similar to the modulated if signal, separates the the stages. after detection in a radio ‘modulating signal from the basic car- receiver. The input to the amplifier is a Fler wave, and amplifies the resulting low-power-level audio signal from the Cre. ee Hoo Fig. 14 Simplified block diagram for @ broadeast.band receiver.16 RCA Recervine Tusz MANUAL ‘phonograph or magnetictape pickup and thus controls instantaneous “spot” head. This signal is usually amplifed —brightoess. At the same time, deflection ‘through a. preamplifier stage, one or circuits cause the electron beam of the ‘more low-level (pre-driver or driver) picture tube to move the “spot” across audio stages, and an audio power am- the faceplate horizontally and vertically. plifler. The system may also include Special “sync” signals. derived from frequency-selective circuits which act the video signal assure that the hor 1s equalization networks and/or tone zontal and vertical scanning are timed controls. ‘80 that the picture produced on the re- ‘The operation of a television re- ceiver exactly duplicates the picture ceiver is mote complex than that of being viewed by the camera or pickup a radio receiver, as shown by the sim- tube. plified block diagram in Fig. 15. The A communications transceiver con- tuner section of the receiver selects the ting transmitting. circuits, as well as proper rf signals for the desired channel receiving circuits similar to those of a frequency, amplifies them, and converts radio receiver. The transmitter portion them to-a lower intermediate frequency. of such zm —l Fig. 15—Simplifed block diagram for a Black-and-white television receiver ‘As in a radio receiver, these functions In one section, the desired intelligence fare accomplished in rfampliir, mixer, (Voice, code, or the like) is picked up and local-oscllator stages. The if sig: and amplified through one ‘or more nal is then amplified in if-amplifier amplifier stages (which are usually cor Sages which provide the additional mon to the receiver portion) 0 a high= agin required 10 bring the signal level level stage called a modulator. In the {to an amplitude suitable for detection, other section, an rf signal of the desired ‘After if amplification, the detected frequency is developed in an oscillator signal is separated into sound and pic- stage and amplified in one or more ture information. The sound signal is rf-amplifer stages, The audio-frequency amplified and processed to provide an (af) modulating signal is impressed on audio signal which is fed to an audio the rf carrier in the final c-power- amplifier system similar to those de- amplifier stage (high-level modulation), setibed above. The picture (video) sig- in the rf low-lovel stage (Low-level mod. zal is passed through a Video amplifier ulation), or in both. Fig. 16 shows a stage which conveys beam-intensity in- simplified block diagram of the trans formation to the television picture tube milter portion of a eitizens-band trans.ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS iv origin [3% Hine} Fig. 16—Simplifed block diagram for the transmitter portion of a 27-SHle communi- ‘cavions receiver. ceiver that operates at a foequency of increase rectier efficiency. The action 37 Mita (megacyeies per second). ‘The of the fier is explained inthe Electron iramsmiting section of a communica: Tube Indallaon secuon under Filters, tions system may. also include fre- The. voltage divider is Used. 10. cit Guency-mulipir ‘crete which raise down the ouput volage to the values the frequency of the developed rf signal required by the plates and the other as required. lestrodes of the fubes in the receiver, Rectification ‘A hallowave rect ‘and a fall: The rectifying action of a diode Wa"8 retifer crcut are shown in Fig. finds important applications in supply- * xe t-wave circuit, current ing receiver with de power trom an aceon pcr ‘ac line and in supplying high de voltage wolage. Pulse. A. typical ftrangement for converting ac to de in Glades a ectifer tube, after, and a oa oie oltage divider. The teeifying action = = Of the tube i explained briefly under ; Diodes in the Electrons, Electrodes and Electron. Tobes section. High: woltage pulse rectification is described Inter under Horizontal Output Creu ascwove necrren The function of after its smooth out the ripple of the tube out. pit, as indicated in Pig. 17, and 10 ODD tay et arr reer TT Pec ‘te flows through the rectifier tube to the WAV AVAVAVAYAN eee filter on every other half-cycle of the ac ol nists input voltage when the plate is postive with respect to the cathode. Io the full [TTR Wave circuit, curret flows to the fer d ‘SHEA Gn every haliceyele, through plate No. eg vance 00 one half-cycle when plate No. 1 is a BEES postive with respect to. the cathode, rnd through plate No. 2 on the next Fig. 17—Voliaze waveforms of jll-wave halt-yele when plate No. 2 is positive ‘ecier circu. With respect 10 the cathode,18 RCA RECEIVING TuBE Manual Because the current flow to the The action of a voltage doubler fier is more uniform in the full-wave can be described briefly as follows. On circuit than in the half-wave circuit, the positive half-cycle of the ac input, the output of the full-wave circuit re: that is, when the Upper side of the ac quires less filtering. Rectifier operating input line is positive with respect 10 information and circuits are given under the lower side, the upper diode passes ‘each rectifier tube type and in the current and feeds’ a” positive charge Circuits section, respectively. into the upper capacitor. As positive Parallel operation of rectifier tubes charge accumulates on the upper furnishes an output current greater than plate of the capacitor, a positive volt- that obtainable with the use of one age builds up across the capacitor. On lube. For example, when two full- the next halfcycle of the ac_ input ‘wave rectifer tubes are connected in when the upper side of the line is ‘parallel, the plates of each tube are negative with respect to the lower side Connected together and each tube acts the lower diode passes current so that fas a half-wave rectifier. The permis- sible voltage and load conditions per tube are the same at for full-wave service but the total load-handling capa. $0 = bility of the complete rectifier is ap- "SA # proximately doubled. of ‘When mercury-vapor rectifier tubes = are connected in parallel, a stabilizing “8 resistor of 50 to 100 ohms should be vse are rue eee eel ch Be ree -Panee vedere eT ee re ee uaptae pone 2 gal haf ees, Te SUS ez vag Bi up acs the fon the amount of plate current that ‘So long as no current is drawn at Passes through the rectifier. Low the output rmoals fom the capacitor, ct weutes aig value hgh jot mia om the arc plate current, @ low value. When the Se of magnitude E, the peak value of Plates of metcury-vapor fectifier tubes the ac input Tt can be seen from the Blas of mefpamy ier hese as Ip rans ann fm the ina ie actin Havens ay Ye oc spopbee nme bas sont fe Sine one capac an Ean te te Se, SAP athe aced 59a wlage ay te, cc ‘and larger stabilizing resistors will be noJoad de output voltage twice as required. large as the peak ac input voltage. Two or more vacuum rectifier When current is drawn at the output tubes can also be connected in parallel terminals by the load, the output vol to give correspondingly higher output age drops below 2E by an amount that current and, as a result of paralleling depends on the magnitude of the load arama recince ee somt SSee nh, mamul o h ad Sos Ines eiae oda, Sm smh, cmetans, tte vacuum types, stabilizing resistors may Fig. 19 is called a full-wave voltage or may not be necessary depending on doubler because each rectifier passes the tube type and the circuit, teurrent to the load on each halt of the ‘A voltage-doubler circuit of simple ac input cycle. form is shown in Fig. 19. The circuit Two rectifier types especially de- derives its name from the fact that its signed for use as voltage doublers are de voltage output can be as high as the 25Z6GT and 117Z6GT. These tubes, twice the peak value of ac input. Basic- combine two separate diodes in one ally, a voltage doubler is a rectifier cir- tube. AS voltage doublers, the tubes are cuit arranged so that the output voltages used in “transformeries receivers. In of two half-wave rectifiers are in series. these receivers, the heaters ofall tubesELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS 19 L AL ; Fig. 20--Fullwave and half-wave voliagedoubler eivuits showing heaterupply in ithe set are connected in series with a Detection voltage dropping restr aren the ine Oe vide tn ‘he’ oanecdons for the eater SUPDIY form yen eh, musi, oF vide, and) the voltagedoubling circuit ae Or elevinion station, the station radiates shown in Fig. 20. ‘ a ‘With the fll-wave voltageoubler 8, "adie-fequency (ef) wave which is circuit in Fig. 20, it will be noted that ee Or we eeneral types. In one the de load circuit can not be connected {YPEs the wave is said to be amplitude the load circuit can nor be connected dulted when fs frequency remains we around or one side of th a tPPlY Sonstantand the ample varie Advantages when the heaters ofa the 12 he other (ype, the wave tubes in the set are connected in series {0 frequency modulated when its tubes in the set are connected in serif tinge remains teeny constant cesistence oe line. but its frequency is varied. Such a cuit arrangement may cause he ction of the rosiver isto reproduce the orginal modulating Wave Setween the eaters and cathodes ofthe Fine modulated wave, The 3 ceiver stage in whic this funetion is cuit mfg cect eS Reem cle he dened or bby making one side of the ac line com- _Setector stage. mon with the negative side of the de ‘AM Detection Toad circuit. In this circuit, one half of The effect of amplitude modul the tube is used to charge a capacitor tion on the waveform of the rf wave is whieh, on the following half cycle, dis- shown in Fig. 21. There are three differ. charges in series with the line voltage ent basic circuits used for the detection through the other half of the tube. of amplitude-modulated waves: the di- This citcuiti¢ called a half-wave volt- ode detector, the grid-bas detector, and age doubler because rectified current the grid-resistor detector. These citui flows 10 the load only on alternate are alike in that they eliminate, either halves of the ac input cycle. The volt- partially or completely, alternate half ‘age regulation of this arrangement is cycles of the sf wave. With alternate Somewhat poorer than that of the full- half-eycles removed, the audio varia tions of the other ii, ‘ean be ie Fig, 21—Waveforms showing efect of amplitude modulation on an rf wave.20 RCA REcEIvine TUBE MANUAL amplified to drive headphones ora loud- circuit the rf component of the voltage ‘cross the capacitor is negligible. Hence, When the voltage across the capacitor is amplified, the output of the amplifier reproduces the speech or music originat- ing at the transmitting station. ‘Another way to describe the action of a diode detector is 0 consider the circuit as a. half-wave rectifier. When the rf signal on the plate swings posi te the te conduc and the fsied current flows through the load resistance ig, 22—Basie dode-detcior leat. $uTent Hos through the lod resistance itustated by Fig. 23. The rf voltage rectifer depends on the voltage of the applied to the circuit is shown in light Se iaput, the de" voltage across C line; the output voltage across capacitor varies in accordance with the amplitude Cis shown in heavy line. fof the rf carrier and thos reproduces Between points (a) and (b) on the the af signal. Capacitor C should be first postive hal-cycle of the applied rf large enough to smooth out xf or if voltage, capacitor C charges up to the variations, but should not be 30 large ‘eak value of the rf voltage. Then as as to affect the audio variations. Two the applied rf voltage falls away from Giodes can be connected in a circuit iis peak value, the capacitor holds the similar to a fullwave rectifer to pro- cathode at potential more positive vide follwave detection. However, in to the anode. practice, the advantages of this con- ection” generally do. not justify the ‘extra circuit complication. “The diode method of detection produces ‘less. distorion than other ‘methods because the dyaami character istics of 4 diode can be made more Hinear than those ‘of other detectors. Fis, 23—Waveforms showing modulated rf ‘The disadvantages of a diode are that Input (ight line) and output voltage (heey jt does not amplify the signal, and that Hine) of diode-detector cir. it draws current from the input circuit ‘The capacitor thus temporarily euts off and therefore reduces the selectivity of, cirrent through the diode. While the the input circuit. However, because the Siode current is cut off, the capacitor diode method of detection produces less discharges from (b) to (@) through the distortion and because it permits the fiode foad resistor R. tse of simple ave circuits without the "When the rf voliage on the anode necessity for an addtional voltage sup- rises high enough to exceed the potential ply, the diode method of detection is At which the capacitor holds the cath- most widely used in broadcast receivers. foe, current ows again and the capaci- A. typical diode-detector_citcuit {or charges up to the peak Value of the using a twineiode—triode tube is showa second positive half-yele at (8). In this in Fig. 24. Both diodes are connected Way, the vollage across the capacitor together. Ra is the diode load resistor. follows the peak value of the applied rf A'portion of the af voltage developed voltage and reproduces the af modu- across this resistor is applied to the lation. triode grid through the volume control ‘The curve for voltage across the Rs In a typical circuit resistor R, may capacitor, a8 shown in Fig. 23,8 some: be tapped so. that esixths of the What jagged. However, this jaggedness, total af voltage across Rs is applied to Which represents an rf component in the volume control. This tapped con- the voltage across” the capacitor. is nection reduces the af voltage output fexaggeratod inthe drawing. Inan actual of the detector circuit slighty, but itELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS Fig. 24—Typleal diode detector circuit ting avin diode—iriode tube. reduces audio distortion and improves the rf filtering. DC bias for the triode section is provided by the cathode-bias resistor Re and the audio bypass capacitor C.. The function of capacitor Cy isto block the de bias of the cathode from the grid. The function of capacitor Ce is to by- pass any rf voltage on the grid to cath- tue, A twin-diode—pentoe may aso be ‘sed in'this circuit. coupled rather than transformer-cou- pled. ‘Another diode-detector circuit, called @ diode-biased cireut, is shown in Fig. 25. In this circuit, the triode grid Fig. 25—Diode-based detector circu. js connected directly to a tap on the diode load resistor. When an rf signal voltage is applied to the diode, the de voltage at the tap supplies bias to the triode grid. When the rf signal is modu- lated, the af voltage atthe tap is 2p to the grid and is amplifed by the triode. ‘The advantage of the circuit shown in Fig. 25 over the self-biased arrange- ment shown in Fig. 24. is that the ‘ode-biased circuit does not employ & capacitor between the grid and the diode load resistor, and. consequently ‘does not produce as much distortion of 2 Slenal having’ high percentage of However, there are restrictions on the use of the diode-biased circuit. Be 21 cause the bias voltage on the triode de- pends on the average amplitude of the Ff voltage applied to the diode, the average amplitude of the voltage ap- plied to the diode should be constant for all values of signal strength at the antenna. Otherwise there will be dilfer- tent values of bias on the triode grid for different signal strengths and the triode will produce distortion, Because there is no bias applied 10 the diode biased triode when no rf voltage. is applied to the diode, sufficient resist- ance should be included in the plate cirevit of the triode to limit its zero- bias plate current to a safe value. ‘These restrictions mean, in’ prac- tice, that, the receiver should have a separate-channel automatic-votume-con- {rol (ave) system. With such an ave system, the average amplitude of the signal voltage applied to the diode can be held within very close limits for all values of signal strength at the antenna, "The tube used in a diode-biased circuit should be one which operates at a fairly large value of bias voltage. The variations in bias voltage are then a small percentage of the total bias and hhence produce small distortion. Tubes taking @ fairly large bias voltage are types such as the GBF6 or 6SR7 having 4 medium-mu triode. Tube types having 4 bigh-mu triode or a pentode should rot be used in a diode-biased circuit A grid-bias detector circuit is shown in Fig. 26, In this circuit, the arid is biased almost 10 cutoff, ie, operated so that the plate current with 2210 signal is practically zero. The voltage can be obtained from a cathode: bias resistor, a C-battery, or a bleeder tap. Because of the high negative bias, only the positive half-eycles of the rf signal are’ amplified by the tube. The signal “is, therefore, detected in the “T")22 RCA REcervinc TuBE MANUAL cece Sul desir oor care fom THT Tedver ie scleunty of he input csoenatee A evans Son “The gi-resitor-and-capneltor methods fused in ig 2, some: whee more seoive Ue the pris Tiettod ned’ ives: hs bet rails on weak signals. In this circuit, there is no. “ we Teetive de bias volage aplid tothe grid. Hence, on the postive half-eycles lg mm Sth ef sgnal, curren ows from grid | \ to cathode, The grid and cathode thus 1 ii Sea's dots devon witras ef Vy fetbtor asthe dlode load tetor tnd esr 8 te diode fold rer ABs eoyacreucu.ao oF met padtor- Tie volage ates the capac, P24 Wanloms sowing fet of itor then juces the af modulation reguency modulation on an 1} wave. ior then reproduces the af modulation io an amount tht is determined Jn the same manner as as been OF te trang and proportional Plained for the diode detector This 1) the amplitude of the af modulation cathode and is therefore amplified in Signal. a a Yor this type of modulation, a de een tector is roquied to docrimiete be. = tween deviations above and below the fiaan dremuency and to tneslte those ction Int’ wltage whose amp tide vanes at audio hequetees Since the deviations ear at an aio fe Alene the prosc eane ot Smet: Gnd the dopre of Requeney devi tio’ determine the ample. of the : ‘demodulated (a voltage. Fig. 27—Detector circuit using grid-restor-"~"”¥ simple circuit for converting fre- ‘and capacitor bis. quency variations to amplitude vara. the plate circuit. The output voltage tions is @ circuit which is tuned so that thus reproduces the original af signal. the mean radio frequency is on one In this detector circuit, the use of slope of its resonance characteristic, as a high-resistance grid resistor increases at A of Fig. 29. With modulation, the Selectivity and sensitivity. However, proved af response and stability are ob- tained with lower Values of grid-circuit resistance, This detector circuit ampli- fies the signal, but draws current from the input circuit and therefore reduces the selectivity of the input circuit. FM Detection ‘The effect of frequency modulation ‘on the waveform of the Hf wave is shown in Fig. 28, In this type of trans ‘mission, the frequency of the rf Wave Fig. 20—Resonance'Gurve showing desired deviates from a mean value, at an audio- gperating range for frequency modulation frequency rate depending on the modu- converter.ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS & Re Fig. 30—Balanced phase-sift discriminator ereut frequency swings between B and C, and the voltage developed across the circuit varies at the modulating rate. In order that no distortion will be introduced in this circuit, the frequency swing must be restricted to the portion of the slope which is effectively straight. Since this portion is very short, the voltage de- ‘eloped is low. Because of these limita- tions, this eieuit is not commonly used but it serves t0 illustrate the principle. ‘The faults of the simple ciruit are overcome in a push-pull arrangement, such as that shown in Fig. 30, called Dalanced phaseshift discriminator. In this detector, the mutually coupled luned cizeuits in the primary and sec- ondary windings of the transformer T are tuned to the center frequency. A Characteristic of a double-tuned trans- former is that the voltages inthe primary and secondary windings are 90 degrees fut of phase at resonance, and that the hase shift changes as the frequency hanges from resonance. Therefore, the Signal applied to the diodes and the RC combinations for peak detection also changes with frequency. Because the secondary winding of the transformer T is center-tapped, the applied primary voltage E, is added to one-half the secondary ‘voltage Fe through the capacitor C,. The addition fof these vollages at resonance can be represented by the diagram in Fig. 31(a); the resultant voltage E) is the signal applied 10 one peakdetector network consisting of one diode and its RC load. When the signal frequency decreases (from resonance), the phase shift of E,/2 becomes greater than 90 degrees, ‘a shown at (®) in Fig. 31, and Es be ‘comes smaller. When the signal tre- ‘quency increases (above resonance), the Phase shift of Es/2 is less than 90) de- srees as shown at (c), and E, becomes tsa] wo @ Fig, 31—Diagram illustrating phase shift ‘bn doublestumed transformer (a) at re2o- nance, (0) Below resonance, and (c) abose larger. The curve of Eas a function of frequency in Fig. 32 is readily identified as the response curve of an FM detector. Fig. 32—Diagram showing resultant volt- ‘age En Fg. 31 as a function of Frequency. ‘hecause’ the diser:minatar circuit shown in Fig. 30 uses push-pull con- figuration, the diodes conduct on alter- nate half-eycles of the signal frequency and produce a plus-and-minus output with Tespest to zero rather than with24 RCA Recervine Tuse MANUAL respect to E,. The primary advantage placed “back-to-back” (in serie, rather Of this arrangement {is that there is no than in push-pull) so that both halves ‘output at resonance. When an FM sig- of the circuit operate simultaneously ral is applied 10 the input, the audio during one-half of the signal frequency ‘output voltage varies above’ and below cycle (and are cut off on the other half zer0 asthe instantaneous frequency cycle). As a result, the detected voltages varies above and below resonance. The; and Ey are in series, as shown for Frequency of this audio voltage is de- the instantaneous polarities that occur termined by the modulation frequency during the conduction half-eyele. When of the FM signal, and the amplitude of the audio output is taken between the voltage i proportional 10 the ffe- the equal capacitors C, and C, there- quency excursion from resonance. (The fore, the output voltage is equal to resistor Re in the circuit provides a de (Ea—E,)/2 (for equal resistors Rs and return for the diodes, and also maintains Rs) 4 load impedance across the primary The de circuit ofthe ratio detector Winding of the transformer.) consists ofa path through the secondary One disadvantage of the balanced winding of the transformer, both diodes phase-shift discriminator shown in Fig. (which are in series), and resistors Ry 30 is that it detects audio modulation and R,. ‘The value of the electrolytic (AM) as well as frequency modvlation capacitor C, is selected so that the time (EM) in the if signal because the cit- constant of Riy Ra and Cs is very Tong cuit is balanced only at the center fre: compared to the detected audio signal quency. At frequencies off resonance, As a result, the sum of the detected any variation in amplitude of the if voltages (Es + E>) is a constant and the signal is reproduced to some extent in AM components onthe signal frequency the audio output. are suppressed, This feature of the ratio ‘The ratio-detector circuit shown in detector provides improved AM rejec- Fig, 33 is a discriminator eireuit which tion as compared to. the phase-shift hnas'the advantage of being relatively discriminator circuit shovn in Fig. 30. Pt esheets EB (SE) B+ + Fig 31—Ratodttor ee Insensive to. ample varieions in iicati the FM signal. In this circuit, Ey is Amplification {ed to"Ey/3 through the ‘tual The amplifying aston of an lec coupling My (this voltage addition may tron tube was mentioned under Triodes be made by either mutual or capacitive in the section on Electrons, Electrodes, coupling). Because of the phase-shift and Eleetron Tubes. This action can relationship of these voltages, the re- be utilized in electronic circuits in a Sultant detected signals vary with fre number of ways, depending upon the ‘quency variations in the same manner results desired. Four classes of am- as described for the phase-hiftdiscrimi- plier service recognized by engineers nator circuit showa in Fig. 30. However, are covered by definitions standardized the diodes in the ratio detector are by the Institute of Electrical andELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS Electronics Engineers. This classiica- tion depends primarily on the fraction of input eycle during, which plate cur- Tent is expected to flow under rated fulkload’ conditions, The classes are class A, class AB, class B, and class C. ‘The term “"eutofl bias” used in. these definitions is the value of grid biss at ‘which plate current is very’ sma approaches zer0). Classes of Ser A class A amplifier is an amplifier in which the grid ‘bias and alternating arid voltages are such that plate current ina specific tube fows at all times ‘Aclass AB amplifier is an ampli- fier in whieh the grid bias and alter- rating grid voltages are such that plate current in a specific tube flows for ap- preciably more than half but less than the entire electrical cycle, ‘A class B amplifier is an amplifier in which the grid bias is approximately equal {0 the eUtoff value, so that the plate current. is approximately 2er0 When no exciting grid voltage is applied, and so that plate current in a specific tube flows for approximately one-half of each cycle when an alternating grid voltage is applied. "A class C amplifier is an amplifier in which the grid’ bias is appreciably Breater than the cutoff value, so that the plate current in each tube is zero when fo alternating grid voltage is applied, and. so that plate current flows in a specific tube for appreciably less than ‘one-half of each eycle when an alter rating grid voltage is applied. “The suffix I'may be added to the letter or letters of the class identifica: tion 10 denote that grid current does not flow during any part of the input eycle. ‘The sufix 2 may be used to denote that grid current flows: during part of the cycle. For radio-frequency (r0) amplifiers which operate into a selective tuned circuit, as in radio transmitter applica tions, oF under requirements where dis: tortion is not an important factor, any fof the above classes of amplifiers may be used, either with a single tube or with a push-pull stage, For audio frequency (af) amplifiers in which dis- 25 tortion is an important factor, only class A’ amplifiers permit single-tube operation. In this case, operating con: ditions are usually chosen so that dis tortion is kept befow the conventional 5 per cent for triodes and the con- vertional 7 19 10 per cent for tetrodes OF pentodes. Distortion can be reduced below these figures by means of special circuit arrangements such as that dis- cussed “under averse feedback. With class A amplifiers, reduced distortion ‘with improved power performance can be obtained by using 2 push-pull stage for audio service. With class AB and clase B amplifies, a balanced stage using two tubes is required for audio Class A Voltage Amplifiers As a class A voltage amplifier, an lectvon tube is used to reproduce grid voltage variations across an impedance ot a resistance in the plate circuit, ‘These variations are essentially of the same form as the input signal voltage impressed on the grid, but their am- plitude is increased. This increase is ‘accomplished by operation of the tube at a suitable grid bias ‘so that. the Applied grid input voltage produces plate-current variations proportional 10 the signal swings. Because the voltage variation obtained in the plate circuit is much larger than that required 0 ‘swing. the grid, amplification of the signal is obiained. Fig. 34 gives a graphical illustra. tion of this method of amplication and shows, by means of the grid-voltage vs, Plate-current characteristics curve, the effect of an input signal (S) applied to Fig. 34—Current characterises of elas A ‘amplifier.26 RCA Recervine Tuse MANUAL the grid of a tube. The output signal (O) From the curve it can be seen that a js the resulting amplified plate-current high value of load resistance should be variation used t0 obtain high gain in a voltage "The plate current flowing through amplifier. the load resistance (R) of Fig. 35 ‘In & resistance-coupledamplifer, ‘causes a voltage drop which varies di- dhe Joad resistance of the tube is ap- rectly with the plate current. The ratio proximately equal 10 the resistance of of this voltage variation produced in the the plate resistor in parallel with the Toad resistance to the input signal volt- grid resistor of the following. stage. Hence, to obtain a large value of load resistance, it is necessary to use a plate resistor and a grid resistor of large resistance. However, the plate resistor should not be too large because the flow of plate current through the plate resistor produces a voltage drop which reduces the plate voltage applied to the tube. If the plate resistor 15 t00 la this drop will be too large, the voltage on the tube will be too small. age is the voltage amplification, or gala, and the voltage output of the tube will provided by the tube. The voltage am- be 100. small. Also, the grid resistor plification due to the tube is expressed of the following stage should ot be by the following convenient formulas: foo large, the actual maximum value Fig, 35—Triode ampliferciruit Vohtage amptiscation = #28 being dependent on the particular tube re type. This precaution is necessary ber oe tm X te X Re cause all tubes contain minute amounts F000 XC + RD ff residual gas which cause @ minute where a is the amplification factor of low of current through the grid resistor, the tube, Ry is the load resistance in Ifthe grid resistor is too large, the po ‘ohms, ris the plate resistance in ohms, ve bias developed by the flow of this fand ge is the transconductance in cUrrent through the resistor decreases ‘micromhos, the normal negative bias and produces From the first formula, it can be 8M increase in the plate current. This seen that the gain actually obtainable increased current may overheat the tube from the tube is Jess than the tube snd cause liberation of more gas which, Emplitcation factor, but that the gain in turn, will cause further decrease in Approaches the amplification factor bias. The action is cumulative and re- ‘when the load resistance is large com- sults ia a runaway condition which ean pared 10 the tube plate resistance, Fig, destroy the tube, 56 shows graphically how the gain ap: A higher value of grid resistance proaches the amplification factor of the is permissible when cathode-resistor bias tube as the load resistance is increased. is used than when fixed bias is used { | Fis, 36-~Gain curve for trode amplifier circuit,ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS When cathode-resisior bias is used, = Toss in bias due to gas or grid-emission effects is almost completely offset by an increase in bias due to the voltage drop across the cathode resistor. Typical val ties of plate resistor and grid. resistor {or tube types used in resistance-coupled circuits, and the values of gain obtain fble, are shown in the “Resistance Coupled Amplier section. "The input impedance of an elec: tron tube (that is, the impedance. be- tween grid and cathode) ‘consists of (2 reactive component due to the capacitance between grid and cathode, (@). resistive component resulting from the time of transit of electrons between cathode and grid, and (3) a resistive component developed by the part of the cathode lead inductance whieh is common to both the input and output circuits. These components are de- pendent on the frequency of the in- coming signal. The input impedance is very high at audio frequencies when tube is operated with its grid biased negative. Ina class A, or ABs tra former-coupled audio amplifier, the fore, the loading imposed by the grid fon the input transformer is negligible. ‘As a result, the secondary impedance of a class A; or class AB, input trans- former can be made very high because the choice is not limited by the input impedance of the tube; however, trans ermer desig considerations may limit the choice, ‘At the higher radio frequencies, the input impedance may become very low even when the grid is negative, due to the fsite time of passage of clec- trons between cathode and grid and 10 the appreciable lead. reactance. This impedance drops very rapidly as the frequency i rased, and increases Input- circuit Toading. Tn’ fact, the input im pedance may. become low enough at very high radio frequencies to affect the gain and selectivity of a preceding stage appreciably. Tubes such as the acorn” and "pencil" types and. the high-frequency “miniatures have. been developed to have low input capac ltanees, low electron-transit time, and low lead inductance so that their input impedance is high even at the ultra: 27 sh radio frequencies, Toput ad mittanee is the reciprocal of input impedance. ‘A remote-cutoft amplifier tube is a modifled construction of a. pentode for a tetrode type designed to reduce ‘modulation-distortion and. cross-modur lation in radio-frequency stages. Cross: modulation is the effect produced in a radio or television receiver by an ine terfering station “riding through” on the carrier of the station to which the receiver is tuned, Modulation-distor js a distortion of the modulated carrier and appears as audio-trequeney distor- tion inthe output. This effect is pro- duced. by 2 radio-frequency amplifier slage operating on an excessively curved characteristic when the grid. bias has been increased to reduce volume. The offending stage for cross modulation is usually the first radiofrequency am- plifir, while for modulation-distortion the cause is usually the last interme: iate-frequency. stage. “The character. istics of remotecutoll types are such as to enable them t0 handle both large nd small input signals with minimum distortion over a wide cange of signal strength, "Fig. 37 illustrates the construction of the grid No. + (control remote-cutof! tube. The remote-cutoll ungated agen Fig, 37—Siructure of remotecutol) grid ‘ction is due to the structure of the grid ‘which provides a variation in ampliica- tion factor with change in grid bias. The ‘rid No. 1 is wound with open spacing at the middle and with close spacing ft the ends. When weak signals and low grid bias are applied to the tube, the effect of the non-uniform tura spac ing of the grid on cathode emission and tube characteristics is. essentially the same as for uniform spacing. AS the28 RCA Recevine Tuse Manual rid bias is made more negative to tubes designed for power amplifier serv- handle larger input signals, the electron ie have certain inherent features for flow from the sections of the cathode cach structure. Power tubes of the enclosed by the ends of the grid is iode type for class A service are ‘cut off. The plate current and other characterized by low power