Engineering Practice lab manual

PART B - ELECTRONICS LAB

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Study of Electronic components and equipments Resistor color coding,

measurement of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, RMS period,
frequency) using CRO.
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, NOR,Ex-OR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.
4. Soldering practice Components, Devices and Circuits Using general
purpose PCB.
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR

Engineering Practice lab manual

EX. NO.1
STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

AIM:
To study about the following electronic components and equipment.
(i).

Resistor color coding

(ii).

Usage of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) and Multimeter

THEORY:
ELECTRONICS:
It is the branch of science, which relates to the conduction of electricity through
a) vacuum, b) gases and c) semiconductors. The electronic devices are fairly complex,
they are made of simple components such as: Resistors, Capacitors, inductors, tube
devices and semi-conductor devices. Resistors, capacitors and inductors come under
passive components and tube devices and semi-conductor devices fall under active
components.
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
RESISTORS:
It is a passive electronic component, which exhibits the property of the
resistance. Resistance is a physical property of the material, which opposes the flow
of current. Resistors are used in circuits to limit the flow of current or to provide a
voltage drop.UNIT: Ohms ( )
2

SYMBOL:
2.2k

RESISTOR

TYPES
Resistors are broadly classified in to two categories as
1) Fixed Resistors
2) Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors:
Fixed resistors are those whose values cannot be changed after manufacturing.
Variable Resistors:
Variable resistors are those whose values can be changed after manufacturing.
(i) RESISTOR COLOUR CODING
Resistance is coded to indicate the value and the Tolerance. For axial type
resistors, four color bands are used as shown in figure.

The first three color bands indicate the resistance value and the fourth one
indicates the tolerance. The first colour band gives the first significant digit and
second colour band gives the second significant digit. Third colour band is the
multiplier and gives the number of zeros that is to be added to the numerical value
obtained from the
first two bands. The following table gives the colour and its numerical value.

NUMBER MULTIPLIER
BLACK

100

BROWN

101

RED

102

ORANGE 3

103

YELLOW 4

104

GREEN

105

BLUE

106

VIOLET

107

GREY

108

WHITE

109

TOLERANCE CODE:

BROWN COLOUR + 1 %
RED COLOUR

+ 2%

GOLD COLOUR

+5%

SILVER COLOUR

+ 10 %

NO COLOUR

+ 20 %

CAPACITORS:
A capacitor is a component that stores electric energy. It consists of two conducting
plates, separated by an insulator. The conducting surfaces are called electrodes and the
insulating medium is called dielectric.
UNIT:
Farads

SYMBOL:

TYPES:
In general capacitors are classified as
Fixed Capacitors
Variable Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors:
Fixed Capacitors are classified into several types depending upon the dielectric
material used. Some of them are
Paper Capacitors
Film Capacitors
Mica Capacitors
Glass Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors
Tantalum Capacitor
Variable Capacitors:
Variable capacitors consist of a set of fixed plates and a set of movable plates
with air as dielectric. The change of capacitance is obtained by changing the position
of the moving plates with respect to fixed plates.
Trimmer Capacitors
Ceramic trimmer Capacitors
Mica trimming Capacitors

INDUCTORS:
Inductor is a component whose construction is simply a coil of wire. The property of a coil
by which it opposes change in the value of current or flux through it due to the production of selfinduced E.M.F. is called inductance. An inductor consists of a number of turns of wire used to
introduce inductance into an electric circuit and
produces magnetic flux.

UNIT:
Henrys
SYMBOL:
L1

TYPES:
1. Fixed Inductors
a)
Air-core inductor b)
core inductor
c)
Ferrite core inductor
2. Variable Inductors
ACTIVE COMPONENTS

Iron-

PN JUNCTION DIODE:
A single piece of semiconductor, one half of which is P-type and the other half
is N-type is known as PN junction diode. The plane dividing the two halves is known
as PN junction diode. Diode is an electronic component, which allows current to flow
through it in one direction but not in opposite direction. The current is flowing through
a diode, when the voltage on the positive is higher than the negative.
The main function of a diode is rectification.
SYMBOL:

D2
D1N4007

ZENER DIODE:
It is reversed biased PN junction diode, which is operated in break down region.
It is used for meter protection and as voltage regulators.

SYMBOL:

D3

DIODE ZENER

LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):

Light Emitting diodes have same properties as diode when forward biased.
Their threshold voltage is 1.6V to 2.4V.LEDs use a special material, which emits
light when current flows through it. LED has a positive terminal (anode) and a
negative terminal (cathode) just like regular diodes. Often, positive terminal is longer
than negative terminal.
SYMBOL:

D4
LED

TRANSISTORS:
It is a three terminal semiconductor device, consisting of two p-n junctions,
formed by sand witching a thin layer of n-type semi-conductors between two layers of
p-type semi-conductors. This type of transistor is known as p-n-p transistor. On the
other hand, when a layer of p-type semi-conductor is sand witched between two layers
of n-type semi-conductor material, it is known as n-p-n transistor.

