Power Electronic Devices

PowerConverterTopologies

Classification of power semiconductor devices

Another Classification
Depending on the controllability
Uncontrolled (Diode)
Semi-controlled (Thyristor);
Fully-controlled (BJT, IGBT, MOSFET).
Depending on the gate requirements

Pulse triggered (Thyristor, GTO)

Level triggered (BJT, IGBT, MOSFET).
4

Diode
Anode

Cathode

Typesofdiodes
Linefrequency diodes
These PIN diodes with generalpurpose
rectifier type applications, are available at
the highest voltage (~5kV) and current ratings
(~5kA)
excellent overcurrent (surge rating about six
times average current rating) and surge
voltage withstand capability.
They have relatively large Qrr and trr
specifications.
7

Fastrecoverydiodes
Fast recovery diffused diodes and fast
recovery epitaxial diodes, FRED's, have
significantly lower Qrr and trr (~ 1.0 msec).
They are available at high powers and are
mainly used in association with fast
controlleddevices as freewheeling or DCDC
choppers and rectifier applications.
Fast recovery diodes also find application in
induction heating, UPS and traction.
8

Schottky rectifiers
Schottky rectifiers:
These are the fastest rectifiers being majority carrier
devices without any Qrr
However, they are available with voltage ratings up to
a hundred volts only though current ratings may be
high. Their conduction voltages specifications are
excellent (~0.2V).
The freedom from minority carrier recovery permits
reduced snubber requirements. Schottky diodes face
no competition in low voltage SPMS applications and
in instrumentation.
9

Typicalturnoffdynamicsofasoftanda
'snappy'diode'

10

Diode

11

Basic structure of power semiconductor diode

12

WhyswitchingCharacteristicsare
Important?
Behavior of the diode current and voltage during these
switching periods are important due to the following
reasons
Severe over voltage / over current may be caused by a
diode switching at different points in the circuit using
the diode
Voltage and current exist simultaneously during
switching operation of a diode. Therefore, every
switching of the diode is associated with some energy
loss. At high switching frequency this may contribute
significantly to the overall power loss in the diode.
13

SwitchingCharacteristicsofPower
DiodesduringTurnON
forward diode voltage during turn
ON may transiently reach a
significantly
higher
value
Vfr
compared to the steady slate voltage
drop at the steady current IF.
In some power converter circuits (e.g
voltage source inverter) where a free
wheeling diode is used across an
asymmetrical blocking power switch
(i.e GTO) this transient over voltage
may be high enough to destroy the
main power switch.
Vfr (called forward recovery voltage)
is given as a function of the forward
di/dt in the manufacturers data
sheet. Typical values lie within the
range of 10-30V. Forward recovery
time (tfr) is typically within 10 us.

Forward current and voltage waveforms

of a power diode during Turn On operation

14

ReverseRecoverycharacteristicsofa
powerdiode

15

Reverserecoverycharacteristics

Soft recovery type is more common

16

ReverseRecoveryCharacteristics
Ta = due to charge storage in depletion region of the junction, time between
zero crossing and peak reverse recovery current
Tb = is due to charge storage in the bulk semiconductor material
The ratio tb / ta = Softness factor
For practical conditions we have to consider recovery time t rr and peak
value of reverse recovery current Irr.

trr =ta+tb
Irr =ta di/dt
Qrr =areaenclosedbythepathoftherecoverycurrent
=Irr ta +Irr tb =Irr trr
Irr =2Qrr/trr
trr ta =2Qrr /di/dt

trr

/
17

Diode switching wave form in power circuit

18

Characteristicsofdiode
Salientfeaturesofthischaracteristicsare:
The diode current does not stop at zero, instead it grows in the negative
direction to Irr called peak reverse recovery current which can be
comparable to If. In many power electronic circuits (e.g. choppers,
inverters) this reverse current flows through the main power switch in
addition to the load current. Therefore, this reverse recovery current has
to be accounted for while selecting the main switch.

Voltage drop across the diode does not change appreciably from its
steady state value till the diode current reaches reverse recovery level. In
many power electric circuits (choppers, inverters) this may create an
effective short circuit across the supply, current being limited only by the
stray wiring inductance. Also in high frequency switching circuits (e.g,
SMPS) if the time period t4 is comparable to switching cycle qualitative
modification to the circuit behavior is possible.

Towards the end of the reverse recovery period if the reverse current falls
too sharply, (low value of S), stray circuit inductance may cause dangerous
over voltage (Vrr) across the device. It may be required to protect the
diode using an RC snubber
19

ApplicationsdefiningReverse
RecoveryTime(TRR):

Schematic of typical flyback power supply

20

Comparisonofdifferentdiodes

SBR vs. FRED TRR in a laptop power supply

Super Barrier Rectifier (SBR) Vs FRED

21

Comparisonofdifferentdiodes

22

Problems

Where Is = Reverse saturation current (Amps)

v = Applied forward voltage across the device (volts)
q = Change of an electron
k = Boltzmans constant
T = Temperature in Kelvin

Volt Ampere (I- V) Characteristics of a P-N junction Diode

23

Problem1
A pn junction diode has a reverse saturation current rating of
50 nA at 32C. What should be the value of the forward
current for a forward voltage drop of 0.5V. Assume VT = KT/q
at 32C = 26 mv.
For the diode of Problem1 calculate the dynamic ac
resistance

at 32C and a forward voltage drop of

0.5V

24

Solution
a) Is =51008A,VT =261003 volts,v=0.5
volts
IF=11.24amps
b)