sensitivity, tube characteristics are then dependent low plate-power effcieney, and low dis. fon the electron flow through the open tortion, Power tubes of the pentode section of the grid. This action changes type are characterized by high power the gain of the tube so that large sensitivity, high plate-power efficiency signals may be handled with minimum and, usually, somewhat higher distor- distortion due to crose-modulation and tion than class A triodes, Beam power ‘modulation-distortion. tubes have higher power sensitivity and Fig. 38 shows © typical plate-cur- efficiency than triode or conventional rent vs. grid-voltage curve for a remote- pentode types. fculof! type compared with the curve A class A power amplifier is also used as a driver to supply power to a class AB, of a class B stage. It is tsually advisable to use a triode, rather than @ pentode, in @ driver stage be- cause of the lower plate impedance of the triode. Power tubes connected in cither parallel or push-pull may be employed 2s class A amplifiers to obtain increased ad ‘output. The parallel connection (Fig. 39). provides "twice the output of Single tube with the same value of grid- signal voltage. With this. connection, the effective transconductance of the {or a type having a uniformly spaced stage is doubled, and the elective plate grid. It will be noted that while the Curves are similar at small. grid-bias voltages, the plate current of the re mote-cuioff tube drops quite slowly with large values of bias voltage. This Slow change makes it possible for the tube to handle large signals. satisfac tory. Because remote-cutof! types can accommodate large and small signals, they are particularly suitable for use in sets having automatic volume con- Rome nen trol. Remote-cuiof’ tubes also are . Fig. 39—Power amplifier with tubes Known at variable-me types. seme malin il Fig, 28—Plate-current curves for triodes having remoiecutod) and uniformly spaced ‘rida Class A Power Amplifiers resistance and the load resistance re- ‘Asa class A power amplifier, an quired are halved as compared with electron tube is used in the output stage single-tube valves fof a radio or television receiver to sup- ‘The push-pull connection (Fig. 40), ply a relatively large amount of power although it requires twice the gri fo the loudspeaker. For this applica signal voltage, provides inereased power tion, large power output is of more and has other important advantages portance than high voltage amplifiea. over single-tube operation. Distortion tion; therefore, gain possibilities are caused by ever-order harmonics and sacrificed in the design of power tubes hum caused by plate-voltage-supply to obtain power-handling capability. fluctuations are either eliminated oF ‘Triodes, pentodes, and beam power decidedly reduced through cancellationELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS Because distortion for push-pull ope tion is Tess than for single-tube oper tion, appreciably more than twice single-tube output can be obtained with triodes by decreasing the Toad resist. lance for the stage to.a value approach: ing the load resistance for a single tube. For either parallel or push-pull class A operation of two tubes, allele: trode currents are doubled while all de clectrode voltages remain the same as for single-tube operation, If a cathode resistor is used, its value should be ‘about one-half that for a single tube. Fig. 40—Power amplifer with tubes “connected in ps: pull If oscillations oceur with either type of connection, they can often be elimi fated by the use of a non-inductive Fesistor “of approximately 100 ohms ‘connected in series with each grid at the socket terminal. ‘Operation of power tubes so that the grids run positive is. inadvisable ‘except under conditions such as those ‘iseussed in this section for class AB fand class B amplifiers. Power-Output Calculations Calculation of the power output of a triode used as a class A amplifier with sither an output transformer or a choke having low de resistance can be made 29 ‘without serious error from the plate family of curves by assuming a resist- ance load. The proper plate current, ‘rid bias, optimum load resistance, and Per-cent second-harmonic distortion can so be determined. The calculations are made graphically and are illustrated Fig. 41 for given conditions. The pro- cedure is as follows: (1) Locate the zero-signal bias point P by determining the 2ero-signal bias Bc. from the formula’ erosional bas (Bee) = —(068 X Ea) where Es isthe chosen value in volts of de plate voltage at which the tube is to be operated, and y is the amplification factor of the tube. This quantity is shown as negative to indicate that a negative bias is used. (2) Locate the value of zero-signal plate ‘current, IL, corresponding to point P. {G) Locate the point 21., which is twice the value of I, and corresponds t0 the value of the maximum-signal plate current Tass (8) Locate the point X on the de bias curve at 2ero volts, E, = 0, corre: sponding to the ValUe Of Tous. (3) Draw a straight” ine XY through X and P. Line XY is known as the load re- sistance line. Its slope cortesponds 10 the value of the load resistance. The Toad resistance in ohms is equal to (Coes ~ Emin) divided BY (nae — Tn, Where E isin volts and I is in amperes, It should be noted that in the case of filament types of tubes, the calcul tions are given on the basis of a de- operated flament. When the filament is acoperated, the calculated value of de Fig. 41—Graphic calculations for clase A amplier using @ power trode.30 RCA Receqvine Tuze Manual bias should be increased by approxi- of a triode having an amplification fac- mately one-half the filament voltage tor of 4.2, a plate-issipation rating of rating of the tube, 15 wats, and plate-characteristies curves “The value of zerovsignal plate cur- as shown in Fig, 4l. The tube is to be rent I, should be used to determine the operated at 250 volts on the plate Plate ‘dissipation, an important factor "Procedure: For a fist approxima. influencing tube life. In a class A’am- tion, determine the operating. point. P plifier under zero-signal conditions, the from the zero-signal bias formila, Ecy Plate dissipation is equal to the power = —(0.68 X 250) /4.2 = —40.5 volts, input, ée,, the product of the de plate From the curve for this voltage, it i voltage E. and the zero-signal de plate found that the zero-signal plate current current Is If it is found that the plate- is 0.08 ampere and, therefor, the plate= dissipation rating of the tube is exceeded dissipation rating is exceeded (0.08 % ‘with the zero-signal bias Ec, calculated 250 = 20 watts). Consequently, it is above, it will be necessary to increase necessary to reduce the zero-sigaal the bias by a sufficient amount so that plate current {0 0.06 ampere at 250 the actual plate dissipation does not ex- Volts, The grid bias is then ~43.5 volts, ceed the rating before proceeding fur- Note that the curve was taken with a ther with the remaining calculations. de filament supply; if the filament is For power-output calculations, it to be operated on an ac supply, the is assumed that the peak alternating bias must be increased by about one- brid voltage is sufficient (1) to swing the half the filament voltage, or to —43 rid from the zero-signal bias value Ec, volts, and the circuit returns made to to zero bias (E. = 0) on the positive the mid-point of the flament circuit. swing and (2) to swing the grid to a Point X can then be determined value twice the zerovsignal bias value Point X is at the intersection of the de fon the negative swing. During the bias curve at zero volts with Inge, Where Aegative swing, the plate voltage and Ine = 2p = 2 X 0.06 ~ 0.13 ampere. plate current reach values of Fas and Line XY ie drawn through points P and during the positive swing, they —X. Ena, Enin and Inyo ate then found reach Values of Baye and Inve Because from’ the curves, When these values Power is the product of voliage and are substituted in the power-output for. Current, the power ouput Pe at shown mula, the following result & obtained bby a wattmeter is given by 108) ass gate x (Pare—Ba) The resistance represented by toad where E is in volts, Ti in amperes, "ME XY Be os and P. is in watts. iE oon7y = 20h In the output of power-amplifier triodes, some distortion is present. This distortion is due predominantly to sec ‘ond harmonies in single-tube amplifiers. When the values from the curves are substituted inthe distortion for: ‘mula, the following result is obtained: The percentage of second-harmonic dit. 1240012 _ 566 tortion may be calculated by the £0110 g Guesnion 2 wos ing formula: ea ax=008 —* * Tess t Ime, It is customary to select the load 1% distortion 100 resistance so that the distortion does not exceed five per cent. When the method where Isis the zero-signal plate current shown is used to determine the slope of in amperes. If the distortion is exces- the load-resistance line, the second:-ha sive, the load resistance should be in- monic distortion generally does not ex: creased or, occasionally, decreased ceed five pet cent. In the example, slightly and the calculations repeated. however. the distortion is excessive and Example: Determine the load re: itis desirable, therefore, 0 use a slightly sistance, power output, and distortion higher load resistance. A load resistanceELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS ‘of 2500 ohms will provide a distor fof about 4.9 per cent. The power oute ppt is reduced only slightly to 3.5 wat ‘Operating conditions for triodes in push-pull depend on the type of opera: tion desired. Under class A conditions, distortion, power output, and efficiency are all relatively low. The operating bias can be anywhere between that specified for single-tube operation and that equal to one-half the” grid-bias voltage re- quired to produce plate-current cutoft ata plate voltage of 1.4E, where Ey is ‘the operating plate voltage. Higher bias than “this value requires higher grid: signal voltage and results in class AB, ‘operation, which is discussed Tater. ‘The method for caleulating maxi mum power output for tfodes in push ull class A operation is as follows: from the curve for use in the formula Po Umer x B/S 1 is expressed in amperes and E. in volts, power output is in watts, eqtavours 96 31 Example: Assume that the plate voltage (E.) is 10 be 300 volts, and the plate-dssipation rating of the tube is 15 Watts, Then, for class A operation, the ‘operating bias can be equal to, but not more than, one-half the grid ‘bias for cutoff with'a plate voltage of 1.4 x 300 = 420 volts. Since cutoff bias is ap- proximately —115 volts at a plate volt- ige of 420 volts, one-half of this value is 57.5 volts bias) At this bias, the plate current is found from the plate family 10 be 0.084 ampere and, there- fore, the plate dissipation is 0054 x 300’ or 16.2 watts. Since —S7.5 volts is the limit of bias for class A opera tion of these tubes at a plate voltage fof 300 vols, the dissipation cannot be reduced by increasing the bias and jt becomes necessary t0 reduce the plate voltage Tf the plate voltage is reduced to 250 volts, the bias will be found to be 43.5 volts. For this value, the plate current is 0.06 ampere, and the plate dissipation is 15 watts. Thea, following the method for calculating power out UL, erect a vertical line at 0.5E. = 150 Fig. 42—Graphie calculations for push-pull class A ampliier using @ power triode, ‘The method for determining the proper ‘load resistance for triodes in Dush-pull is as follows: Draw a load line through Ine. on the Z2r0-bias curve and {through the E. point on the zero-current axis, Four times the resistance repre- Sented by this load Tine is the plate-0- plate Toad (Ry) for two triodes ina lass A’ push-pull amplifier. Expressed asa formula, Ryp =4X (Ea — O66.) /Inae where E, is expressed in volts, Tavs in amperes, and Ry, in ohms. volts. The intersection of the line with the curve E, = 05 Tavs of 0.2 ampere. When this value is substituted in the power formula, the power output is (0.2. x 250)/5'= 10 watts, The load resistance is determined from the load formula: Plate-to-plate load (Ry) = 4 x Q50 — 150)/02 = 2000 ohms. Power output for a pentode or a beam power tube as 2 class A amplifier ean be calculated in much the same ‘way as for triodes, Calculations can be ‘made graphically from a special plate family of curves, as shown in Fig. 43.32 RCA RECEIVING TUBE MANUAL Fig. 48—Graphie calculations for class A amplifier using a pentode or beam power tube. From a point A at or just below las. The terms used have already been the ince of the zero-iaa carve, draw defined. bitrariy selected load ines to inter: fect the feroplatecurrent axis, These % 2#é4monkeitoron = ines should be on both side of the Saad ‘operating point P, whose position is mont ” determined by the desied” operating plate voltage, Ea, and one hall the Ianimorsigea! plate curent” Along any load line, say AAs, measure the 4 a) tarmanle distance AO.” On the same fine, lay VR RIE EHS off an equal distance, OsA.. For opti conversion ‘mum operation, the change in bias from Conversion Factors ‘A to 0, should be nearly equal to the Operating conditions for voltage change in bias from O, to A. If this values other than those shown in the condition can not be met with one tine, published data can be obtained by use fas is the case for the line first chosen, of the momograph shown in Fig. 44 then another should be chosen. When when all electrode voltages are changed the most satisfactory line has been se- simultaneously in the same ratio. The lected, its resistance may be determined nomograph includes conversion factors by the following formula: for current (F), power output (F,), plate resistance or load resistance (F). and transconductance (Fes) for voltage Fatios between 0.5 and 20. These fac- The value of Re may then be sub- tors are expressed as functions of the ited in the following formula for ratio between the desired or new volt- caleulating power output age for any electrode (E,) and the Published oF original value of that volt- Age (Eps). The relations shown are ap- plicable to triodes and. multigrid’ tubes In both of these formulas, I is in in all clases of service. amperes, E is in volts, Rr is in ohms, To use the nomograph, simply fand Pp isin watts. Teand I, are the cur’ place a straightedge across the page sO fent values on the load ling at bias volt- that it intersects the scales for Ea and ages of Ee; = V —0.107V = 0293V Epa at the desired values. The desiod and Ea = V+ 0.107V = L707V, re- conversion factor may then be read spectively. Sireetly of estimated at the point where ‘Calculations for distortion mav be the straightedge intersects the Fi Fy ‘made by means of the following formu F,, or Fx scale. Load resitance (Re Tn ue Unie $141 le = 1) RoELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS For example, suppose itis desired to operate two 6L6GC's in class A: push-pull, fixed bias, with a plate volt: ge of 260 volts. The nearest published ‘operating conditions for this class of service are for a. plate voltage of 250 volis. The operating conditions for the new plate voltage can be determined 4s follows: The voltage conversion factor, Fe, is equal to 200/250 or 0.8. The dashed lines on the nomograph of Fig. 44 cate that for this vollage ratio F approximately 0.72, Fis approximately 037, F, is 1.12, and Fy ‘mately 0.892. These fa applied directly to operating Shown in the tube data, or t values faleulated by the methods described previously. ‘Because this method for conversion 100 100 © mL ed 38 of characteristics is necessarily an ap- Proximation, the accuracy of the nomo. raph decreases progressively as the atlo Else/Eme departs from unity. Tn general, results are substantially correct ‘when the value of the ratio Eses/Ena between 0.7 and 1.5. Beyond these im- its, the accuracy decreases rapidly, and the results obtained must be considered rough approximations. TThe nomograph does not take into consideration the effects of contact po- tential or secondary emission in tubes. Because contact-potential effects be- come noticeable only at very small de Brid-No. I (bias) voltages, they are generally negligible in power tubes. Secondary emission may occur in con: ventional tetrodes, however, ifthe plate voltage swings below the’ grid-No. 2 voltage. Consequently, the conversion bh des Fp Fig. 44—Nomograph of rube conversion factors.34 RCA REcEIVING TusE MANUAL factors shown in the nomograph apply __Because of the flow of grid current to such tubes only when the plate volt- in a class AB, stage, there is a loss of ge is greater than the grid-No. 2 volt- power in the grid circuit. The sum of age. Because secondary emission may this loss and the loss in the input traas- algo occur in certain beam power tubes former is the total driving power re- at very low values of plate current and quired by the grid circuit. The driver plate voltage, the conversion factors stage should be capable of a power shown in the nomograph do not apply output considerably larger than this re- when these tubes are operated under quired power in order that distortion such conditions. Introduced in the grid circuit be kept low. The input transformer used ina Class AB Power Amplifiers class AB, amplifier usually has a step- ‘A class AB power amplifier em- down turns ratio. ploys two tubes connected in push-pull Because of the large fluctuations of With a higher negative grid bias than is plate current in a class ABs siage, it is Used jn clase A stage, With this higher important that the plate power supply negative bias, the plate and sereen- have good regulation. Otherwise the grid voltages’ can ‘usually be made fluctuations in plate current cause fluc- higher than for class A amplifiers be tations in the voltage output of the cease the increased negative bias holds power supply, with the result that power plate current within the limit of the Output is decreased and distortion is in- {ube plate-issipation rating. AS a result creased. To obiain satisfactory regula- ff these higher voltages, more power tion, it is usually advisable to use a foutput can be obtained from class AB low-drop rectifier, such as the SV4GA, ‘operation with @ choke-input fiter. In all cases, ‘Class AB amplifiers are subdivided the resistance of the choke and trans. into class AB, and class AB. In class formers should be as low as possible ‘AB, there is no flow of grid current ‘That is, the peak signal voltage applied Class AB: Power Amplifiers to each grid is not greater than the In class AB; push-pull amplifier negative ‘grid-bias voltage. The grids service using triodes, the operating therefore are not driven to a positive conditions may be deiermined.graphi- potentisl and do not draw current. In cally by means of the plate family if lass AB, the peak signal voltage ie E,, the desired operating plate voltage, ‘greater than the’ bias so that the grids is given. In this service, the dyoamic fare driven posiuve and draw current. load line does not pass through the ‘operating point P as in the case of the o single-tube’ amplifier, but through the od point D in Fig. 45. Tis position is not Eras vouts Be affected by the operating grid bias pro- Vided the plate-toplate load resistance remains constant ‘Under these conditions, grid bias hhas no appreciable effect on the power Fig. 45—Graphic calculations for class AB, amplifer Fig, 46—Instantaneous curve ‘wing @ power triode. ‘or class AB, amplifier.ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS ‘output, Grid bias cannot be neglected, hhowever, since it is used to find the zeto-signal plate current and, from it, the zefo-signal_ plate. dissipation, Be: cause the grid bias is higher in class ‘AB; than in class service for the same plate voltage, higher signal voltage ‘may be used without grid: current be- ing drawn and, therefore, higher power output is obtained. ‘in general, for any load tine through point D, Fig. 45, the plate-to- plate load resistance in ohms of a push. pull amplifier is Ry = 4E./T, where Tis the platecurrent value in am- peres at which the load line as pro- fected intersects the plate-current axis, and B, is in volts. This formula is an: ther form of the one given under push pull class A amplifiers, Rie = 4B, — 0.6E.)/Taxs, but is more general. Power utpat = Caee/ V3" x Roe/4, where Tous is the peak plate current at zero grid volts for the Toad chosen, This formula simplified is Cau)” X. Rey ‘mum-signal average power input is 0.636 Tae X Ex It is, desirable to simplify these formulas fora frst approximation. This, simplifeation can be made if it is as. fumed that the peak plate current, Hn, Occurs at the point of the zero-bias curve corresponding approximately 10 06 E, the condition for maximum power output. The simplified formulas Pe lor mg tbe xED/S Be is in Volts, Tee is in amperes, ‘ohms, and P, isin watts. ‘Te may be found during subsequent calculations that the distortion oF the plate dissipation is excessive for this ap proximation; in that case, a diferent Toad resistance must be selected, using the first approximation as a guide, and the process repeated to obtain satisfac tory operating conditions, Example: Fig. 45 illustrates the pplication of this method to 8 pair of power triodes operated at Ex — 300 Volts. Each tube has a plate-dssipation, rating of 15 watts. The method is t0 85 crc vet ie st 06E. ow 180 ‘cis, Wh cme Eo seth pit “0.38 ape Cane te Spied Yori, the Towing "Ress hpi is welt determine a pate dpi tnd ‘some ei he ata Fram the eagle ae formu (ete tag mene pret te Sentence te eet isis ampere "he pros f tie Gaetan the opaig ne volage SBE atthe setae apa he feo tee Eom ie alk the puma out of 58 mn ob tine ot dspnton for bo ke, ‘he 340 eat Ha oct ae Pati in ence of 1S fing he aed cary therfore to alu toe ae Id reas hate pine tp: nang wl pot ext, i found a an operat ing ple veg of 200 vl te hs rides petite ioe reiaanee of S00 obs frome formu for Rte sac of Fi ound tte Ba ‘Sere Te lade forse 300 oh oa eine th ord oh ine ae fom te pel Oc anal on he ean er tate he put Em 300 ste on Sevptenctie atcha. Atte er ston f the ead ne wth he Sar cure the ones cen fis Sid 82 sie en 2 Guanatat eae Proceeding as in the fist approxima- tion, it it found that the maximum signal average plate current, 0.636lm is. 0.127 ampere, and the ‘maximum signal average power input is 38.1 wats This input minus the power outout 381 "15 = 23.1 watts. This value the dissipation for two tubes; the value per tube is 11.6 watts, a value well ‘Within the rating of this tube type. “The operating bias and the zero- signal plate current may then be found by use of a curve which is derived from36 ‘the plate family and the load line. Fig, 46 i8 a curve of instantaneous values of Plate current and de grid-bias voltages faken from Fig. 45, Values of grid bias fare read from each of the grid-bias Curves of Fig, 45 along the load line and are transferred to Fig. 46 to pro- duce the curved line from A to C. A tangent to this curve, starting at A, is drawn to intersect the grid-voltage abscissa, The poist of intersection, B, fs the operating grid bias for fixed-bias operation. In the example, the bias is STO" volts. Refer back to the plate family at the ‘operating conditions of plate Volts = 300 and grid bias = —60 volts; the zero-signal plate current per tube is seen to be 0.04 ampere. ‘This procedure locates the operat- ing point for each tube at P. The plate current must be doubled, of course, 10 fbiain the zero-signal plate current for both tubes. Under maximum signal con- ditions, the signal voltage swings from zero-signal bias voltage to zero bias for ‘each tbe on alternate half cycles, Hence, in the example, the peak of sig- nal voltage per tube is 60 volts, or the frid-to-grid value is 120 vols. {As in the case ofthe push-pull class fer, the second-harmonic. dis- tortion ina class AB, amplifier using twiodes is very small and is largely can- celed by virtue of the push-pull con- ‘ection. Third-harmonie distortion, hhowever, which may be larger than permissible, can be found by means of Composite characteristic curves. A com- plete family of curves can be plotted, ‘ut for the present purpose only the one corresponding to a grid bias of one-half the peak grid-voltage swing is needed. In the example, the peak grid voltage per tube is 60 volts, and the half value & 30 voli. The composite curve, since it is nearly a straight line, can be con- structed with only two points (see Fig. 45), These two points are obtained from deviations above and below the operat. ing grid and plate voltages. Tn order to find the curve for a bias of ~30 volts, a deviation of 30 volts from the operating grid. voltage fof —60 volts is assumed, Next assume 8 deviation from the operating plate voltage of, say, 40 volis. Then at 300 RCA REcEIvING TuBE MANUAL —40 = 260 volts, erect a vertical line to intersect the (—60) — (~30) = —30- volt bias curve and read the plate cur- ent at this intersection, which is 0.167 ampere; likewise, atthe intersection fof a vertical line at 300 + 4 volts and the (—60) 4. (—30) = —90- volt bias curve, read the plate current. In this example, the plate current i estimated to be 0.002 ampere. The i ference of 0.165 ampere between these two currents determines the point E fon the 300 — 40 = 260-volt vertical sly, another point F on the same composite curve is found by assuming the same grid-bias deviation but a "These steps provide points at 260 volts and 0.165 ampere (E), and at 200 volts and 0.045 ampere (F). A straight Tine through these points is the com- posite curve for a bias of —30 vols, Shown as a long-short dash line in Fig 45, At the intersection of the composite curve and the load line, G, the instan- taneous composite plate current at the point of one-half the peak signal swing 58 determined. This current value, desig- nated Ie and the peak plate current, Tm a1@ used in the following formula to" ind the peak value of the third- harmonic component of plate current. The = (laa — bas) 3 In the example, where I. is 0.097 am ere and. Tear ie 0.2 ampere, Tu = @ x 0097 -"0.2)/3 = (0.194 — 0.2)/3, = ~0.006/3 = —0.002 ampere. (The ‘fact that Iu is negative indicates thatthe phase relation of the fundamental (first- harmonic) and thirdcharmonic com- ponents of the plate current is such as to result in a slightly peaked wave form, Tha is positive in some cases, indicating a'Rawtening of the wave form) The peak value of the fundamental ‘or first harmonic component ofthe plate current is found by the following formula: I= 2/9 X (nee $10) In the example, Ip, = 2/3 x (02 + 0.097) = 0.198 ampere, Thus. the per centage of thirdsharmonic distortion is hala) % 100 = (0.002/0.198) x 100, 1 per cent approx.ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS Class ABs Power Amplifiers ‘A class AB, amplifier employs two tubes connected in push-pull as in the case of class AB, amplifiers. It differs in that it is biased so that plate cur- rent flows for somewhat more than half the electrical cycle but less than the full cycle, the peak signal voltage is greater than the de bias voltage, grid current is drawn, and, consequently, power is consumed in the grid circuit ‘These conditions permit high power out. put to be obtained ‘without excessive plate dissipation, ‘The sum of the power used in the rid circuit and the losses in the input transformer is the total driving power required by the grid circuit. The driver sage should be capable of & power out- pput considerably larger than this re- uired power in order that distortion introduced in the grid circuit be kept low. In addition, the internal impedance of the driver stage as reflected into or as effective in the grid. circuit of the power stage should always be as low as possible in order that distortion may be Kept low. The input transformer used ina class AB, stage usually has a step- down ratio adjusted for this condition. ‘Load resistance, plate dissipation, power outpot, and distortion determina. tions are similar to those for class AB,. ‘These quantities are interdependent with peak grid-voltage swing and driv 1g power; & satisfactory set of operat: ing ‘conditions involves “a series of approximations. The load resistance and signal swing are limited by the per- missble grid current and power and the distortion. If the load resistance is too high or the signal swing is excessive, the plate-dissipation rating wll be exceeded Sistortion will be high, and the driving power will be unnecessarily high, Class B Power Amplifiers A class B amplifier employs two tubes connected in push-pull, so biased that plate current is almost zero when to signal voltage is applied to the grids, Becatise of this low valve of no-signal plate current, class B amplification has the same advantage as class AB,, ie, large’ power output can be obtained without excessive plate dissipation, 37 Class B operation differs from class ABs in that plate current is cut off for @ larger portion of the negative grid swing, and the signal swing is usually larger than in class AB, operation. Because certain triodes used as class B amplifiers are designed 10 op- erate very close to 2270 bias, the grid Of each ‘ube is at a positive’ potential ‘luring all or most of the positive half- eyele of its signal swing. In this type of triode operation, considerable grid cure rent is drawn and there is a loss of power in the grid circuit. This condi- tion imposes the same requirement in the driver stage as in-a class AB, stage: fe, the driver should be capable of de- livering considerably more power out. put than the power required for the Bid circuit of the class B amplifier so that distortion will be low. Similarly, the interstage transformer between the river and the class B stage usually has 4 step-down turns ratio, Because of the high dissipations involved in class B operation at zero bias, iti not feasible {0 use tetrodes or pentodes in this type of class B operation. Determination of load. resstar plate dissipation, power output, and dis fortion is similar to that for a class AB, stage. Power amplifier tubes designed for class A operation can be used in class ‘AB. and class B service under suitable ‘operating conditions. ‘There are several tube types designed especially for class B service. The characteristic common to all of these tvpes is a high amplifica- tion factor. With a high amplification factor, plate currest is small even when the grid bias is zero. These tubes, there fore, can be operated in class B service at-a bias of zero volts so that no bias Supply is required. A number of class B amplifier tubes consist of two. triode Units mounted in one tube. The. {wo units can be connected in push-pull so that only one tube is required fora class B stage, Cathode-Drive Circuits The preceding text has discussed the use of tubes in the conventional griddrive wpe of amplifier that is,38 RCA Recervine Tus Manual where the cathode is common to both Inverse Feedback Thevinput and’ output creams Tubes Am avers feedbick circu, some. may abo bevemployed ss ampliere in times called a degeneradve circu Eicut anangemeats which vile the one in which a pordon of the ouipa Sir pactar the conmon trmiaa valine of tobe rapid t the i Fobaby the mos important of thee put of the same ot preceding le in npifes are the calnodedive creak, Opposite phase tote signal applied ta Ens ubcused below, and'te cate the tube. Two important advantages of UMevollower cncut, which wil bedi feedback ae (1) redused distortion from Sosiel ater in'conbection wih inverse each stage incded in the feedback eh feadback fait apd! (@) reduction in the variations "Atpica eathode-drive circuit is in ea duc o changes tn ine vole, show in Pig. 47: The load is placed in possible difereces between tubes ofthe Eine toe, or variations in the vaies of Gireait constants included tn the feed feck erent tnversefeedhack is used in audio amplfers to. edoce dsortion ia the Cat stage whore the fad impedance [BE aii, omits abe i's Toutrpeater” Beane £ gE Se IM Mnpedance or a loudspeaker nt i oe constant for all audio frequencies, the Toa "impoance onthe opi abe ‘aries with frequeney. When the outpat ig. 47—Cathode-drive circuit. abe is'a pentode or beam power tbe the pat Great ana te gute volage vite NBN pit ian is va the Ze ee and he guru Yl oni plate oad impeoanescan,Ynt i taken off between he te and rc, ron comer fe Bound a i te Bi-ve aod of SoC cigar: Such eemry poration, The eit rounded. and fron can te reduced ments of the ope vote, ape aris 22 ove fndbck Ima fecdaek ce ‘circuit. The cathode-drive circuit is par- Cvits are of the coustant-voltage type ticularly useful for vhf and ubf applica. 4% the constant-current type. tions, in which it is necessary to obtain The application of the comstau> sony jn which Hr aon 10 ObaID ype of nvr feedast a ciated with a triode, but where a con- Power-output stage using a single beam ated wih ode at whee 20. power tube itsated in ie #8 Ta veotonal garnet would be cult My Rand Care coneced ups tecame of feniback hou, 5 Geter sco te outa of te.“ the enhodearie sou, the (be, The secondary winding ot te te, nthe, ettode ie Sc he ic tanto rtd 18 pounded rd acres a onseilne Foot on ii volage Ue. Capacor permis sable operon 4 reqnciet iter an those i which conventional ei cans ied "The int impedance ofa cathe drive ene approniaay eget tYge when he Ise vesance small compared to hey ofthe be, Acer Sin amount of power requied, thee: fore to dre sch 8 chose However, inte type of service in which exhode: dive Creu ‘sre normaly sed the vantages of the rounded gr con Secton ‘usualy outweigh hs and) Rg, dtPoversupu stage ing constant ‘eo wos te talaELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS blocks the de plate voltage from the ‘rid. However, @ portion of the tube Af output voltage, approximately equal to the ouput voltage multiplied by the fraction Ru/(Rs + Rs), is applied to the arid. This voltage reduces the source im- pedance of the cizcuit and a decrease in Sistortion results which is explained in the curves of Fig. #9. 