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DeformationGradient

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Introduction
Thischapterondisplacementsanddeformationsistheheartofcontinuummechanics.Andthispage
andthenext,whichcoverthedeformationgradient,arethecenterofthatheart.Thedeformation
gradientisusedtoseparaterigidbodytranslationsandrotationsfromdeformations,whicharethe
sourceofstresses.
Thediscussionbelowbeginswitha
definitionofthedeformationgradient,
thenproceedsinthefollowingorder:(i)
rigidbodytranslations,(ii)
rigidbodyrotations,and(iii)combined
deformationsandrotations.Ateach
step,agradientofthedisplacement
fieldisappliedtoanalyzethesituation.
Theexamplesarepresentedin2Dto
makeiteasiertograsptheconcepts.
Asistheconventionincontinuummechanics,thevectorX isusedtodefinetheundeformed
referenceconfiguration,andx definesthedeformedcurrentconfiguration.Ineachcase,imaginethat
the(almost)squaregridonthepotatoisdisplaced,rotated,and/ordeformed.

DeformationGradient
ThedeformationgradientFisthederivativeofeachcomponentofthedeformedx vectorwith
respecttoeachcomponentofthereferenceX vector.Forx = x(X),then

Fij

xi,j

xi

Xj

x1

x1

x1

X1

X2

X3

x2

x2

x2

X1

X2

X3

x3

x3

x3

X1

X2

X3

Aslightlyalteredcalculationispossiblebynotingthatthedisplacementu ofanypointcanbedefined
as
u = x X

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andthisleadstox

= X + u

,and

X
(X + u)

u
+

u
=

I +
X

Intensornotation,thisiswrittenas
Fij = ij + ui,j

RigidBodyDisplacements
Anexampleofarigidbodydisplacementis

x = X + 5
y = Y

+ 2

Inthiscase,F = I ,isindicativeofalackof
deformations.Aswillbeshownnext,itisalsoindicative
ofalackofrotations.Clearlyrigidbodydisplacements
donotappearinthedeformationgradient.Thisisgood
becauserigidbodydisplacementsdon'tcontributeto
stress,strain,etc.

RigidBodyRotations

Anexampleofarigidbodyrotationis

x = X cos Y sin
y = X sin + Y cos

Theseequationsrotateanobjectcounterclockwise
aboutthezaxis.Noticehowtheminussignisnowin
the(1, 2) slotinsteadofthe(2, 1) slotaswasthe
caseforcoordinatetransformations.Seethispageon
rotationmatricesforanexplanation.

Inthiscase,Fis

F = [

F
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cos

sin

sin

cos

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RotationsalterthevalueofFsothatitisnolongerequaltoI eventhoughnodeformationsare
present.Thiscanleadtomisinterpretationsinwhichrigidbodyrotationsaremistakenfor
deformationsandstrain.Thisisthemaincomplicatingfactorinfinitedeformationmechanics.
Unfortunately,itwillgetevenworsewhenrotationsanddeformationsarepresentatthesametime.

SimpleDeformations

Case1Stretching
Startwithstretchinginthexandydirections.These
equationsdescribea100%elongationinthex
directionanda50%elongationintheydirection.

x = 2.0X + 0.0 Y
y = 0.0X + 1.5 Y

Thedeformationgradientis

F = [

2.0

0.0

0.0

1.5

Notethatalloffdiagonalcomponentsarezero.F11 reflectsstretchinginthexdirectionandF22
reflectsstretchingintheydirection.

Case2Shear(withRotation)
Theseequationsshearthesquareasshown.

x = 1.0X + 0.0 Y
y = 0.5X + 1.0 Y

Thedeformationgradientis

F = [

1.0

0.0

0.5

1.0

Thenonzerooffdiagonalvaluereflectsshear.The
figurealsoshowsthatthesquaretendstorotatecounterclockwise.Thisisreflectedinthe
deformationgradientbythefactthatitisnotsymmetric.

Case3PureShear
Theseequationsshearthesquarewithzeronetrotation.

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x = 1.0X + 0.5 Y
y = 0.5X + 1.0 Y

Thedeformationgradientis

F = [

1.0

0.5

0.5

1.0

Thenonzerooffdiagonalvaluesmeanthatshearingis
present.ThefactthatFissymmetricreflectsthatthere
isnonetrotation.Thezeronetrotationarisesfromthe
factthatwhilethelowerrightareaofthesquaretends
torotatecounterclockwise,theupperleftareatendstorotateclockwiseatthesametime.Therefore,
thenetrotationforthesquareasawholeiszero.