25

Problem2
Themanufacturerofaselecteddiodegivestherateoffallofthe
diodecurrentdi/dt =20A/Us,andreverserecoverytimeof
trr = 5Us. Whatvalueofpeakreversecurrentdoyouexpect?
SOLUTION
Thepeakreversecurrentisgivenas:

26

Diode Applications
AC-DC converters(laptop chargers, mobile
chargers)
DC-DC converters(SMPS)
Inverters
Power supply filter

27

Thyristor

28

29

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

Two transistor analogy of a thyristor construction

(a) Schematic Construction, (b) Schematic division in component
transistor (c) Equivalent circuit in terms of two transistors.
30

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

The collector current IC of a transistor is related to the emitter current IE and the
leakage current of the collector base junction ICBO as

IC=IE+ICBO
The emitter current of transistor Q1 is the anode current IA of the thyristor and
collector current IC1 is given by,

IC1=1IA+ICBO1
where1and ICBO1 are the current gain and leakage current respectively for
transistor Q1.
Similarly, the collector current for transistor Q2 is IC2 where

IC2=2IK+ICBO2
where 2 and ICBO2 are the current gain and leakage current respectively for
transistor Q2.
31

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

Combining the two collector currents IC1 and IC2 yields

IA=IC1+IC2
IA= 1IA+ICBO1 +2IK+ICBO2
When a gate current IG is applied to the thyristor

IA=IK+IG
Therefore, solving for IA

IA= {2IG+ICBO1+ICBO2}/{1-(1+2)}
The current gain 1varies with emitter current IE1 which is equal to IA; and 2
varies with emitter current IE2 which is equal to Ik.
32

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

Typical Variation of Current Gain With Emitter Current

33

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

If the gate current IG is increased from zero to some positive value,
this will increase the anode current IA.
An increase of IA which is an increase of IE1 would increase 1 as
shown in figure and also 2.
The increase in values of both 1 and 2 would further increase the
value of anode current IA which is a regenerative or positive
feedback effect.
If 1 and 2 approach unity, the denominator of equation
approaches zero and a large value of anode current is produced
causing the thyristor to turn on as a result of the application of a
small gate current.
IA= {2IG+ICBO1+ICBO2}/{1-(1+2)}
34

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

Now as long as VAK is small Ic0 is very low and both 1 and 2are much lower than
unity. Therefore, total anode current IA is only slightly greater than Ic0. However,
as VAK is increased up to the avalanche break down voltage of J2, Ic0 starts
increasing rapidly due to avalanche multiplication process. As Ic0 increases both 1
and 2 increases and 1 and 2 approaches unity. Under this condition large anode
current starts flowing, restricted only by the external load resistance.
However, voltage drop in the external resistance causes a collapse of voltage across
the thyristor. The CB junctions of both Q1& Q2 become forward biased and the
total voltage drop across the device settles down to approximately equivalent to a
diode drop. The thyristor is said to be in ON state.
Just after turn ON if IA is larger than a specified current called the 1 and 2 remain
high enough to keep the Thyristor in ON state. Thyristor can be turned ON by
bringing IA above a specified current called the Latching Current (IL). Thyristor
can be turned OFF by bringing IA below a specified current called the holding
current (IH) where upon , 1 and 2 starts reducing.
The Thyristor can regain forward blocking capacity once excess stored charge at J2
is removed by application of a reverse voltage across A & K (ie, K positive with
respect A).
35

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

36

Two Transistor Model of a Thyristor

Under transient conditions, the capacitances of the p-n junctions influence the
characteristics of the thyristor.
If a thyristor is in the blocking state and a rapidly rising voltage is applied to the
device, high currents would flow through the junction capacitors. The current
through capacitor Cj2 can be expressed as

Ij2=d(qj2)/dt = d(Cj2Vj2)/dt = Cj2d(Vj2)/dt + Vj2d(C2j)/dt

Where
Cj2 = capacitance of junction j2
Vj2 = voltage of junction j2
qj2 = charge in junction j2
If the rate of rise of voltage dv/dt is large, then ij2 would be large, which would
result in increased leakage currents ICBO1 and ICBO2. High enough values of ICBO1
and ICBO2 may cause 1 and 2 to approach unity, resulting in undesirable turn on
of the thyristor.
37

Thyristor

38

Steady State Characteristics of a Thyristor

Static output I-V characteristics of a Thyristor

39

Steady State Characteristics of a Thyristor

With ig = 0, VAK has to increase up to forward break over voltage
VBRF before significant anode current starts flowing. However, at
VBRF forward break over takes place and the voltage across the
thyristor drops to VH (holding voltage). Beyond this point voltage
across the thyristor (VAK) remains almost constant at VH (1-1.5v)
while the anode current is determined by the external load.
The magnitude of gate current has a very strong effect on the value of
the break over voltage as shown in the figure. The right hand side
figure in the inset shows a typical plot of the forward break over
voltage (VBRF) as a function of the gate current (Ig)
After Turn ON the thyristor is no more affected by the gate current.
Hence, any current pulse (of required magnitude) which is longer than
the minimum needed for Turn ON is sufficient to effect control. The
minimum gate pulse width is decided by the external circuit and should
be long enough to allow the anode current to rise above the latching
current (IL) level.