39 nent of plate current i. It is evident that the irregularity of the waveform of this component of plate current would act to cancel the original irregularity And thus reduce distortion, ‘After inverse feedback has been ap- plied, the relations are as shown in the ‘The dotted curve shown by is the component of plate current Fig. 49—Volage and current waveforms showing effect of inverse jeedback. Consider first the amplifier without the use of inverse feedback. Suppose that when a signal voltage e, is applied to the grid the af plate current i has fan iregularity in its positive half-cycle. ‘This irregularity represents a departure from the waveform of the input signal and. is, therefore, distortion. For this plate-current waveform, the af plate ‘oltage has a waveform shown by ey ‘The plate-voltage waveform is inverted compared to the plate-current. wave- form because a plate-current increase produces an increase in the drop across the plate load. The voltage at the plate is the difference between the drop across the load and the supply voltage; thus, ‘when plate current goes up, plate volt: age goes down; when plate current goes down, plate voltage goes up. ‘Now suppose that inverse feedback is applied to the amplifier. The voltage fed back to the grid has the same wave~ form and phase as the plate voltage. but is smaller in magnitude. Henee, with a plate voltage of waveform shown by the feedback voltage appearing on the grid is as shown by ey. This voltage applied to the grid produces @ compo- ue to the feedback voltage on the grid. The dotted curve shown by iy is the component of plate current due to the Signal voltage on the grid. The algebraic sum of these two components gives the resultant plate curfent shown. by the solid curve of ip Since i is the plate current that would flow without inverse feedback, it can be seen that the appl cation of inverse feedback has reduced the irregularity in the output current. In this manner inverse feedback acts 10 correct any component of plate current that does ot correspond to the input signal voltage, and thus reduces dis- tortion, From the curve for iy, it can be eon that, besides reduc inverse feedback also reduces the ampli- tude of the output current. Conse- quently, when inverse | feedback is, applied to an amplifier there is a de- crease in gain or power sensitivity as well as a decrease in distortion. Hence, the application of inverse feedback 10 fan amplifier requires that more driving voltage be applied to obtain full power ‘output, but this output is obtained with less distortion40 Inverse feedback may also be ap- plied to resistance-coupled. stages, as shown in Fig. 50. The circuit is conven- tional except that a feedback resistor, Fig, $0 Resistance coupled stares wing Teedback ressior Ry, is connected between the plates of tubes T, and To. The output signal volt age of Ty and a portion of the output signal voltage of TT; appear across Because the distortion generated in the plate circuit of Ts is applied to its grid fut of phase with the input signal, the distortion in the output of Ts is com= paratively low. With sufficient inverse feedback of the constant-voltage (pe in-a poweroutput stage, itis not neces- sary to employ a network of resistance And capacitance in the output circuit 10 reduce response at high audio frequen. cies. Tnverse-feedback circuits can also bbe applied to push-pull class A and class AB, amplifiers. Constant-current inverse feedback is usually obtained by omitting the by- pss capacitor across a cathode resistor ‘This method decreases the gain and the distortion but increases the source im pedance of the circuit. Consequently, the output voltage rises at the resonant frequency of the loudspeaker and ac- centuates hangover effects. Tnverse feedback is not generally applied to a triode power amplifier be- cause the variation in speaker imped- ance with frequency does not produce much distortion in a tiode stage hav- ing low plate resistance. Tt i sometimes applied in a pentode stage, but is not always convenient. As has been shown, when inverse feedback is used in an amplifier, the driving voltage must be increased in order to provide full power ‘output. When inverse feedback is used ‘a pentode, the total driving voltage required for full power output may be Inconveniently large, although still less RCA Recervine Tuse MANUAL than that required for a triode. Because ‘a beam power tube gives full power ‘output on a comparatively small diving vollage, inverse feedback is especially applicable to beam power tubes. BY means of inverse feedback, the high efficiency and igh power output of bbeam power tubes can be combined with freedom from the effects of varying speaker impedance. Cathode-Follower Circuits ‘Another important application of inverse feedback is in the cathode-fol- Tower circuit, an example of which is shown in Fig. $1. In this application, the oad has been transferred from the plate circuit to the cathode circuit of the tube. ‘The input voltage is applied berween the grid and. ground, and the output voltage is obtained between the cathode and. ground. The voltage amplification (V.A.) of this circuit is always less than tunity and may be expressed by the fol- lowing convenient formulas. For a triode: AFT XG EDI For a pentode: VA ie x RE In these formule 4 1 the amplifi- cation factor, Ri is the load resistance in ohms, ry is the plate resistance in ‘ohms, and ‘ga is the transconductance in mhos "The use of the cathode follower permits the design of circuits which have high input resistance and high ou pput voltage. The output impedance is Fig. 51—Cathode-follower cirewit quite Tow and very low distortion may be obtained. Cathode-follower circuits may be used for power amplifiers or as impedance transformers designed eitherELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS to match a transmission Tine oF t0 pro: duce a relatively high output voltage at 2 low impedance level, ‘na power amplifier which is trans- former coupled to the Toad, the same output power can be obtained from the tube as would be obtained in a conven tional grid-drive type of amplifier. The ‘output impedance is very low and pro- Vides. excellent damping to the load, ‘with the result that very low distortion can be obtained. The peak-to-peak sig- ‘al voltage, however, approaches 115 times the plate supply voltage if maxi- ‘mum power output is required from the tube. Some problems may be encoun- tered, therefore, in the design of an adequate driver stage for a cathode- follower output system. ‘When a cathode-follower circuit is used as an impedance transformer, the Toad is usually a simple resistance in the cathode circuit of the tube. With relatively low values of cathode resistor, the circuit may be designed to supply significant amounts of power and. to ‘match the impedance of the device to 4 transmission live. With somewhat higher values of cathode resistor, the cireuit may be used to decrease the out- put impedance sufficiently to permit the eansmission of audio signals along a line in which appreciable capacitance is present ‘The cathode follower may also be used a5 an isolation device to provide extremely high input resistance and low Input capacitance as might be required in’ the probe of an oscilloscope or vacuum-tube voltmeter. Such circuits can be designed to provide effective impedance transformation with no sig: nifleant loss of voltage. ‘Selection of a suitable tube and its operating conditions for use in a cath~ ‘ode-follower circuit having a specified ‘output impedance (Z,) can be made, in most practical eases, by the use of the following formula to determine the ap: Proximate value of the required tube fransconductance 1000.00 ohms) Once the required transconductance is obtained, a suitable tube and its oper- ating “conditions may be determined Requted gm (ambos) = aL from the technical data given in the Technical Data section. The tube 3° lected should have a value of transcon- dductance slightly lower than” that obtained from the above expression 10 allow for the shunting effect of the cath- ‘de load resistance. The conversion omograph given in Fig. 44 may be used for calculation of operating condi= tions for values of transconductance not included “in the tabulated data, After the operating conditions have been de fermined, the approximate value of the required cathode load resistance may be calculated from the following formulas For a triode: Cathode Ry = Eas Resistance and impedance values are in fohms; transconductance values are in ‘hos, If the value of the cathode load re- sistance calculated to provide the re Guired output impedance doesnot provide the required operating bias, the basic cathode-follower circuit can be modified in a number of ways. Two of the more common modifications are shown in Figs. 52 and 53. Tn Fig. 52 the bias is increased by adding 4 bypassed resistance vetween Fig. 52—Cathode follower cireult modified {Yor increased Bis. the cathode and the unbypassed load resistance and returning the grid to the low end of the load resistence. In Fig. 53 the bias is reduced by adding a by- passed resistance between the cathode And the unbypassed load resistance but, in this ease, the grid is returned to the42 junction of the two cathode resistors So that the bias voltage is only the de voltage drop across the added resistance ‘The size of the bypass capacitor should be large enough so that it has negligible reactance at the lowest frequency fo be handled. In both cases the B-supply should be increased to make up for the ‘voltage taken for biasing. Fig. 53—Cathode Jollower cirult modified or reduced bias. Example: Select a suitable tube and determine the operating conditions dnd circuit components for a cathode- follower circuit having an output im- pedance that will match a 500-ohm transmission line. Procedure: First, determine the ap- proximate transconductance required, 203.00 08 Regied wu = 100 — 200 A survey of the tubes that have transconductance in this order of mag: nitude shows that type 12AX7A is among the tubes to be considered. Referring to the characteristics given in the technical Gata section for one triode unit of high imu tin triode 12AX7, we find that for 4 plate voltage of 250'volts and a bias of 2 volts, the transconductance is 1600 micromhos, the plate resistance is 662500 ohms, the amplification factor is 100, and the plate current is 0.0012 am- pere. When thse valuss are used in the expression for determining the cathode Toad resistance, the following result is obtained: 500 x «2300 come ‘00 soox COO ‘The voltage across this resistor for f plate current of (0.0012 ampere is 2600 x 0.0012 = 3.12 volts. Because ‘cathode R=; RCA RECEIVING TUBE MANUAL the required bias voltage is only —2 ‘volts, the circuit arrangement given in Fig. ‘53 is employed. The bias is fu ished by a resistance that will have a voltage drop of 2 volts when it carries 2 current of 0.0012 ampere. The re- quired. bias resistance, therefore, is 2/0.0012 = 1670 ohms. If 60 Hz is the lowest frequency to be passed, 20 ‘microfarads is suitable value for the bypass. capacitor. The Beupply, of course, is increased by the voltage drop across the cathode resistance which, in this example, is approximately $ volts ‘The B-supply, therefore, is 250 + 3 = 255 volts, ‘Because it is desirable to eliminate, if possible, the bias resistor and bypass capacitor, it is worthwhile to try other tubes and other operating conditions to ‘obtain a value of cathode load resist lance which will also provide the re- ‘quired bias. Ifthe triode section of twin iode—high-mu triode 6ATS is operated ‘under the conditions given in the tech- nical data section with a plate voltage ‘of 100 volts and a bias of —1 volt, it ‘will have an amplification factor of 70, plate resistance of 54000 ohms, 2 transconductance of 1300. micromhos, and a plate current of 0.0008 ampere Then, Soo SOO TOE TY = 1460 ohms ‘The bias voltage obtained across this resistance is 1460 x 0.0008 = 1.17 ‘ots. Since this value is forall practical purposes close enough to the required bias, no addision bias resistance will be fequired and the grid’ may be re turned directly to ground. There is no need to adjust the B-supply voltage to ‘make up for the drop in the cathode resistor. The voltage amplification (V.A) for the eathode-follower circuit utilizing the triode section of type GATS is 20 60 VA Sao Ted x TOT TT = For applications in which the cath: ‘ode follower is used to isolate two cir cuits—for example, when it is used between a circuit being tested and the Input stage of an oscilloscope or a ‘vacuum-tube volimeter—vollage outputELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS 43 ‘and not impedance matching is the pri A _method of determining the mary consideration. In such applica: proper value of capacitance for the fl tions it is desirable to use a relatively ter is to make two measurements of the high value of cathode load resistanes, output voltage across the primary of ich as 50,000 ohms, in order to get the the output transformer: first, when 2 maximum voltage output. In order to 400-Hz signal is applied to the input, ‘obtain: proper bias, a circuit such as and second, when a 1000-Hz signal that of Figs $3 should be used, With a of the same voltage as the 400-Hz high value of cathode resistance, the signal is applied to the input. The cor- voltage amplification will approximate rect value of capacitance is the one unity. ‘which gives equal outpat voltages for 1 the two signal inputs. Tn practice, this Corrective Filters value is usually found to be in the order A corrective filter can be used to of 0105 microfarad. improve the frequency characteristic of fn output stage using a beam power tube of a pentode when inverse’ Teed. PHOnograph and Tape Preamplifiers back is not applicable. The iter consists ‘The frequeney range and dynamic of a resistor and a capacitor connected range* which can be recorded on a in series across the primary of the out- phonograph record or on magnetic tape put transformer. Connected in this way, depend on several factors, including the the filer is in parallel with the plate composition, mechanical characteristics, load impedance reflected from the voice- and speed of the record or tape, and coil by the output transformer. The the electrical and mechanical character~ ‘magnitude of this reflected impedance istics of the recording equipment. To increases with inereasing frequency in achieve wide frequency and dynamic the middle and upper audio range. The ranges, manufacturers “of ‘commercial jmpedance of the filter, however, de- recordings use equipment which intro- creases with increasing frequency. It duces a nonuniform relationship. be- follows that, by use of the proper values tween amplitude and frequency. This for the resistance and the capacitance relationship is Known as a “recording in the iter, the effective load impedance characteristic.” To assure proper. re- ‘on the output tubes can be made prac- production of a high-fidelity’ recording, tically constant for all frequencies in therefore, some part of the reproducing the middle and upper audio range, The sYslem must have a frequency-response result is an improvement in the fre- characteristic which is the inverse of Quency characteristic of the output the recording characteristic. Most manu- Sage facturers of high-fidelity recordings use "The resistance to be used in the the RCA “New Orthophonic™ (RIAA) fiter for a push-pull stage is 1.3 times characteristic for discs and the NARTB. the recommended plate-to-plae load re- characteristic for magnetic tape. stance: on, for a single-tube stage, is The simplest type of equalization 113 times the recommended plate load network is shown in Fig. 54. Because resistance, The capacitance in the flter the capacitor C is effectively an open Should have @ valve such that the vo circuit at low frequencies, the low fre- fe gain of the output stage at a free quencies must be passed through the ‘quency of 1000 Hz of higher is equal resistor Rand are attenuated. The ca- to the voltage gain at 400Hz. pacitor has a lower reactance at high Fig, S4—Simple RC frequency-compensation network Fane eiees ih UBT ths rato “ofthe maaimut Usable output sonal Causes SEP Gotcsn el shea pee cent) to the infu sable, gut sera (general fr ‘isn te Tae cf abolt'96°ty. “Ayame toage ot 40 is areal ascepabe: ‘le of 30'dn‘ i excetional for any audio "em44 RCA Recewine Tune MaNuat frequencies, however, and bypasses Feedback networks may also be high-frequency components around R'so used for frequency compensation and that they receive negligible attenuation, for reduction of distortion. Basically, Thus the network effectively “boosts” a feedback network returns a portion the high frequencies, This type of equal- of the output signal to the input circuit ization is called “attenuative.” of an amplifier The feedback signal ‘Some typical preamplifier stages may be returned in phase with the input are shown in the Cireuits section. ‘The signal (postive or regenerative feed- location of the freque hack) of T80 degrees out of phase with network or “equalizer the input signal. (negative, inverse, or ducing system will depend on the types degenerative feedback). In cither case, ‘of recordings which are to be repro> the feedback can be made proportional Guced and on the pickup devices used, to cither the output voltage or the out- ‘A ceramic high-fidelity phonograph put current, and can be applied to either pickip is usually designed to provide the input voltage or the input current Proper compensation for the RIAA re. A-negative feedback signal proportional Sording characteristic when the pickup © the output current raises the output is operated into the load resistance spec: impedance of the amplifier; negative ified by its manufacturer. Because this feedback proportional to. the -oUtput type of pickup also has relatively high voltage reduces the output impedance, Output (0.5 to 1.5 volts), it does not A negative feedback signal applied 10 require the use of either an equalizer the input current decreases the input network of a preamplifier, and can be impeclance; negative. feedback applied Connected directly to the input of a 0 the input Voltage increases the input fone-control amplifier and/or power impedance, Opposite effects ste pro amplifier. duced by positive Teedback, ‘A_magnetic high-fidelity phono A simple negative or inverse feed. graph pickup, on the other hand, tsually back network which provides. high- has" an essentially “flat. frequeney-re- frequency boost is shown in Fig. 8S, sponse characteristic and very low out. This network provides equalization ut (1 to 10. milvolts). Because a comparable to that obiained with Fig. pickup of this type merely reproduces S4, but is more suitable for low-level the recording characterise, it must be amplifier stages because it does not re- followed by an equalizer network, a3 quire the first amplifier stage to provide well as by a preamplifier having suf high-level low frequencies. In addition, Ficient voltage gain to provide the input the inverse feedback improves the die voltage required by the tone-control tortion characteristics of the amplifier. amplifier and/or power amplifier. Many Some preamplifier or Tow-level designs include both the equalizing and audio amplifier circuits include variable amplifying circuits in @ single unit resistors or potentiometers which fanc- ‘A high-fidelity magnetic-ape pick- tion as volume or tone controls, Such up ead, like a magnetic phonograph circuits should be designed to minimize pickup, reproduces the recording char- the flow of de currents through these Scteristie and has an oUiput of only a controls so that litle or no noise will few millivlts, This type of pickup de- be developed by the movable contact vice, therefore, must also be followed during the life of the circuit, Volume by an equalizing nework and pream- controls and their associated circuits plifier, or by a preamplifier which pro. should permit variation of gain from ides “builtin” equalization for the zero {0 maximum, and should attenuate NARTB characteristic all frequencies equally for all positions % Be aupieR T -aNprieR ‘Saat t ae Fig. $5—Nepave feedback frequenc)-compensation network.ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS of the variable arm of the contro. Sev- eral examples of volume controls and tone eontrols are shown in the Cireuits Tone Controls ‘A tone control is a variable fiter (or one in which at least one element is adjustable) by means of which the user may vary the frequency response of an famplifer to suit his own taste. In radio receivers and home amplifiers, the tone control usually consists of a resistance: ‘capacitance network in which the resist- lance is the variable element. The simplest form of tone control is a fixed tone-compensating or “equalia: ing” network suchas that shown in Fig. $6. This type of network is often cbewore wi Fig. $6—Tone-controleireult for fixed tone ‘compensation or “equalizing” used {0 equalize the low- and high-fre- (quency response of crystal phono- ph pickup. At low frequencies the tenuation of this network is 20.8 dB, ‘As the frequency is increased, the TOo-picofarad capacitor serves as a bypass for the S-megohm resistor, and the combined impedance of the resstor- capacitor network is reduced. Thus, ‘more of the crystal output appears ‘across the O.S-megohm resistor at high G 45 frequencies than at low frequencies, and the frequency response at the grid is reasonably flat over a wide frequency range. Fig, 57 shows a comparison be tween the output of the erystal (curve ‘A) and the output_of the equalizing petwork (curve B). The response curve Fig. S7—Curve showing output from fensital phonosraph pickup (A) and from ‘equalizing network (B). can be “fattened” still more if the Attenuation at low frequencies isi treased by changing the 0.5-megohm resistor to-0.125 megobm. "The tone-control network shown in Fig. 58 has two stages with completely separate bass apd treble controls. Fig 59 shows simplified. representations of ihe bass control of this circuit when the potentiometer is turned to its extreme Yariations (usually labeled “Boost” and Cut’). In this network, as in the erys> takequalizing network shown in Fig. 56, the parallel RC combination is the ‘controlling factor. For bass “boos,” the ‘capacitor Cz bypasses resistor Re so that Tess impedance is placed across the out- put (o grid B at high frequencies than at low frequencies. For bass “cut,” the parallel combination is shifted so that Cy bypasses Rs, causing more high frequency” than’ low-frequency output Essentially, the network is a. variable: Fig, $8 Two-stage rone-control circuit incorporating separate bass and treble controls46 RCA REcEIVING TuBE MANUAL frequency voltage divider. With proper capacitance filter across the primary of values for the components, it may be the output transformer. This filter may made to respond to changes in the Ry be fixed, with a. supplementary tone potentiometer setting for only low fre- control elsewhere, or it may form the queacies (below 1000 Hz). tone control itself. Ifthe amplier io- corporates negative feedback, the tone ease goosr ease ir control may be inserted in the feedback an 8 am [le] » network or else should be connected to SwrtyYt-8 apart of the amplifier which is. ex- ms he, 3 ternal to the feedback loop. The over- BZ ace all gain of a well designed tone-control ag network should be approximately unity ne Automatic Volume or o———+o Gain Control Fig. 59 Simplified representations of base- The chief purpose of automatic ‘control eiruit ar extreme ends of volume control (ave) or automatic gain ‘potentiometer control (age) in a radio or television recive to pevent Rotunions she Tig. sows eweme postions of oeater ole or pte, bi, the two circuits is approximately the Tess when the audio or video signal at Saint 1000 tz The table sboost™ te atenna i fing in and ot, circuit is similar to the crystalequaliz- ‘An automatic volume control cir- ing network shown in Fig. $6. In the Suit regulates the receiver rf and if gain ‘treble “cut” circuit, the parallel RC ele- 0 that this gain is less for a strong sig- tebe eat ruth parallel RC el” ha than fora wea sigan ib wa, ter ures cent te tpn oy. Whe te stl Stet i he ana er emaite he camaog Chung, heave ui reer the Te baers the resintance across the ouput. Stan change ia the vollage output of ur fhe an tage an coneewony fe re nae ‘duces the change in the speaker output 6 Bs g volume. ‘The ave circuit reduces the rf and “4 nes gag oH ME if gain for a strong signal usually by in- 27 $M creasing the negative bias of the rf, if ss and. frequency-mixer stage when the signal increases. A simple ave circuit is . 60—Sim resentation, of sH0wn in Fig. 61. On each positive half- Inebteconiel creat ettureme ends of e¥ele of the signal voltage, when the Potentiometer. diode plate is positive with respect to “The effect of the capacitor is negligible 8 cathode, the diode passes current at low frequencies; beyond. 1000 He, the signal voltage is attenuated at maximum rate of 6 dB per octave ‘The location of a tone-control net- work is of considerable importance. Tn typical radio receiver, it may be inserted. in. the plate circuit of the power tube, the ‘coupling circuit be- ween the fest af amplifer tubs. and Fis. 6!—Automaticsrolume-contral (ave) the power tube, or the grid circuit of ‘rent, the first tube. In an amplifier using @ Because of the flow of diode current ‘beam power tube ot pentode power through Ri, there is a vollage. drop amplifier without negative feedback, it across R, which makes the left end of is desirable to connect a resistance- Ry negative with respect to ground, This Fig. 60 shows extreme positions ofELEcTRon TUBE APPLICATIONS ar voltage drop across R, is applied, receivers are shown in Circuits section. through the filter Re and C, as negate In the circuit shown in Fig. 61, a bias on the grids ofthe preceding stages. certain amount of ave negative bias is ‘When the signal strength at the antenna applied to the preceding stages on a increases, therefore, the signal applied weak signal. Because it may be desir- to the ave diode increases, the voltage able to maintain the receiver rf and if ‘drop across Ry increases, the negative gain at the maximum possible value for bias voltage applied to the rf and if & weak signal, ave circuits are designed stages increases, and the gain of the rf in some cases to apply no ave bias until fnd if stages is decreased. Thus the in- the signal strength exceeds a certain Crease in signal strength at the antenna valve. These ave circuits are known as does not produce as much increase in delayed ave or dave circuits. the output of the last if’ stage as it A dave circuit is shown in Fig. 62. ‘Would produce without ave. In this circuit, the diode section Dy of When the signal streagth at the te 6ALS acts as detector and ave diode. antenna decreases from a previous steady yale, the ave circuit acts, of course, in the reverse digestion, apply: ing less negative bias, permitting the rf and if guin to increase, and thus redue- ing the decrease in the signal output of the lat if stage. In this way, when the signal strength at the antenna changes, the ave circuit acts to reduce change in the output of the last if stage, and thus acts to reduce change in loudspeaker volume. ‘The filter, C and Re, prevents the ip 62-—Delaed ave (dave) cleat, ave voltage from varying at audio fre ‘quency. The filter is necessary because Ra isthe diode load resistor and Re and the voltage. drop across Ry varies with Cy are the ave filter Because the cath- the modulation of the carrier being re- ode of diode Dy is returned through a ceived. If ave voltage were taken di- fixed supply of —3 volts to the cathode fecily from Ry without filtering, the of Dy ade current flows through Rs audio variations ia ave voltage would and Re in series with Dy. The voltage vary the receiver gain so.as to smooth drop caused by this current piaces the ut the modulation of the carrier. To ave lead at approximately —3 volts (less avoid this effect, the ave voltage i taken the negligible drop through D.). When from the capacitor C. Because of the the average amplitade of the rectified resistance Ry in series with C, the capa- signal developed across R, does not ex- Gitor C ean charge and discharge at Only ceed 3 volts, the ave ead remains at 8 comparatively slow rate. The ave volt- 3 volts. Hence, for signals not strong age therefore cannot vary at frequencies enough to develop 3 volts across Re 8s high asthe audio range but can vary the bias applied to the controlled tubes at frequencies high enough to compen- stays constant at a value giving. high Sate for most fading. Thus the filer sensitivity, Permits the ave circuit to smooth out "However, when the average ampli Variations in signal due to fading, but ude of rectified signal voltage. across Prevents the circuit from smoothing Out R, exceeds 3 vols, the plate of diode audio modulation , ‘becomes more negative than the It will be seen that an ave circuit cathode of Ds and current flow in diode and a diode-detector circuit are much D, ceases. The poteatial of the ave alike. Its therefore convenient ina re- lead is then controlled by the voltage ‘civer to combine the detector and the developed across ‘R.. Therefore, with ave diode ina single stage. Examples of further inerease in signal strength, the how these functions are combined in ave circuit applies an increasing’ ave48 RCA RECEIVING TUBE MANUAL bias voltage to the controlled stages. In low impedance offered by the diode dur- this way, the circuit regulates the re- ing conduction, C, charges up 10 the ceiver gain for strong sigaals, but per- value of the peak applied voltage. mits the gain to stay constant at a maxi During the negative excursion of imum value for weak signals, the signal, the diode does not conduct, ‘can be seen in Fig. 62 that a por- and Cy discharges through resistor Ry. tion of the —3 volts delay voltage is Because of the large time constant of applied to the plate of the detector RiC,, however, only a small percentage diode D,, this portion being approxi- of the voltage acress C; is lost during mately equal to R./(Rs + Ry times —3 the interval between horizontal syne volts. Hence, with the circuit constants pulses. During succeeding positive a shown, the detector plate is made cycles, the incoming signal must over: ‘negative with respect to its cathode by come the negative charge stored in Ci approximately one-half volt. However, before the diode conducts, and plate this voltage does not interfere with de’ current flows only at the peak of each tection because itis not large enough positive cycle. The voltage across C., to prevent current flow in the tube. therefore, is determined by the level of ‘Automatic gain control (age) com- the peaks of the positive cycles, of the pensates for fluctuations in rf picture sync’ pulses carrier amplitude, The peak carrier level "The negative voltage developed rather than the average carrier level is across resistor Rr by the syne pulses is controlled by the age voltage because filtered by resistor Re and capacitor Cy the peaks of the syne pulses are fixed {0 remove the 15,730-cycle ripple of when inserted on a fixed carrier level. the horizontal syne pulse, The de out- ‘The peak carrier level may be deter- put is then fed to the if and rf amplic mined by measurement of the peaks of fiers as an age voltage the syne pulses at the output of the This age system may be expanded video detector. to include amplification of the age sig- “A conventional age circuit, such as nal before detection of the peak level, or that shown in Fig. 63, consists of a diode amplification of the dc output, or both. A direct-coupled amplifier must be used for amplification of the de signal, The ad ne vats v0 wet iaet” addition of amplification makes the sys. ns ee tem more sensitive to changes in carrier towel ‘A “keyed” age system such as that shown in Fig, 64 is Used to eliminate flutter and to improve noise immunity ‘weak ngnal areas. This sytem pro- ler more rapid tion than the Gon: detector circuit and an RC filter. The ventional age circuits because the filter time constant of the detector circuit is circuit can employ lower capacitance made large enough to prevent the Pic) Sni'resstance falas, {ore content from influencing the mag. nitude of the age voltage. The outpt ai woltage (age. voltage) is equal to. the {REE peak valve of the incoming signal Coupling circu CiRy. is Wed to mn ered. prove the low-frequency "response, “The video amplifier stage in atele- Pune used as video umpire inode vision receiver usually employs a pen {pes 6CL6 and TEBYTA, oF the pene toeaype tobe specially designed t0 Wve sections of types SAWEA ‘and Amplify the wide band of frequencies GANSA ontained in te video signal 8nd, at Th jumlnance ampli in acolo. the atme tine, 19 provide igh 32 wey recier a. comentona per stage, Pentodes are more usefUl Yigeo amplifier having a bandwidth of than trodes in’ such stages Decale proximately 3.3 Mil. In & color te. they have. high transconductance (60 22hee""the portion of the output of Provide high gin) together with 10 the stcond detccor hich Us within Put and. output interelectrode, ca- the “Frequency “band” trom appront pacitances o permit the broadband —(MS,¢°egueney band, from | approxi Feauiemens to bested. Anpprer- Gandpaasamptier a8 shown Inthe imate “igure of meri” for a particular Angas amin, oe {ube for this application can be deter- COPE diagram in Fig. 77. The cok td heat Ue rado°oC ts eeon | aa Re en iesom f taip [oee caine tiga Tapacees Co and Cos en as follows: Trenance |_} cole BERNE ee et Ment = co Bn “Typist values for thi gure are in the teen }—fsceor] De ot 300 Ir pene i ‘A copical video. amplifier ste, aera such Ag Bet Showa a Bie eae i nese been the secon deiesot of cakes) Leater Ts aension reedeet end he pours ae tebe, The eontrast contol, Re, fo this Bock davon of vdeoarelier sireuit controls the gin of the video "shone calor lesinon vetion, Simpler tobe. The inductance, Ty in Series with the load resistor, Rry main’ sychronizing sian tein th plate load impedance a area. tained in he tively constant value with increasing or “burst.” con: al may then ‘be fed tube, At the sameELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS time, a delayed horizontal pulse may bbe applied 10 the Keyer tube. The out- put of the keyer tube is applied to the burst amplifier tube and the signal is then fed to the 3.58MHz oseillator and to the “color-killer” stage. ‘The color killer applies a bias volt- age to the bandpass amplifier in the ab- sence of burst so that the color section, or ehrominance chanael, of the receiver Femains inoperative during blackand- white brosdeasts. A threshold control varies the bias and controls the burst level at which the killer stage operates. ‘The output of the 3.58-MHz os. cillator and the output of the bandpass amplifier are fed into phase and ampli: tude demodulator circuits, The output of each demodulator circuit is an elec: trical representation of a color-dife. ence signal, Le, an actual color signal minus the black-and-white, or Tumi- nance, signal. The two colordifference signals are combined to. produce the third “color-diference signal: each of the three signals then represents one of the primary colors ‘The three color-diference signals are usually applied to the grids of the three electron guns of the color picture tube, in which ease the black-and-white sinnal from the luminance amplifier may be applied simultaneously 10 the cath odes. The chrominance and luminance Signals then combine to produce the Color picture, In the absence of trans: mitted’ color information, the. chrom fuance channel is cut off by the color Killer, as described above, and only the luminance signal is applied to the pic- ture tube, producing a: black-and-white picture TV Scanning, ‘Syne, and Deflection For reproduction of a transmitted picture ina television Teceiver, the 61 face of a cathode-ray tube is scanned with an electron beam white the inten= sity of the beam is varied to control the emitted light at the phosphor screen. The scanning is synchronized with a scanned image at the TV trans- mitter, and. the black-through-white picture areas of the scanned. image fre converted into an clecrical signal that controls the intensity of the elec- tron beam in the picture tube at the Scanning Fundamentals ‘The scanning procedure used in the United States employs. horizontal linear scanning in an odd-ine inter- Taced pattern. "The standard scanning pattern’ for television systems includes 2 total of $25 horizontal scanning lines jn a rectangular frame having an aspect ratio of 4 0 3. The frames ate re peated at a rate of 30 per second, with to fields interlaced in each frame, The first field in each frame consists of all odd-number “scanning lines, and the Second fleld in each frame consists of all even-number scanning lines. The field repetition rate is thus 60 per sec- fond, and the vertical scanning! rate is 60 He. ‘The geometry of the standard odd- line interlaced searing pattern is illus- trated in Fig. 78. The scanning. beam starts at the upper left corner of the frame at point “A, and sweeps across the frame with uniform velocity to cover all the picture clements in one horizontal line. At the end of each trace, the beam is rapidly returned to the Teft side of the frame, as shown by the dashed line, to begin the next horizontal line, The horizontal. lines slope downward in the direction of Scanning