GeneralDeformations

Considertheexamplewhereanobjectis
transformedfromasquaretothepositionshownin
thefigure.Theequationstodothisare

x = 1.300X 0.375 Y
y = 0.750X + 0.650 Y

andthecorrespondingdeformationgradientis

F = [

1.300

0.375

0.750

0.650

Theobjecthasclearlybeenstretchedandrotated.Butbyhowmuch?Therotationdoesn'tcontribute
tostress,butthedeformationdoes.SoitisnecessarytopartitionthetwomechanismsoutofFin
ordertodeterminethestressandstrainstate.
Thenextpageonpolardecompositionswillshowhowtodothis.Butfornow,justacceptthatthe
followingtwostepprocessofdeformationfollowedbyrigidbodyrotationgetsyouthere...
Thefirststepisa50%stretchinthexdirectionanda25%compressionintheydirection.Thisgets
usfromtheX referencecoordinatestotheintermediatex coordinates.

x
y

= 1.50X

+ 0.00 Y

= 0.00X

+ 0.75 Y

Thesecondstepistorotatethex intermediateconfigurationtothefinalx coordinates.

cos(
)
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sin(

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x

x cos(30 ) y sin(30 )

x sin(30 )

+ y cos(30 )

1.300X 0.375 Y

0.750X + 0.650 Y

Inmatrixform,

x
{

} = [
y

0.866

0.500

0.500

0.866

x
]{
y

x
}

and

{
y

} = [

1.50

0.00

0.00

0.75

]{

andthedeformationgradientcanbewrittenastheproductoftwomatrices:arotationmatrix,anda
symmetricmatrixdescribingthedeformation.

1.300

0.375

0.750

0.650

0.866

0.500

0.500

0.866

][

1.50

0.00

0.00

0.75

Itiseasytoseethattherotationmatrixcorrespondstoa30rotation.Thematrixproductis
commonlywrittenas
F = R U

whereR istherotationmatrix,andU istherightstretchtensorthatisresponsibleforallthe

problemsinlife:stress,strain,fatigue,cracks,fracture,etc.Notethattheprocessisreadfromrightto
left,notlefttoright.U isappliedfirst,thenR .
Thispartitioningofthedeformationgradientintotheproductofarotationmatrixandstretchtensoris
knownasaPolarDecomposition.ThenextpageonPolarDecompositionswillshowhowtodothis
forthegeneral3Dcase.

OrAlternatively...

Thedeformedandrotatedstatecouldequallywell
bearrivedatbyrotatingitfirst,andthendeformingit
second.Inthiscase,thereferenceconfiguration,X ,
isfirstrotatedbythesame30angletoarriveatan
intermediateconfiguration,x .

x
y

X cos(30 ) Y sin(30 )

X sin(30 ) + Y cos(30 )

Andthentheintermediateconfigurationisdeformed
toarriveatthefinal,deformedstate

1.313x

0.325x

+ 0.325 y
+ 0.938 y

Theoffdiagonalvaluesreflectthattheobjectisbeingshearedinadditiontobeing
stretched/compressed.
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Thedeformationgradientcanbewrittenas

1.300

0.375

0.750

0.650

1.313

0.325

0.325

0.938

][

0.866

0.500

0.500

0.866

Thisiscommonlywrittenas
F = V R

whereR istherotationmatrix(sameasbefore),andV istheleftstretchtensor.Thisisalsoa

polardecomposition.

RelationshipBetweenVandU
Itisrelativelyeasytodeveloparelationship
betweenV andU .

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= V R

andF

= R U

,then

V R = R U

andpostmultiplyingthroughbyR gives
T

V R R

ButsinceR R

= I

= R U R

,thisleaves

V = R U R

astherelationshipbetweenV andU .
Alternatively,solvingforU gives

U = R

V R

VerifyingRelationshipBetweenVandU
Recallthat

V = [

1.313

0.325

0.325

0.938

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R = [

0.866

0.500

0.500

0.866

U = [

1.500

0.0

0.0

0.750

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EvaluatingR U R gives
T

R U R

0.866

0.500

0.500

0.866

1.313

0.325

0.325

0.938

][

1.500

0.0

0.0

0.750

][

0.866

0.500

0.500

0.866

whichconfirmsthatR U R isindeedequaltoV .
T

CoordinateMappingExampleHourglassing
Findthedeformation
gradientforthedeformation
showninthefigure.
Aftermuchtrialanderror...
theequationsrelating
undeformedanddeformed
statesare
1
x = X +