40

Steady State Characteristics of a Thyristor

The left hand side of Fig, shows the reverse i-v characteristics of
the thyristor. Once the thyristor is ON the only way to turn it OFF
is by bringing the thyristor current below holding current (IH).
The gate terminal has no control over the turn OFF process. In ac
circuits with resistive load this happens automatically during negative
zero crossing of the supply voltage. This is called natural
commutation or line commutation. However, in dc circuits some
arrangement has to be made to ensure this condition. This process is
called forced commutation.
During reverse blocking if ig = 0 then only reverse saturation current
(Is) flows until the reverse voltage reaches reverse break down voltage
(VBRR).
At this point current starts rising sharply. Large reverse voltage and
current generates excessive heat and destroys the device.
If ig > 0 during reverse bias condition the reverse saturation current
rises as explained in the previous section. This can be avoided by
removing the gate current while the thyristor is reverse biased.
41

Effect Junction temperature on static I-V

characteristics

42

Exercise-1
Fill in the blank(s) with the appropriate word(s)
1. A Thyristor is a ________________ carrier semi controlled device.
2. A Thyristor can conduct current in ________________ direction and block
voltage in ________________ direction.
3. A Thyristor can be turned ON by applying a forward voltage greater than
forward ________________
voltage or by injecting a positive ____ current
pulse under forward bias condition.
4. To turn OFF a Thyristor the anode current must be brought below
________________ current and a reverse voltage must be applied for a time
larger than ________________ time of the device.
v. A Thyristor may turn ON due to large forward ________________.

43

Answers: (i) minority;

(ii) one, both;
(iii) break over, gate;
(iv) holding, turn off;
(v)dv/dt
6. Do you expect a thyristor to turn ON if a positive gate pulse is applied under
reverse bias condition (i. e cathode positive with respect to anode)?
The two transistor analogy of thyristor shown in Fig indicates that when a reverse
voltage is applied across the device the roles of the emitters and collectors of the
constituent transistors will reverse. With a positive gate pulse applied it may appear
that the device should turn ON as in the forward direction. However, the constituent
transistors have very low current gain in the reverse direction. Therefore no reasonable
value of the gate current will satisfy the turn ON condition
(i.e.1 + 2 = 1). Hence the device will not turn ON.

44

Exercise-1
7. Forward break over voltage of a thyristor decreases with increase in the
________________ current.
8. Reverse ________________ voltage of a thyristor is
________________ of the gate current.
9. Reverse saturation current of a thyristor ________________ with gate
current.
10. In the pulsed gate current triggering of a thyristor the gate current pulse
width should be larger than the ________________ time of the device.
11. To prevent unwanted turn ON of a thyristor all spurious noise signals
between the gate and the cathode must be less than the gate
________________ voltage.
45

Answers
7. Gate;
8. Break down, independent;
9. Increases;
10. Turn ON;
(11) Non- trigger.

46

Thyristor Gate Characteristics

The useful gate drive area of a thyristor is then b c d e f g h.

47

Thyristor Gate Characteristics

Each thyristor has maximum gate voltage limit (Vgmax), gate current limit (Igmax)
and maximum average gate power dissipation limit (Pgav|max). These limits
should not be exceeded in order to avoid permanent damage to the gate cathode
junction.
There are also minimum limits of Vg (Vgmin) and Ig (Igmin) for reliable turn on of
the thyristor.
A gate non triggering voltage (Vng) is also specified by the manufacturers of
thyristors. All spurious noise signals should be less than this voltage Vng in order
to prevent unwanted turn on of the thyristor. The useful gate drive area of a
thyristor is then b c d e f g h.
Referring to the gate drive circuit in the inset the equation of the load line is given
by

Vg = E - Rgig

The magnitude of the gate voltage and current required for triggering a thyristor
is inversely proportional to the junction temperature
48

Thyristor Gate Characteristics

The actual operating point will be somewhere between S1 & S2

depending on the particular device.
For optimum utilization of the gate ratings the load line should be
shifted forwards the Pgav |max curve without violating Vgmax or
IgMax ratings. Therefore, for a dc source E c f represents the
optimum load line from which optimum values of E & Rg can be
determined.
It is however customary to trigger a thyristor using pulsed voltage
& current. Maximum power dissipation curves for pulsed
operation (Pgm) allows higher gate current to flow which in turn
reduces the turn on time of the thyristor. The value of Pgm depends
on the pulse width (TON) of the gate current pulse. TON should be
larger than the turn on time of the thyristor.

Where

49

Thyristor Gate Characteristics

The gate cathode junction also has a maximum reverse
(i.e, gate negative with respect to the cathode) voltage
specification. If there is a possibility of the reverse gate
cathode voltage exceeding this limit a reverse voltage
protection using diode as shown in Fig should be used.

Gate Cathode reverse voltage protection circuit.

50

ProblemA thyristor has a maximum average gate power dissipation

limit of 0.2 watts. It is triggered with pulsed gate current at a
pulse frequency of 10 KHZ and duly ratio of 0.4. Assuming
the gate cathode voltage drop to be 1 volt. Find out the
allowable peak gate current magnitude.