because the vertical deflecting signal simultaneously produces verti= 3 + D Fig, 78—The oddline interlaced scanning procedure.62 RCA REcervine TuszE MANUAL cal scanning motion, which is very slow control the horizontal and vertical compared with the horizontal scanning scanning generators of the receiver. ‘speed. The slope of the horizontal line Fig. 79 shows a portion of the de- trace from left to right is greater than tected video signal. When the picture the slope of the retrace from right to i bright, the amplitude of the signal left because the shorter time of the re- is low, Successively deeper grays are trace does not allow as much time for represented by higher amplitudes unt, vertical deflection of the beam. Thus, at the “blanking level” shown in the the beam is continuously and slowly diagram, the amplitude represents a defected downward as it scans the complete absence of light. This "black horizontal lines, and its position is suc- evel” is held constant at a value equal cessively lower as the horizontal scan- to 7S per cent of the maximum ampli- ning proceeds. tude of the signal during transmission. Atihe bottom of the field, the ver- The remaining 25 per cent of the signal tical retrace begins, and the beam is amplitude is used for synchronization brought back to the top of the frame information. Portions of the signal in to bein the second or even-number this region (above the black level) can field. ‘The vertical “fiyback” time is not produce light. very fast compared tothe (ace, but It the transmission of a television Js slow compared to the horizontal picture, the camera becomes inactive scanning speed; therefore, some hori- atthe conclusion of ‘each horizontal zontal fines are produced during the line and no. picture “information is Vertical Ayback. transmitted while the seanning beam ‘All odd-number fields begin at is retracing to the beginning of the point A in Fig. 78 and are the sime. next line. ‘The scanning beam of the Al even-number fields begin at point receiver is maintained at the black level C ‘and are the same. Because the be- during this retrace interval by. means Binning of the evened scanning at of the blanking pulse shown in Fig. 79. Cris on the same horizontal level as Immediately after the besinning of the A, with a separation of one-half line, blanking period, the signal amplitude fand the slope of all lines is the same, rises further above the black level to the even-number lines in the even fields provide a horizontal-synchronization fall exactly between the odd-number pulse that initiates the action of the ines in the odd fed. horizontal scanning generator. "When the bottom line of. the picture is ‘Syne reached, a similar vertical-synchronisa- In addition to picture information, tion puise initiates the action of the the composite video signal from the vertical scanning generator to move the Video detector of a television receiver scanning spot back to the top of the Contains timing pulses to assure that pattern, the picture is produced on the face- "The syne pulses in the composite plate of the picture tube at the right video signal may be separated from tne {nstant and in the right focation. These video information in the output of the pulses, which are called syne pulses, second or video detector by means of — =~ meow vever ~~ guace Lever on BEAN EVES Fig. 79—Detected video signal,ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS 6 the triode circuit shown in Fig. 80. In each horizontal line) and a pulse width this circuit, the time constant of the of 5.1 microseconds, The equalizing network R.C, is long with respect to the pulses have a width approximately half interval between pulses. During each the horizontal pulse width, and a repe- pulse, the grid is driven positive and tition rate of 31,500 per second; they Graws current, ‘thereby charging ca- occur at half-lite intervals, with six pacitor C;. Consequently, the grid de- pulses immediately preceding and six velops a bias which is slightly greater following the vertical syachronizing pulse. The vertical pulse is repeated at - 4 rate of 60 per second (one for each field), and has a width of approxi- mately 190 microsecords. The serra- 6 Sing tions “in the vertical pulse occur at — “GRUNT halftine intervals, dividing the complete 4, pulse into six individual pulses that BE. ‘provide horizontal synchronization dur- - {ng the vertical retrace. (Although the " pleture is blanked out during the verti Fig, 80—Syneseparator clea. Cal retrace time, itis necessary to Keep than the cutoff voltage of the tube. the horizontal scanning generator syn Because plate current lows only dur- chronized.) ing the ‘syne-pulse period, only the “All the pulses deseribed above are amplified pulse appears in the output. produced vat the transmitter by the This sync-separator stage discriminates Synchronizing-pulse generator; "their waveshapes and spacings are held the bias developed on the grid is pro- within very close tolerances 0. pro- portional to the strength of the in- ide the required synchronization of Coming signal, the circuit also has the eceiver and transmitter scanning. advantage of being relatively inde- “The horizontal sync signals are ‘pendent of signal fuctuations. separated from the total syne’ in a dif- ‘After the synchronizing signals are ferentiating circuit that -has a short Separated from the composite video time constant compared to the width signal, it is necessary to filter out the of the horizontal pulses. When the total horizontal and vertical syne signals so syne signal is applied to the differen- that each can be applied to its respee- atin shown in Fig. 82, the tive deflection generator. This fitering capacitor charges completely very soon js accomplished by RC circuits designed after the leading edge of each pulse, to filter out all but the desired syn- and remains charged for a period of chronizing signals. Although the hori- time equal to practically the entire zontal, vertical, and equalizing pulses pulse width. When the applied voltage are ali rectangular pulses of the same is removed at the time corresponding Amplitude, they difer in frequency and to the trailing edge of each pulse, the pilse width, as shown in Fig. 81. The capacitor discharges completely within horizontal syne pulses have a repetition a very short time, As a result, a posie rate of 15,750 per second (one for tive peak of voliage is obtained for tpg, euaszne Ener VERTICAL ARSE Leanne B3Sm) “SERS ‘Baan ‘ee pom ep fe F gees Coo oe Coe a Fig. 81—Waveform of TV synchroniing pulses (Ht ‘seconds, oF 635 ga)64 RCA Recervine TupE MANUAL ior, eauazne veg cuz rom LULU wee ox ee os lt ae a Aa : { Fig. 82—-Separation of the horizontal syne signals from the toal syne by a diferentiatng each leading edge and a negative peak “The vertical syne signal ie sepa- for the ‘tailing edge of every pulse, rated from the total sync in an inegrat- One polarity produced by the charg: ing civcutt which has atime. constant ing current for the leading edge of the that i Tong compared with the duration applied pulse and the opposte polat- of the Sumrosecond horizontal pulses, i0fs obfaincd from the Scharge cur~ but shor compared withthe 190-0: rent corresponding to the traling edge second vertical pulsewidth Fig. 83 of the pulse, Shows the general circuit configuration "As mentioned above, the serrations in the vertical pulse ate inserted 0 provide the dferentnted output needed {S tynchronize the horizontal canning fecorntor during. the tine of vertical Synchronization, During the. vertical Hlnking pesod, many’ more vollage peaks are wvatlsble than are necessity for horizontal synchronization (only ‘ne pulse used for each, horizontal line period), The check marks above the diferentisted output in Fig. 82 Ine ‘hate the voltage peaks used to syn- Ghronize the shoriontal deflection enerator for one fed. Because. the Se ise ade tnine nyo nae itive pulses eccuring at approx: Fs. 82—Separation of verteal ne seal rately the right hortsontal timing, the [rom the total syne for odd and even fields este syoc pubes and aerate it heating per (Dae he me Ferentiated postive pulses produced by #H sReriz Tvl fr vera amine the equalizing pulse and the serrated Nerieal information have no effect on used, together with the input and out Horizontal timing, Itean be seen Wat put signals for both odd and even fl though the tot sync signal includ: "The period between horizontal. pulse, ing vertical synchronizing information) when no voltages applied to the RC {Pepolied to th creit of Fig. #2, only circuit so much longer than the hot: Rortotal synchronisation information Soot’ pulse width tha the capartor ppears at the output fas time to: dicharge almost dawn t0ELectnon TUBE APPLICATIONS 65 zero, When the vertcs) pulse is ap- diference in the ailing edge of the plied, however, the iategrated voltage vertical synchronizing signal for even across the capacitor builds up to the and odd fields. value required for triggering the verti- "Tn fringe areas, two conditions cal scanning generator. This integrated complicate the process of syne separa. voltage across the eapacitor reaches its tion, First, the incoming signal avaiable maximum amplitude at the end of the at the anfenna is weak and susceptible vertical pulse, and then declines prac- to fading and other variations; second, tically t0 zero, producing a pulse of the receiver is operating at or near the tWiangular wave shape shown for maximum gain, which makes it, ex: the complete ‘vertical synchronizing tremely susceptible to interference from pulse. Although the total syne signal pulse-type noise generated by certain {including horizontal information) is fypes of electrical equipment, ignition applied to the circuit of Fig. 83, there- systems, switches, or the like, Some fore, only vertical synchronization in- type of noise-immunity provision is formation appears at the output almost essential for acceptable per The vertical synchronizing pulses formance, Noise may be reduced’ oF are repeated in the tolal syne Signal eliminated from the syne and age cir- at the field frequency of 60 per sec- cuits by gating or by & combination of fond, Therefore, the integrated output gating, inversion, and cancellation, An voltage across the capacitor of the RC example, of the latter method is shown ircuit of Fig. 83 can be coupled to in Fig. 84. In this circuit the 6GY6, the vertical seanning generator to pro- which has two independent” control ‘ide vertical synchronization. The six grids, serves the dual function of age equalizing pulses immediately preced- amplifer and noise inverter. Because ing and following the vertical pulse the sync tps of the video signal at improve the accuracy of the vertical grid No. 1 of the 6GY6 drive the tube synchronization for better interlacing. hear its cutoff region, any noise signal The equalizing pulses that precede the extending above the tip level will a vertical pulses make the average value pear inverted across the grid:No.? load ‘of applied voltage more nearly the resistor R. This inverted noise signal is same for even and odd fields, 50 that re-combined with the video signal and the integrated voltage across the capa- fed to the sync separator at point “A’ citor adjusts to practically equal values in Fig, 84, where noise cancelation for the two fields before the vertical takes place. This process leaves. the pulse begins. The equalizing pulses that syne pulses relatively free of disturbing. follow the vertical pulse minimize any noise and results in a stable picture vom SSI Fig. 54 Typical nolt-cancellation circu,66 RCA REcEIVING TuBE Manual To prevent reduction of receiver gain igh, theoretically approsching infinity. ue 10 the effect of noise on the age In addition, if very litle of the total amplifier, a portion of the inverted time is spent at zero current, the circuit foise signal is fed to the second con- would require a tremendous amount of tol grid, grid No.3, of the 6GY6 to de power. Furthermore, the operation cout off or gate the age amplifier when of the switch would be rather critical ‘noise pulse occurs. With regard to both its opening and its closing. Finally, because the deflection Horizontal Deflection field would be phased in only one di- rection, the beam would have to be In the horizontal-deflection stages centered at the extreme left of the of a television receiver, a current that screen for zero yoke current. Varies linearly with time and has a If a capacitor is placed across the ‘sufficient peak-to-peak amplitude must switch, as shown in Fig. 86, the yoke be passed through the horizontal-de- fection-yoke winding to develop a magnetic field adequate to deflect the clectron beam of the television picture I. tube. (This type of deflection is differ- © ‘ent from that used in a cathode-ay vee ‘oscilloscope, where the beam is de- fected clectrostatially) After” the beam is defected completly scross the face of the picture tube, it must be returned ‘very. quickly to. its starting, point. (AS explained previously, the Beam. is extinguished Guring this re- trace by the blanking pulse incorporated inthe composite video. signal, or in some. cases’ by additional” external banking derived from the horizontal- Aetettn sc “The simplest form of a defection —~ circult shown in Tig. 85. Tn this ett. Fig, 86—Addition of capacitor to permit St the yoke impedance Lis assumed AGE ringing, and yokecarent (opp) Sul the yoke impedance assumed Oar cage (ome) melon current still increases linearly when the Switch fs closed at time t= 0. Howe ever, when the switch is opened at time {= , a tuned circuit & formed by vee the parallel combination of Land C. ‘The resulting yoke currents and switch Smolen Torm of defccion circuit, voltages are then as shown in Fi. 86, Fig. 85—Simplest form o deflection cleus THe! Cyerent is at a maximum when switch is closed, the yoke current starts the voltage equals zero, and the volt= from zero and’ increases. linearly. At age is at a maximum when the current any time t the current i is equal to equals zero, If tis assumed that there EUL, where E is the applied voltage. are no losses, the ringing frequency When the switch is opened at @ later fu is equal to 1/(2rVLC). time tthe current instantly drops from "Ifthe switch is closed again at any a valu of Et/L to zero, time the capacitor voltage is not equal ‘Although the basic circuit of Fig. 0 2er0, an infinite switch current ows 85 crudely approaches the requirements as a result of the capacitive discharge. for deflection, it presents some obvious However, if the switch is closed at the ‘problems and limitations. The voltage precise moment t. that the capacitor ‘cross the switch becomes extremely voltage equals zero, the capacitor cur-ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS rent effortlessly transfers to the switeh, fd a new transient condition results Fig. 87 shows the yokecurrent and switch-voltage waveforms for this new condition, If the switch is again opened at ts closed at ty and so on, the desired ig, 87—Yoke-current (upper) and switche volar (ower) waveform hem ck i sweep results, the peak switch voltage f finite, and the average supply cur- fent is zero, The deflection system is then lossless and efficient and, because the average yoke current is zero, beam Aecentering is avoided. The only fault of the circuit of Fig. 86 is the critical timing ‘of the switch, particularly at time t = t However, if the switch is shunted by @ damper’diode, as shown in Fig. 88, the diode acts as a closed switch as soon as the capacitor vollage reverses slightly. ‘The switch may then be closed at any time between t and t. Fis, 88—Incorporaiion of damper diode. Fig, 89 shows a typical horizontal coutput-and-dellection cireuit used in tele- vision receivers. In addition to supply- ing the defection energy required for horizontal defection of the picture-tube beam, this circuit provides the high de voltage required for the ultor (anode) of the picture tube and the "boosted" B vol- tage for other portions of the receiver. ‘The horizontal-output tube is usually a beam power tube such as the 6IBGA, GIG6A, oF GIESA. er In this circuit, a sawtooth voltage from the horizonial-osillator tube Is applied to the grid No, 1of the horizon: takoutput tube. When this voltage rises above the cutoff point of the output tube, the tube conducts a sawtooth of late current which is fed through the futo-transformer to the horizontal-de- Aecting yoke. At the end of the horizon- tal-scanning cycle, which lasts for 63.4 microseconds, the sawtooth voltage on the grid suddenly cuts off the output tube. This sudden change sets up an oscillation of about $0 to 70 kHz in the output circuit, which may be consid ered as an inductor shunted by the stray capacitanceof the eircuit. During the first half of this oscillation, a positive voltage appears across the transformer. In the mM » SEske ae Fig. 89—Typical horizomaldefection and high-voltage circuit second half of the cycle, the voltage ‘wings below the plate supply voltage, and the damper diode conducts, damp: ing out the oscillation. At the same time, the current through the deflecting yoke reverses and reaches its negative peak. ‘As the damper-diode current decays t0 2ero, the output tube begins to conduct ‘again. The yoke current, therefore, is composed of current resulting from Gamper-diode conduction followed by futpitetabe conduction. ‘When the output tube is suddenly cut off, the high-voltage pulse produced Js increased by means of an extra wind- jing “on the transformer. This high- Voltage pulse charges. a. high-voltage capacitor through the high-voltage rec-68 RCA REcervinc Tuse MANUAL tifer, The output of this circuit is the ‘The third method is to provide ex- de high-voltage supply for the picture tra gain so that feedback ‘techniques tube. The high-voltage rectifier also ob- can be used to provide linearity. If tains is filament power through a sepa- loop