B
SYMBOL P-N-P

SYMBOL N-P-N

(ii) USAGE OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE AND MULTIMETER

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The CRO is a versatile electronic testing and measuring instrument that allows
the amplitude of the signal which may be voltage, current, power etc., to be displayed
primarily as a function of time. It is used for voltage, frequency and phase angle
measurement and also for examining the waveforms, from d.c or very low frequency
to very high frequencies.
CRO comprises the main sections of (i) Horizontal and vertical voltage
amplifiers, (ii) Power supply circuits and (iii) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

APPLICATIONS:

Measurement of voltage
Measurement of current
Measurement of frequency
Measurement of phase difference

MULTIMETER
An instrument used to measure voltages, currents and resistances known as
MULTIMETER. It is an indispensable instrument and can be used for measuring D.C.
as well as A.C. Voltages and Currents. Multimeter is the most inexpensive equipment
and can make various electrical measurements with reasonable accuracy. There are
two types of multimeters - analog and digital. The digital multimeter is commonly
used in laboratory and workshop because of its high input resistance.

APPLICATIONS:
For checking the circuit continuity.
For measuring D.C. Current flowing through the circuits.
For measuring D.C. Voltages across various resistors in electronic circuits.
For measuring A.C. Voltage across power supply transformers.
For ascertaining whether or not open or short circuit exists in the circuits.

RESULT:
Thus the study of basic electronic components have been studied.
EX.NO: 1(a)
MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETER
AIM:
To measure peak, RMS, peak to peak, period and frequency of an alternating
quantity (sinusoidal voltage) by using CRO

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.NO

APPARATUS

TYPE

RANGE

QUANTITY

Dual

30MHz

CRO

Function Generator

30MHZ

connecting wires

Few

THEORY
AC FUNDAMENTALS
Alternating quantity:
A quantity in which the magnitude and direction change with respect to time is
called an alternating quantity.
Example: sinusoidal quantity
Cycle
One complete set of changes in magnitude and direction of any alternating
quantity is called a cycle
Period
Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called period. Its
unit is seconds.

AC WAVEFORM:

Fig.1.Wave form with amplitude and peak-peak voltage & time period.

Fig.2.Wave form with peak voltage & RMS voltage.

FREQUENCY:
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is called
frequency. Its unit is Hertz.
PEAK VALUE OR AMPLITUDE:
The maximum value that an alternating quantity attains during a cycle is
called peak value or Amplitude. There are positive and negative peak values.
The magnitude between these two peaks is called peak-peak value.

TABULATION:
No.
S.No.

of No.

of Voltage

divisions in divisions
X-axis

base

of in Y-axis reading

CRO

of

CRO (Volt)

monitor

monitor

Time

Peak

Peak

Time

Frequency

base

value

to

Period

(Hertz)

reading

(Volt) Peak

( m Sec)

Value
(Volt)

( m Sec)

PROCEDURE:
1. Output of the function generator is connected to one of the channels of CRO
through a probe.
2. AC supply to CRO is switched on and the switch in CRO is closed.
3. CRO is kept in dual mode and ground knobs in the two channels are enabled.
4. Focus and intensity knobs in CRO are suitably adjusted to observe both the ground
signals. If there is any problem in tracing the signal position X and Y position knobs
are suitably adjusted.
5. Function generator is switched on. Sinusoidal quantity is chosen as the output
signal.
6. Amplitude of the sinusoidal quantity is varied and maintained at a particular
value
7. Frequency of the sinusoidal quantity is varied and maintained at a particular
value.
8. The sinusoidal output of function generator is observed using CRO by
enabling
AC knob and disabling ground knob in the channel to which function generator is
connected.

9.peak value ,peak-peak value of the sinusoidal waveform are observed by

noting the number of divisions in Y axis CRO monitor and the value of the voltage in
the voltage base knob.
10. Peak value and peak-peak values of the sinusoidal wave can be calculated as
the product of number of divisions in Y-axis of CRO monitor and value of the voltage
in the voltage base knob.
11. CAL knob in the most anti-clockwise position. Number of divisions in X
axis of CRO monitor and value of the time in the time base knob are noted.
12. Time period of the sinusoidal wave is obtained by multiplying the number
of divisions in X axis of CRO monitor and value of the time in the time base knob.
13. Reciprocal of the time period is the frequency of the sinusoidal waveform.
Frequency can also be checked by noting the digital value in the function generator.

RESULT:
Thus, Peak, peak to peak values, period and frequency of a sinusoidal
voltage waveform are observed and measured by using CRO.

EX.NO.2
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
AIM:
To study the operation of logic gates and verify their truth table.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO COMPONENTS

QUANTITY

Digital trainer

IC 7404(NOT gate)

IC7408(AND gate)

IC7432(OR gate)

IC7486(Ex-OR gate)

IC 7402(NOR gate)

IC 7400(NAND gate)

THEORY:
Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one
output Signal. Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals are either
low or High voltages. Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be
analyzed using Boolean algebra.