51

Solution-

52

Switching Characteristics of a Thyristor

During Turn on and Turn off process a thyristor is subjected to different

voltages across it and different currents through it. The time variations of the
voltage across a thyristor and the current through it during Turn on and Turn
off constitute the switching characteristics of a thyristor
A forward biased thyristor is turned on by applying a positive gate voltage
between the gate and cathode as shown in Fig

53

Turn on characteristics of a thyristor

Fig shows the waveforms of the gate current (ig), anode current (iA) and anode
cathode voltage (VAK) in an expanded time scale during Turn on. The reference
circuit and the associated waveforms are shown in the inset. The total switching
period being much smaller compared to the cycle time, iA and VAK before and
after switching will appear flat.
As shown in Fig there is a transition time tON from forward off state to forward
on state. This transition time is called the thyristor turn of time and can be
divided into three separate intervals namely,
(i) delay time (td)
(ii) rise time (tr)
(iii) spread time (tp).

These times are shown in Fig for a resistive load.

54

Delay time (td): After switching on the gate current the thyristor will start to conduct
over the portion of the cathode which is closest to the gate. This conducting area starts
spreading at a finite speed until the entire cathode region becomes conductive. Time
taken by this process constitute the turn on delay time of a thyristor. It is measured
from the instant of application of the gate current to the instant when the anode current
rises to 10% of its final value (or VAK falls to 90% of its initial value). Typical value of
td is a few micro seconds.
55

Rise time (tr): For a resistive load, rise time is the time taken by the anode current to rise
from 10% of its final value to 90% of its final value. At the same time the voltage VAK falls
from 90% of its initial value to 10% of its initial value. However, current rise and voltage
fall characteristics are strongly influenced by the type of the load. For inductive load the
voltage falls faster than the current. While for a capacitive load VAK falls rapidly in the
beginning. However, as the current increases, rate of change of anode voltage substantially
decreases. If the anode current rises too fast it tends to remain confined in a small area. This
can give rise to local hot spots and damage the device. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the
by using an inductor in series with the device. Usual
rate of rise of the ON state current
values of maximum allowable

is in the range of 20-200 A/s

56

Spread time (tp): It is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 90% of its final
value to 100%. During this time conduction spreads over the entire cross section of the
cathode of the thyristor. The spreading interval depends on the area of the cathode and
on the gate structure of the thyristor.
57

Turn off Switching Characteristics

58

Turn off Switching Characteristics

The turn off time tq of a thyristor is defined as the time between the
instant anode current becomes zero and the instant the thyristor regains
forward blocking capability.
If forward voltage is applied across the device during this period the
thyristor turns on again.
During turn off time, excess minority carriers from all the four layers
of the thyristor must be removed. Accordingly tq is divided in to two
intervals, the reverse recovery time (trr) and the gate recovery time (tqr).
Fig shows the variation of anode current and anode cathode voltage
with time during turn off operation on an expanded scale.
The anode current becomes zero at time t1 and starts growing in the
till time t2. This negative current
negative direction with the same
removes excess carriers from junctions J1 & J3. At time t2 excess carriers
densities at these junctions are not sufficient to maintain the reverse
current and the anode current starts decreasing. The value of the anode
current at time t2 is called the reverse recovery current (Irr).
59

Turn off Switching Characteristics

The reverse anode current reduces to the level of reverse saturation current by
t3. Total charge removed from the junctions between t1 & t3 is called the
reverse recovery charge (Qrr).

Fast decaying reverse current during the interval t2 t3 coupled with the
limiting inductor may cause a large reverse voltage spike (Vrr) to appear across
the device. This voltage must be limited below the VRRM rating of the device.
Up to time t2 the voltage across the device (VAK) does not change substantially
from its on state value. However, after the reverse recovery time, the thyristor
regains reverse blocking capacity and VAK starts following supply voltage vi.
At the end of the reverse recovery period (trr) trapped charges still exist at the
junction J2 which prevents the device from blocking forward voltage just after
trr. These trapped charges are removed only by the process of recombination.
The time taken for this recombination process to complete (between t3 &
t4) is called the gate recovery time (tgr). The time interval tq = trr + tgr is

called device turn off time of the thyristor

60

Turn off Switching Characteristics

The reverse anode current reduces to the level of reverse saturation current by
t3. Total charge removed from the junctions between t1 & t3 is called the
reverse recovery charge (Qrr).

Fast decaying reverse current during the interval t2 t3 coupled with the
limiting inductor may cause a large reverse voltage spike (Vrr) to appear across
the device. This voltage must be limited below the VRRM rating of the device.
Up to time t2 the voltage across the device (VAK) does not change substantially
from its on state value. However, after the reverse recovery time, the thyristor
regains reverse blocking capacity and VAK starts following supply voltage vi.
At the end of the reverse recovery period (trr) trapped charges still exist at the
junction J2 which prevents the device from blocking forward voltage just after
trr. These trapped charges are removed only by the process of recombination.
The time taken for this recombination process to complete (between t3 &
t4) is called the gate recovery time (tgr). The time interval tq = trr + tgr is

called device turn off time of the thyristor

61

Turn off Switching Characteristics

No forward voltage should appear across the device before the time tq to avoid its
inadvertent turn on. A circuit designer must provide a time interval tc (tc > tq) during
which a reverse voltage is applied across the device. tc is called the circuit turn off
time.
The reverse recovery charge Qrr is a function of the peak forward current before turn off
and its rate of decrease
. Manufacturers usually provide plots of Qrr as a function
of

for different values of peak forward current. They also provide the value of the

reverse recovery current Irr for a given IA and

. Alternatively Irr can be evaluated
from the given Qrr characteristics following similar relationships as in the case of a diode.