XY + 5
4

y = Y + 4

Theseequationscanbe
checkedbysubstitutingthecoordinatesofanyofthefourcornersoftheundeformed
squaretoarriveatthedeformedcoordinates.
Oncethemappingequationsareavailable,thedeformationgradientiseasy

1 +

1
4

1
4

F =

ThebottomrowvaluesofF21 = 0 andF22 = 1 meanthatnothingishappeningintheY

direction.AlltheactionisintheX direction.
Ofspecialnoteistheconditionatthecenterofthesquare,at(0, 0) .Inserting(0, 0) into
thedeformationgradientgives

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DeformationGradient
F = [

whichistheidentitymatrix.Thisindicatesthatthereisnodeformationatallatthecenterof
thesquareeventhoughitisclearlydeformingateveryotherlocation.
ThiseffectisknownashourglassinginFEanalysesandarisesin2Dquadrilateraland3D
brickelementsundergoingreducedintegration.Insuchcases,elementdeformationsare
onlyevaluatedatthecenteroftheelement.Asaresult,hourglassdeformationsarenot
detectedandcangrowuncontrollably.

VandUforDifferentRigidBodyRotations
Foranobjectthatisstretchedby100%alongthexaxis,butnotrotated,thedeformation
gradientandpolardecompositionsare

F = R U

] = [

cos 0
sin 0

- sin 0
cos 0

][

AndtheV R polardecompositionis

F = V R

2
0

0
1

] = [

2
0

0
1

][

cos 0
sin 0

- sin 0
cos 0

Yes,whenthereisnorotation,U ,V ,andFareallthesame.Theymustbe.
Iftheobjectisstretched100%alongthedirectionthatwasoriginallyparalleltothexaxis,
andalsorotated90,thenthedeformationgradientandpolardecompositionsare

x
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DeformationGradient
F = R U

0
2

-1

] = [

cos 90

- sin 90

sin 90

cos 90

][

AndtheV R polardecompositionis

F = V R

-1

] = [

][

cos 90

sin 90

- sin 90

cos 90

TheU stretchtensorhasn'tchangedbetweenthe0and90rotationexample,however
theV stretchtensorhas(aswellasF).V 'scomponentsalwayscorrespondto
deformationsthataredescribedaftertherotationtakesplace.

Discussion
Sowhathavewelearnedhere?Thatanydeformed
statecanbedescribedin(atleast)twodifferent
ways.Inthefirst,theobjectisdeformed,then
rotated.Inthesecond,itisrotated,thendeformed.
Sowhichismorecorrect?Theanswerisneither.
Bothareperfectlyvalid.Infact,itismorelikelythat
theobjectrotatesanddeformssimultaneously.But
ifallyouhaveisthefinaldeformedstatefroma
calculation,probablyFEA,thenallyoucandois
applyapolardecomposition.
Everyonealwayswantstoknow,"Butwhichone,
R U orV R shouldIuse?"Again,neitheris
moreorlesscorrectthantheother.Bothdescribe
theexactsamedeformedstate.Theusual
determiningfactoriswhetheronepreferstothinkof
thedeformationsasoccurringinthereference
orientation,orinthefinalrotatedstate.Nevertheless,theusualpreferenceistouseF = R U
becauseitisnormallyeasiertorelatethestrainsbacktotheundeformedorientation.Thisleadsto
theGreenstraindefinitionthatispopularintiremechanicsandwillbediscussedinafewmore
pages.
Onelastexample:Onecouldassumethatanobjectisstretchedinthexdirection,andthenrotated
90.Inthiscase,thexx strainisnonzero.Alternatively,onecouldjustaswellassumethatthe
objectwasrotated90first,thenstretchedintheverticaldirection,givinganonzeroyy strain.Ifall
you'vegotisthefinaldeformedshapetoworkwith,theneitherpathworks.
Andonelastnote:Allthishintsatalargerissue.Itisthequestion,"Ofallthedefinitionsofstrain,
whichisthebest?"Theansweris,"Neitherisnecessarilymoreorlesscorrectthananyother."Some
arejustmoreconvenientthanothersforagivenapplication.Wewillcomebacktothistopiclater.

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TableofContents
Deformation&Strain

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PolarDecompositions

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