feedback of 20 or 30 dB is used, rate winding on the horizontal-output tube gain variations and nonlinearities transformer. become fairly insignificant. The feed- ‘Current lowing through the damper back automatically provides the neces- diode charges the “boost” capacitor sary “predistortion” to correct low- through the damper portion of the trane- frequency. limitations. Tn addition, the former winding. The polarity of the coupling of miscellaneous signals (such charge on the capacitor is such that the as power-supply hum or horizontal- voltage at the low end of the winding deflection signals) in the amplitying is increased above the plate supply volt- loop is suppressed. age, or B+. This higher voltage or A modified multivibrator in which “boost” is used for the outpottube the vertical-output tube is part of the plate supply, and may also supply the oscillator circuit is used in the vertical- Seflection oscillators and other low- deflection stage of many television re- ‘current-drain circuits in the receiver. ceivers. This stage supplies the defec- tion energy required for _ vertical Vertical Deflection eflection of the picturestube beam. A simplified combined vertical osilator- ‘The vertical-deflection circuit in a output stage is shown in Fig. 90. Wave- television receiver is essentially a class shapes at critical pointe of the circuit A audio amplifier with a complex load are included to illustrate the develop- line, severe low-frequency requirements ment of the desiced current through the (much lower than 60 Hz), and a need vertical-output transformer and deflec- for controlled linearity. The equivalent ing yoke low-frequency response for a 10-percent “The current waveform through the deviation from linearity is 1 Hz. deflecting yoke and output transformer TThe required performance can be should be a sawtooth to provide the de- ‘obtained ina vertial-deflection circuit sired deflection, The grid and plate volt- jn any of three ways. The amplifier age waveforms of the output tube could may be designed to provide a Mat re- also be sawtooth except for the effect of sponse down to 1 Hz. This design, the inductive components in the yoke hhowever, requires an extremely large and transformer. The effect of these in- ‘output transformer and. immense ca- ductive components must be taken into pacitors. “Another arrangement is to consideration, however, particularly esign the amplifier for fairly good during retrace. The fast rate of current low-frequency response and predistort change during retrace time (which is the generated signal. approximately 1/15 as long. as trace Le baw Fig. 90—Simplifed combined verticaorciltorand-output stage,ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS time) causes a high-voltage pulse at the plate which could give a trapezoi- al waveshape to the plate voltage and cause increased plate. current, excess damping, and lengthened retrace time. However, the grid voltage is made suf- ficiently negative during retrace to keep the tube close’ to cute, as described below. ‘The frequency, and the relative de- vation of the positive and negative por tions of each cycle, are dependent on the values of resistors Ry and Ry and the RC combination RiCe, as explained in the section on multivibrators. The desired trapezoidal ‘waveshape at the rid of Va is cteated by capacitor Cy and resistor Ry If Re were equal to zero, Ci, would cause the grid-vollage Wwaveshape to take the form shown in Fig 91(a). When Reis sufficiently large, Gy does not discharge completely when V; conducts. When V, is cut off, there- fore, the voltage on the grid of Vs im- mediately rises to the voltage across The resulting waveshape is shown in Fig. 91(6). The negative-going pulse Of the grid-voltage waveshape prevents the high plate pulse from causing ex: ‘cess conduction, and thereby prevents overdamping. Fig. 91—Waveforms showing effect of Ry in Fig. 90. ‘This verticaldflection stage uti- lizes twin-triode tubes such as the 6DR7 and 6GE7. The 6GF7 is particularly suitable for this application because it incorporates dissimilar units t0 provide for the diferent operating requirements of the oscillator and output sections, High-Voltage Regulation In color television receivers, it is very important to regulate the voltage supply for the picture tube Poor regulation of the high voltage can adversely affect the performance of the focusing and convergence circuits so that picture blooming results. In addi- 69 ion, excessive voltage or current may be applied to the high-voltage rectifier, horizontal-output tube, and horizontal. ‘output (flyback) transformer so. that the useful life of these components is substantially shortened. In modern color television receivers, regulation of ‘the high voltage is accomplished by use of ‘a shunttype clectronie voltage regulator Connected across the output of the high- Yoltage power supply or by use of a pulse-ype regulator connected in shunt with the flyback transformer, ‘Shunt ‘Regulator Cireuit—Fig. 92 shows the schematic diagram of a typi- cal shunt regulator circuit, This circuit uses a 6BK4B sharp-cutoff beam triode for the regulator tube and is suitable for regulation of the output of a high- voltage, bigh-impedance’ supply. The cathode of the 6BK4B beam triode is held at a fixed positive potential with respect. to ground. Because the {rid potential is Kept slightly less posi- tive By the voltage drop across resistor R,, the tube operates in the negative gid region and’ no. grid curt is ‘When the output voltage, ey, rises as a result of a decrease in load current, Fig. 92—High-voltage regulator circut for ‘olor television. 1 small fraction of the additional volt- sage is applied to the grid of the tube by the vollage-divider circuit consisting of R, and Rr. This increased grid voltage causes the tube to draw an increased current from the unregulated supply. The increased current, in turn, causes 1 voltage drop across the high internal impedance of the unregulated supply, R,, which tends to counteract the origi nal rise of the voltage. If desired, the70 RCA ReceIvIne TusE MANUAL arid may be connected to a variable tube current by means of @ special point on the voltage divider to allow winding on the My-back transformer Some adjustment of the output-voltage und use of the resultant voliage drop level, (cross a resistor) to control the grid ‘The grid voltage for the 6BK4B circuit of the regulator tube. can also be obtained from a tap on the ‘Fig. 93 shows the schematic dia- SEES ek PARE rm ta nln arr tt Reece AEN als aie Sia ha Me fot ee eee oat Sel note Sufi truer be tag Se TSSage leat MM, aS ate gee RE Serene wraore mih oes URVEA wld at Burg eae HOUT Cycle DEINE jetta pes Oe EA Seance phate EWS ci ies ue cde wr TEINS Eeictle Pte Syean andes an Se iit eta occa: BS ae pute ie He Seo the hola voir sot Slt Che's Eiteiaty BE Salta Phone ete ema Be "he Sin enol cetse ret: RURSgl Rta cl Sede ses,mrcem tablvnsSimpotce hg" eat fe sae ‘SatSmu ote ghee es She ti dye Ot edt hy then ‘ntae te replete’ Stace QE tat le he vn directly across the output of the recti- potential of the {7TKV6A at B+. With fers error toe bfeured to fev petocahoue yea ato handle ‘ full amount a the a and the screen grid negative with re- voltage (approximately ilovolts) ject to the cathode, the regulator tut “eas TROY ake Pele, he aor ie Tu, ea tide SAGE OO ding he te to Provide adequate Cray protes- period, however, the damper tube be- tion, and a relatively Targe area is to ra for vollane ieutation. Invade, comes reverse-biased, and the voltage Fane highwttane recaher ia ke: on the plate of the regulator tube be- tion, the high-voltage rectifier is re °° ‘quired to. conduct fullload current sins to rise. This increasing voltage is Continuously. The shunt regulator main coupled 10 the screen grid. through tains a constant high voltage by sensing C: and Ry and to the control grid changes in the B Boost voltage, which through the interelectrode capacitance are indicative of changes in beam of the tube. ‘current, and increasing or decreasing ‘The waveforms in Fig. 93 show conduction accordingly. that at the start of retrace the plate Pulse Regulator Circult—in a and screen grid of the ITKV6A have plse-regulator system, the regulator both been driven positive with respect Circuit is effectively shunted across part to the cathode and the control. grid ff the horizontal winding of the hori- has become less negative with respect 2ontal-output transformer. During oper- to the cathode. The regulator tube then ation, the pulse-regulator circuit main- begins to conduct. The pulses impressed tains’ a substantially constant pulse on the screen and control grids are amplitude in the primary winding of short in duration so that the screen the horizontal-output transformer with grid remains. postive with respect. to changing loads on the high-vollage the cathode and the control grid re power supply. A constant-amplitude, mains near cathode potential for only stepped-up pulse is then applied to the a short time. The regulator tube is high-voltage rectifier tube, and the high driven into conduction for approxi- voltage developed from this pulse is mately 2 to 4 microseconds at the start ‘maintained at a constant value. In the of retrace and is then cut off. As the pulse-regulator system, regulator con- beam current increases or decreases, tol is achieved by sampling the picture- the voltage developed across the re”ELECTRON TUBE APPLICATIONS a gous, SSL tan Seri e250 ya’ "3 vcrage onoe wes m ster Fig. 93—Schemarie diagram and significant waveforms for a typical pulse-regulator sistive voltage-divider network Rs, Ra, moval of the energy from the rising IR, and R, tracks these changes and i= edge of the flyback pulse in this fash applied to the control grid of the regu- ion, the height of the pulse used to lator tube, Tn this way, the conduction develop the high voltage is controled. fof the regulator tube is increased or At the same time interference with the decreased 25. required to maintain a shape of the deflection pulse is held constant high-voltage output. By re- to @ minimum.2 Color Demodulation Jo the transmission of picture sig- nals for color-television receivers, all the color information is contained in threo signals, a luminance (black-and- white) or monochrome signal and two Chrominance signals. The luminance Signal, which is called the Y signal, con- tains brightness information only. The voltage response of the Y signal is made similar to the brightness response ff the human eye by use of a composite Signal that contains definite propor tions of the red, green, and blue signals from the colorteleviion camera’ GO per cent red, 59 per cent. green, and TY per cent blue). This Y signal, which inelndes syne and blanking pulses, pro- vides a correct monochrome picture in conventional black-and-white televi- For the generation of color-televi sion signals, the Y signal is subtracted from the red, green, and blue signals to provide a new set of color-difference signals, which ate designated as R-Y, BY, and G-Y. All of the original pic ture’ information is contained in the Y signal, the R-Y signal, and the B-Y signal. Therefore, the G-Y signal is not contained in the transmitted signal, but is synthesized in the receiver by proper combination of the R-Y and B-Y sig- nals (Color signals transmitted under present color-television standards are not R-Y and B-Y, but a similar pair of signals designated as T and Q. In the color-television receiver, R-Y and B-Y Signals are demodulated directly from the Land Q signals with negligible loss aeeeenaL A | movuLATOR| tesa of wana eS RCA Recervine TuBE MANUAL of color quay. For purgoes of si- pliciy, only Re¥ and BLY signals are omidered in this explanation Tn add fiona BO-depree phaseshift_ network is Shown the phases angle could te, and often ie some other valve) Because the jmioance signal and the $90 color aiflerence gis est tewansmised with a standard 6e Chanoel "the two" olor “sgnals are combined Into one signal at the tas: er and are independently recovered the receiver 6). proper detstion technique, A color tuber of =p- proximately 388° Mir ised. for Cransmiting the color information thin the Mie spectrum ofthe tle ‘ison stan. As shown in Fig. 3, the 35e Mir subcarir and’ one tthe Colordiference signals re applied recy (0 balanced AME modulo. {he other color-difereace signal Pls directly toa second balanced AM Poulton andthe 3SE-MHesubcaer applied to this second “modulator throught a 90-degee phase shifting net work The talatced modultors ee tively cancel both the inva color fifernce signals andthe sbsarer Siena and. the output contains only ite sidebanas of ihe Combined chron mance sipal Recovery of the color information atthe recccr involves a proces called ‘yachronous dtecton. Inti proces, ‘ro separate detectors are sed to Cover the. separate. color information four a two separate modulators were used to combine the information atte ansoiter The 338 Mie bear, which was suppresed dutiog tans Son, must be inserted atthe necelver for recovery of the colo information, of tRBice Re & ie “ona & wR RTERENCE Fig, 9¢—Formation of combined color signal for ansmissionELectron TUBE APPLICATIONS soe TRA "esto AT foewooULaToR [SCN L eoouaTor | Sch Fig, 95—Separation of combined color signal Into two signals atthe receiver. ‘The basis of synchronous detection is the phase relationship of this reinserted 3.58:MHz subcarner, For example, the origi formation is represented in the colordiference signals A and B At the receiver, the combined color Signal is fed to two demodulators A and B, as shown in Fig. 95. At the same time, ‘a 3.58MHz subearrier is also fed to the two demodulators, with the same phase relationship that_was used in the modulators at the trans rmitter. This locally generated subcar- rier essentially duplicates or replaces the original subeatrier, which was re- moved at the transmitter. ‘The local 3.58-MHz oscillator in the colorelevision receiver is made to function at the proper frequency and phase by means of a synchronizing sig- ral sent out by the transmitter. This synchronizing signal consists of @ short burst of 3.58-MHz signals transmitted dating. the horizontal. blanking_inter val, immediately after the horizontal syne pulse, as shown in Fig. 96. psa ear Je—avatinine tnveavas—of Fig. 96—Waveform for synchronizing ‘slant Fig. 97 shows a simplified diagram of a lowlevel color demodulator fre quently used in color-television receiv ers. The locally generated. 3.58-MHz Signal is applied to the grid No. 3 Of the pentode. The transmitted color signal containing the 3.58-MHz side- bands is applied to grid No. 1. The phase of the 3.58-MHz color signal Constantly changes in accordance with its color content. For example, the fol- lowing table shows six variations in color (hve) a8 a funtion of subcarrier phase: rin reel to SEN Joss sonal ta pase it Bort) B Yellow 1 Red 9 Magenta 193, Blue 257 Cyan 299 Green ‘The basic operating principle of the color demodulator shown in Fi, 97 is that plate current from the pen- tode is zero (or quite low) unless both arid No. 1 and grid No. 3 are simul- taneously positive. For example, when the signals applied to the two grids are in phase, plate current can be ex. pected to flow for 180 degrees of each ae cycle. Conversely, when the signals are 180 degrees out of phase, plate current is cut off. The output sig ral from the detector, therefore, is @ function of the phase relationship be- tween the transmitted color signal and the locally generated subcarrier. Ina typical colortelevision re ceiver, two color demodulators of there RCA RECEIVING TUBE MANDAL type shown in Fig. 97 aze required. signal, which is appli o grid No. 1 of Ione’ demadsatr, We a.5e ile the ween gu. fubcarries peal applied dielly (o the pentode grid No. from the local Oscillation Suut"ocditior. ihe oer demode- As an oxelatr, an electron tube lator, the 3SRMHz signal from the can te employed to generate a contin ual” alternating voltages ia preseot- ay” radio broadcast Teceveny is pplication is limited practically “to Superiterodye receivers for supe the beterodying frequency. Several ci cts (represented. in Fig. 99) ty be utlland, but they all’ depend” on ‘Coding more enerey from the Bate cir cot to the grid eteuit than fs required Fig. 97—Lowleve! color demodaltor. fo eal the power los in the grid ct: burst oscillator is shifted 90 degrees itt, Feedback may be eee In'phase telre ite applied torte ect or electromagnetic coupling pentode arid No.3, As shown previ When suflcieat enety is fed back to ia Tig. 95, te demndulsor & WHEN fulcient enray is fed tack to produces RY signals These B-Y and penete for the los i REY signals are’ then combined. amar (6 6°! trout, the tube will oxiate, trinod) fo produce the GY sana as focined calee "The complete lon tance slnal then amplifed to the Teauited level in'a conventional video: mplier circuit, Ta some color-elevsion receivers, the demodustors are designed so that the color output signals can be aprliod Giresty to the color picture tae. In the dagram shown in Fig. 98, for ex dg amples te GH shest-benn demedsla & a ert TT ceucBaaron Fig. 98—Block diagram of demodulator ‘Greait sed t0 apply signals direct 19 Fig. 9—Tuned-srid wiode oscillator circuit: ‘olor picture tube, (a using flamenciype tube; (0) wing Thealercathadesype. tube, tors produce both positive and negative B-Y and RLY signals. The positive sig- ‘The action consists of regular surges nals are applied directly to the control of power between the plate and the srids (grid No. 1) of the blue and red grid cireuit at a frequency dependent Buns of the color picture tube. At the on the circuit constants of inductance ‘ame time, the negative color-diference and capacitance. By proper choice of signals are added (matrixed) in the these values, the frequency may be ad- ‘correct proportions to produce the G-Y usted over a very wide range.