As in the case of a diode the relative magnitudes of the time intervals t1 t2 and t2 t3 depends
on the construction of the thyristor. In normal recovery converter grade thyristor they
are almost equal for a specified forward current and reverse recovery current. However, in
a fast recovery inverter grade thyristor the interval t2 t3 is negligible compared to the
interval t1 t2.
This helps reduce the total turn off time tq of the thyristor (and hence allow them to
operate at higher switching frequency). However, large voltage spike due to this snappy
recovery will appear across the device after the device turns off. Typical turn off times of
converter and inverter grade thyristors are in the range of 50-100 s and 5-50 s
62
respectively

Thyristor ratings
Some useful specifications of a thyristor related to its steady
state characteristics as found in a typical manufacturers data
sheet.
Voltage ratings

Peak Working Forward OFF state voltage

(VDWM)
Peak repetitive off state forward voltage
(VDRM)
Peak non-repetitive off state forward voltage
(VDSM)
Peak working reverse voltage (VDWM)
Peak repetitive reverse voltage (VRRM)
Peak non-repetitive reverse voltage (VRSM)

Gate ratings:

Gate current to trigger (IGT)

Gate current to trigger (IGT)
Non triggering gate voltage (VGNT)

Current ratings:

Maximum RMS current (Irms)

Maximum Surge current (ISM)
Maximum Squared Current integral
(i2dt)
Latching Current (IL)
Holding Current (IH)
Maximum Forward voltage drop (VF)
Average power dissipation ( Pav)

Peak reverse gate voltage (VGRM)

Average Gate Power dissipation (PGAR)

Peak forward gate current (IGRM)

63

64

Questions
i. A thyristor is turned on by applying a ________________ gate current pulse when
it is ________________ biased.
ii. Total turn on time of a thyristor can be divided into ________________ time
________________ time and ________________ time.
iii. During rise time the rate of rise of anode current should be limited to avoid
creating local ________________.
iv. A thyristor can be turned off by bringing its anode current below
________________ current and applying a reverse voltage across the device for
duration larger than the ________________ time of the device.
v. Reverse recovery charge of a thyristor depends on the ________________ of the
forward current just before turn off and its ________________.
vi. Inverter grade thyristors have ________________ turn off time compared to a
65
converter grade thyristor.

Answers
(i) positive, forward;
(ii) delay, rise, spread;
(iii) hot spots
(iv) holding, turn off;
(v) magnitude, rate of decrease
(vi) faster

66

67

Thyristor Applications

As a switch
AC-DC converters
AC-AC converters
Line commutated Inverters
HVDC
In the automobile applications for the ignition
circuits

68

TRIAC

69

TRIAC Applications
Ac-Ac controller used in lamp dimmers

70

TRIAC

The Triac is a member of the thyristor family. But unlike a

thyristor which conducts only in one direction (from anode to
cathode) a triac can conduct in both directions. Thus a triac is
similar to two back to back (anti parallel) connected thyristosr
but with only three terminals. As in the case of a thyristor, the
conduction of a triac is initiated by injecting a current pulse
into the gate terminal.
The gate looses control over conduction once the triac is turned
on. The triac turns off only when the current through the main
terminals become zero. Therefore, a triac can be categorized
as a minority carrier, a bidirectional semi-controlled device.
They are extensively used in residential lamp dimmers,
heater control and for speed control of small single phase
series and induction motors.
71

Construction and operating principle

Circuit symbol and schematic construction of a Triac

(a) Circuit symbol (b) Schematic construction 72

TRIAC

Fig (b) show the circuit. As the Triac

can conduct in both the directions
the terms anode and cathode are
not used for Triacs.
The three terminals are marked as
MT1 (Main Terminal 1), MT2 (Main
Terminal 2) and the gate by G.
As shown in Fig (b) the gate
terminal is near MT1 and is
connected to both N3 and P2 regions
by metallic contact. Similarly MT1 is
connected to N2 and P2 regions while
MT2 is connected to N4 and P1
regions.
73

TRIAC
Since a Triac is a bidirectional device
and can have its terminals at various
combinations
of
positive
and
negative voltages, there are four
possible
electrode
potential
combinations as given below
1. MT2 positive with respect to MT1, G
positive with respect to MT1
2. MT2 positive with respect to MT1, G
negative with respect to MT1
3. MT2 negative with respect to MT1, G
negative with respect to MT1
4. MT2 negative with respect to MT1, G
positive with respect to MT1

The triggering sensitivity is

highest
with
the
combinations 1 and 3 and
74
are generally used

Conduction mechanism of a triac in trigger modes

1 and 3

(a) Mode 1 , (b) Mode 3

75

Conduction mechanism of a triac in trigger modes

1 and 3

In

trigger mode-1 the gate

current flows mainly through
the P2 N2 junction like an
ordinary thyristor. When the
gate current has injected
sufficient charge into P2 layer
the triac starts conducting
through the P1 N1 P2 N2 layers
like an ordinary thyristor.
In the trigger mode-3 the gate
current Ig forward biases the P2
N3 junction and a large number
of electrons are introduced in
the P2 region by N3. Finally the
structure P2 N1 P1 N4 turns on
completely.

(a) Mode 1 , (b) Mode 3

76

Steady State Output Characteristics and Ratings

of a Triac
MODE1

MODE3

MT2 positive with respect to MT1, G

positive with respect to MT1
MT2 negative with respect to MT1,
G negative with respect to MT1

77

Questions
i. A Triac is a ________________ minority carrier device
ii. A Triac behaves like two ________________ connected thyristors.
iii. The gate sensitivity of a triac is maximum when the gate is ________________ with respect to MT1
while MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 or the gate is ________________ with respect to MT1 while MT2
is negative with respect to MT1
iv. A Triac operates either in the ________________ or the ________________ quadrant of the i-v
characteristics.
v. In the ________________ quadrant the triac is fired with ________________ gate current while in the
________________ quadrant the gate current should be ________________.
vi. The maximum possible voltage and current rating of a Triac is considerably ________________
compared to thyristor due to ________________ of the two current carrying paths inside the structure of
the triac.
Vii. To avoid unwanted turn on of a triac due to large dv/dt ________________ are used across triacs.
78

Answers
(i) bidirectional;
(ii) anti parallel;
(iii) positive, negative;
(iv) first, third;
(v) first, positive, third, negative
(vi) lower, interaction;
(vii) R-C shubbers;

79

Main points to remember in case of Thyristor

Thyristor is a four layer, three terminal, minority carrier, semi-controlled

device.
The three terminals of a thyristor are called the anode, the cathode and the gate.
A thyristor can be turned on by increasing the voltage of the anode with respect
to the cathode beyond a specified voltage called the forward break over voltage.
A thyristor can also be turned on by injecting a current pulse into the gate
terminal when the anode voltage is positive with respect to the cathode. This is
called gate triggering.
A thyristor can block voltage of both polarity but conducts current only from
anode to cathode.
After a thyristor turns on the gate looses control. It can be turned off only by
bringing the anode current below holding current.
After turn on the voltage across the thyristor drops to a very low value (around
1 volt). In the reverse direction a thyristor blocks voltage up to reverse break
down voltage.

80

Main points to remember in case of Thyristor

A thyristor has a very low conduction voltage drop but large switching times.
For this reason thyristors are preferred for high power, low frequency line
commutated application.
A thyristor is turned off by bringing the anode current below holding current
and simultaneously applying a negative voltage (cathode positive with respect
to anode) for a minimum time called turn off time.
A triac is functionally equivalent to two anti parallel connected thyristors. It can
block voltages in both directions and conduct current in both directions.
A triac has three terminals like a thyristor. It can be turned on in either half
cycle by either a positive on a negative current pulse at the gate terminal.
Triacs are extensively used at power frequency ac load (eg heater, light, motors)
control applications.

81

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

82

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

83

BJT construction parameter

84

Darlington connected - BJTs

85

Generic BJT Application - Clamped

Inductive Load

86

Power BJT I-V Characteristics

87

Darlington Turn-off Waveforms

88

BJT Internal Current Components

89

Power BJT Turn-on Waveforms

90

Turn-off Waveforms with Controlled

Base Current

91

BJT Application
DCDCchoppersusedinsolarcells

92

Chopper fed DC drive

93

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect

Transistor (MOSFET)
i

D
G

G
S
Symbol

94

MOSFET

95

 Physics of MOSFET operation (Off- state)

p-n- junction is
reverse-biased
off-state voltage
appears across
n- region

96

Physics of MOSFET operation (On-state)

p-n- junction is slightly reverse biased positive gate voltage induces
conducting channel drain current flows through n- region an conducting
channel on resistance = total resistances of n- region, conducting channel,
source and drain contacts, etc.

97

iD

Static characteristics of power

[ U GS -V GS (th) = U DS ]

Oh m ic

V G S5
A ctive

V GS5 > V GS 4 etc.

V G S4
V G S3
V G S2
V G S1
O

Cu t off
B V DS S

U DS

V GS< V GS(th)
98

Switching characteristics of power MOSFET

up

+UE
RL
iD
Rs
up

RG uGS R
F iD

uGS
uGSP
uT
O
iD

O td(on)

Turn- on transient
Turn- on delay time td(on)
Rise time tr

tr

td (off) tf

Turn- off transient

Turn- off delay time td(off)
Falling time tf
99

MOSFET Applications

DC-DC converters
Inverters (low power)
Electronic ballast
Active power filters

100

IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

i

G
Symbol

101

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

102

103

104

IGBT Application

DC-DC converters
Inverters
Improved power quality converters
Active power filters

105

GTO (Gate Turn-off Thyristor)

i
i

106

Gate Turn-off Thyristor(GTO)

107

108

109

GTO Applications
Applications of GTO are in
1) Choppers
2) Inverters beyond the power rating of transistors and
up to the power limit of manufacturing ability, as
long as switching remains below 2 kHz.

The main applications are

1. Motor drives
2. Induction heating
3. Pulsed power
4. FACTS
110

MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)

111

MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)

112

P-MCT Equivalent Circuit & Circuit Symbol

113

N-MCT Equivalent Circuit & Circuit Symbol

114

MCT- switching waveform

115

Applications of MCT
1. AC-DC conversion
2. AC-AC conversion

116

117

Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor

(IGCT)

118

119

IGCT Application
DC-DC Chopper
Inverters
Custom power devices

120

Power Vs Frequency
SCR
Power (W)

GTO - IGCT
IGBT
MOSFET

10M
1M
100k
10k
1k
60 100

1k 10k 100 k 1M

Frequency(Hz)

121

122

Devices
V off

Thyristors

5 kV

GTOs, IGCTs, ETOs

4 kV

3 kV

IGBT
s

2 kV

MCT
s

I o
n
BJTs
1 kHz

1 kV

10 kHz

MOSFET
s

100 kHz
1 MHz
500 A

1000 A

1500 A

2000 A

3000 A

Frequency

123

Relative Properties of Devices

Device

Power
Capability

Switching
Speed

BJT/MD

Medium

Medium

MOSFET

Low

Fast

GTO

High

Slow

IGBT

Medium

Medium

MCT

Medium

Medium
124

Relative Properties
Thyristor

BJT

FET

GTO

IGBT

IGCT

Availability

Early 60s

Late 70s

Early 80s

Mid 80s

Late 80s

Mid 90s

State of Tech

Mature

Mature

Mature/
Improve

Mature

Rapid
Improve

Rapid
improvement

Voltage
Rating

5 KV

1KV

500V

5KV

3.3KV

6.5 KV

Current
Ratings

4 KA

400A

200A

5 KA

1.2 KA

4 Ka

Swtich.Fre

NA

5 kHz

1 MHz

2 kHz

100 kHz

1 kHz

On-Stage
Voltage

2V

1-2 V

I*Rds (on)

2-3 V

2-3 V

3V

Simple

Difficult

Very Simple

Very
Difficult

Very Simple

Simple

Cant turn
off using
gate signals

Phasing out
is new
product

Good
performance
in high freq

King in very
high power

Best overall
performance

Replacing
GTO

Drive
Circuit

Comments

125

Switching Characteristics
Device

Conti
Gate

Pulse
Gate

Cont.
turn-on

Cont.
turn-off

Power Diode

Unipolar
Voltage

Bipolar
voltage

Uni-dir.
Current

X
X

Bi-dir.
Current

BJT

MOSFET

COOLMOS

IGBT

SIT

126

Switching Characteristics
Conti
Gate

Cont.
Turn-off

Unipolar
voltage

Bi-dir.
current

Cont.
turn-on

SCR

RCT

TRIAC

GTO

MTO

ETO

IGCT

SITH

MCT

Bipolar
voltage

Uni-dir.
current

Pulse
Gate

Device

127

128

Numerical Examples

129

Numerical Example-1
1.

While being reverse biased by a source of 1000 V the reverse

leakage current of a diode is measured to be 1 mA at a junction
temperature of 200 deg C The load Is a 10 ohm resistor.
Calculate the parameters of the diode in reverse bias and the
power dissipated by the diode.

130

Solution
The equivalent circuit model shown in Fig can he used.
V = -1000 V, ld = -l .0 mA, R = 10
DF is an open circuit. DR is a short circuit.
The input or driving point resistance Ri of the circuit under these conditions is
RI = Vs / ID = -1000 / -10-3 = 1.0 M
Also R = R + R
i
R
Consequently the diode parameter
RR = Ri - R= 1.0M at 2000 C.
The power dissipated in the diode is
PD = ID 2 RR =1W.
This value is small compared with the conduction loss.
In the forward direction the conduction loss is

PD = VDID =1*100=100W

131

Numerical Example - 2
2. A BJT controls power from a dc source of voltage V = 200 V to
a resistive load of value R =4 For this load condition and with
the transistor in hard saturation, the BJT voltage drop is VCE(SAT)
=1.1 V. The base resistance RB is chosen to be 0.5 such that
there is overdrive if the base source voltage is 10V and the base to
emitter voltage drop is VBE(SAT) = 1.8 V. For the on-state condition
determine (a) the forced current gain F and (b) the power loss in
the BJT.

132

Solution
Refer to Fig. and Consider the BJT to be on.
(a)

Ic

(Vs VCE ( sat ) )

R

(200 1.1) / 4 49.7 A

For the base drive circuit

IB

(VB VBE ( sat ) )

RB

(10 1.8) / 0.5 16.4A

The forced current gain is

IC
IB

4 9 .7 / 1 6 .4 3

In the steady state condition the bjt power dissipation P is

P VCE(sat) IC VBE(sat ) IB 1.1*49.7 1.8*16.4 54.7 29.5 84.2

In overdrive the power dissipation is not significant

133

The steady state efficiency of the BJT is

= output/(output + losses)
=(200-1.1)49.7/(198.9*49.7+84.2)
=0.99(99%)
Power switching by means of a BJT appears to be efficient.

134

Numerical Example -3
3. Consider the circuit diagram in Fig. below The source voltage is V =
200 V and the resistive load is R = 4 . For this condition the thyristor has a
delay time td = 0.5s and a rise-time tri = 3 s at turn-on. The thyristor
leakage current is I A leak = 2 mA and the on-state voltage drop is VTH(ON)
=1.5 V. Estimate (a) the components of energy loss incurred in the
thyristor during turn-on and (b) compare the turn-on loss with the thyristor
loss during the on-state over an equivalent interval of time tri.

135

(a) The thyristor loss during the delay interval td is

Wd = Vs Ialeak td=200*2*10-3*0.5*10-6
the thyristor loss Wc during the rise time interval tri is
Wc = (VsIl/6)tri = (Vs/6)(Vs-VTH(on))*tri/R
= 200/6*(200-1.5)/4*3*10-6 = 5000J
the total loss Won=Wd+Wc=(0.2+500)*10-6
the delay time loss is so small it can be neglected.
(b) while the thyristor is in the on state it conducts 49.6 A and has a
voltage drop of 1.5 V.

136

 The on state energy loss W over an interval of 3 s is

tri

tri

W vTH iAdt vTH (on) I Adt 1.5*49.6*3*106 223 J

The energy is small but not insignificant. The total
thyristor losses depend on the duration of
conduction.

137

Numerical Example - 4
4. A 10-kV, dc source supplies a load whose power is modulated
by thyristors. The available thyristors are rated at 1 kV, 1000 A.
What is the value of parallel- connected resistors RSH that form the
voltage divider to force voltage sharing?
Solution:
We know that ten 1kV thyristors in series would not block a voltage of 10kV
because of the slight differences in I-V characteristics, even if a resistive voltage
divider were used.
We do not want too many thyristors in series because that increases the cost. Let
us choose n = 14 (it could well have been n = 13 or n = 15).
Information about the leakage current has not been given.
However the latching current is about one thousandth of the rated current and the
leakage cur rent is about one thousandth of the latching current.
Therefore, an estimate of the leakage current IA leak is about 1 mA.
138

RSH=(nV1-Vs)/(n-1)IA leak
= (14*10-3-104)/(13*10-3)=307
Now Vs-V1=(n-1)V2, so V2= 9*103/13=692 V
Hence ISH2=V2/RSH=692/(307*103)=2.26 mA
It appears that the currents in the resistor must be more than twice the
value of the thyristor leakage currents to swamp the leakage effects

139

Numerical Example - 5
5. Figure illustrates the transfer characteristic pertaining to the active
region, and the steady-state I-V characteristic pertaining to the ohmic
region of a 200-V, 20-A power MOSFET switch. The MOSFET
modulates power from a dc supply of 150 V to a resistive load of 7.3
. Determine (a) the transistor on-state resistance RDS(ON), (b) a
suitable value of the gate voltage VGS to maintain the MOS PET in
the on state and (c) the on-state conduction losses of the MOSFET.

140

Solution:
(a) RDS(ON) is the inverse of the slope of the ID-VDS
characteristics
That is RDS(ON) = 4/20=0.2
(b) The load current Il is given by
Il=Vs/(RDS(ON)+Rl)=150/(0.2+7.3)=20 A
the value of power PD dissipated by the MOSFET while
it is on is
PD=ID2RDS(ON)=202*0.2=80W
compare this with 3000W delivered over 97% efficiency.

141

(c) The condition for the MOSFET to operate in the ohmic region
is VDS(VGS-VGS(TH)).
from the transfer characteristic the value of the threshold gate
voltage is VGS(TH)=3V.
From the I-V characteristic at ID=20 A, the voltage drop VDS across
the transistor is VDS=4V.
Accordingly, the value of the gate voltage is obtained from the
condition,
VGSVDS+VGS(TH) 4+3=7V.
A suitable value of VGS would be 10V.
142

Numerical Example - 6
6.

A single diode is used to rectify current from an ac source of voltage

1000V at 2 kHz to a Resistive load of value 1.0. For the
conditions prevailing and the diode specifications, the reverse
recovery charge is QRR = 10C and the softness factor S = 0.6.
Find (a) the reverse recovery time trr of the diode and (b) the peak
reverse current IRR during commutation.
Solution
v 1000 2Sint
di
1000 2 cost 1000 2 2 2k 17.77 A
s
dt

2Qrr
tatrr
1.6trr 2
di
dt

2 1.6 Q rr
trr
=
di
dt

ta
0 .6
tb

t a 1 .6 t rr

21.610
1.34s
17.77 A
s
143

Numerical Example - 7
7.

A 500-V, 30-A MOSFET modulates power at a frequency of 30kHz from a

400-V dc supply To a load whose resistance is 16ohms. (a) Design a
polarized RC snubber circuit to limit the turn-off dv / dt to 2000 V / s and
the turn-on current to 30 A. (b) What is the average power dissipated by
the snubber circuit.
dv
2000 v
s
dt
Il
25

F 0 .0 1 2 5 F
Cs
dv
2000
dt
Vs I s Rs
Rs

Vs
400

80
25
Is

Pa v

1
C sV s 2 f s 0 .5 4 0 0 2 0 .0 1 2 5 3 0 k 3 0 w
2
144

Numerical Example - 8
8.

A string of three thyristors in series, each with a peak rating of 1600

V, uses resistors of value 8k to force a more equitable voltage
sharing. Consider the worst case that one Thyristor has negligible
leakage current and the other two thyristors have a maximum
leakage current of 75 mA. What dc supply voltage can the
combination block?

145

Solution
Data No. of thyristors (n)=3
Peak rating of thyristor (Vbm)=1600V
Ib =75mAmp
R=8K
Ileakage=75mA
Vs=(1600*3)-(8000*0.075*2)
Vs=4800-1200
Vs=3600
The combination can block 3600 Volts

146

References
1.

R.S.Ramshaw, Power Electronics Semiconductor Switches, Champman &

Hall, 1993, ISBN0-412-28870-2.

2.

N. Mohan, T. M. Undeland and W. P. Robbins, Power Electronics, Converter,

Application and Design, Second Edition, John Willey & Sons, 1995, New
York, ISBN 9971-51-177-0.

3.

M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics, circuits, Devices and Applications, Second

Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1995, India, ISBN 81-203-0869-7.

4.

B.

W.

Williams,

Power

Electronics:

Devices,

Drivers

and

Applications,Wiley,1987.NewYork,ISBN: 0470206969.
5.

W. C. Lander, "Power Electronics", 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1993, New

York, ISBN: 0077077148S.
147

Thank you