NOT GATE: IC7404

A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an
inverter. The output will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output
will be at Logic 0. Thus its output is the complement of its input. The Boolean
expression for NOT GATE Y =
SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATION

TRUTH TABLE
INPUT

OUTPUT

AND GATE: IC7408

An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output can
go to Logic 1 if all its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a two
input AND gate is: Y=A.B

SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATION

TRUTH TABLE
Boolean expression for AND GATE Y = A.B

INPUT

OUTPUT

OR GATE: IC7432
An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output will be
at Logic 1 if any or both of its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for
a two input OR gate is: Y= A+B
SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATION

Boolean expression for OR GATE Y = A+B

TRUTH TABLE

INPUT

OUTPUT

EX-OR GATE: IC7486

It has two or more inputs and a single output. The output of the EX-OR gate is
high if the inputs are different and low if the inputs are same.
The Boolean expression for a two input EX-OR gate is: Y = A+ B
SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATION

BOOLEAN EXPRESSION Y = A+ B

TRUTH TABLE
INPUT

OUTPUT

NAND GATE: IC7400

It is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate. It is also called as an
universal gate. The output of this gate will go to logic 0 if all its inputs are at the high
state.

The Boolean expression for a two input NAND gate is: Y===.=

SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATION

NOR GATE: IC 7402

It is the combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It is also called as an
universal gate. The output of this gate will go to logic 1 if all its inputs are at the low
state.

The Boolean expression for a two input NOR gate is: Y=A.B

SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATION

PROCEDURE:
1) Connections for all the gates namely NOT, AND, OR and EX-OR are given as
per the circuit diagram.

2) Pin No.7 is connected to ground and pin No.14 is connected to +Vcc of +5V.
3) Outputs are noted for various combinations of inputs and the truth table is
verified.

RESULT:
Thus the logic gates are studied and their truth tables are verifie

Ex.NO:3

GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL

AIM:
To generate a clock signal using the IC 555 timer in Astable mode.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.NO

NAME OF
SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
THE
COMPONENT

1.

IC

555 Timer

2.

Resistors

2.2 k

3.3 k

0.1F
0.01 F

3.

Capacitors

4.

Power supply

30 V

5.

Bread board &

connecting
wires

THEORY:
Multivibrator is basically a two stage amplifier with output of one
feedback to the input of the other. This integrated chip generates the clock
signal of its own. It does not require external pulse for its operation but a source

of DC power. The width of the square wave and its frequency depend upon the
circuit constants.
The 555 timer has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot".

Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches,
touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width
modulation (PWM) etc.

Astable - free running mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation,
security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.

Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the
DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free
latched switches, etc.

PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRM:
VCC= + 5 VOLTS

R1
2.2K

7
OUTPUT

IC 555
R2
3.3K

C1
0.1UF
C2
0.01UF

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

OUTPUT

AMPLITUDE TIME
X-AXIS Y-AXIS TIME(DIV VOLT(DIV IN VOLTS
IN ms
)
)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram after designing suitable values
of R1, R2 and C for the desired clock frequency, ON and OFF times.
2. Pin.8 is connected to the supply.
3. Pin.3 is connected to the CRO for observing the output clock signal.
4. ON and OFF times are measured from CRO. Time period and frequency are
then calculated.

RESULT:
Thus a clock signal using the IC 555 timer is generated in Astable mode.

EX.NO:4
SOLDERING PRACTICE COMPONENTS
DEVICE AND CIRCUITS
AIM:
To assemble and solder the electronic components on a printed circuit
board for the given circuit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No.
1.

Components
Soldering rod, Soldering lead,

Quantity
1

2.

Flux.

3.

Resistor.

As per Circuit.

4.

Capacitor.

As per Circuit.

5.

Signal generator

THEORY:
Printed circuit board is the base plate over which all components are mounted
and soldered. The inter connection between the components made by in metallic
tracks. Etching process in PCB removes all the excess copper from the base
lamination. After this only the printed pattern is left behind. A solution of 75 degree
Celsius heated tap water and ferric chloride is used to remove the excess copper. The
above said solution thoroughly surrounded and speeded up the process few drops of
HCL be added.

COMPONENT PLACEMENT:
The placement of components affects circuit operation manufacturing case and
the probability of design errors. Improper layout can be grade operation or even
prevent a circuit from working. Future more, poor layout can make manufacture
of the circuit boards costly and difficult. Thoughtless placement of components
and complicates the design of the PCB and will increase the chance of wrong
connections.
You should group circuits according to their characteristics to maintain the
correct operation of each circuit. In general follow these rules.
Group high- current circuits near the connector to isolate stray currents and near
the edge of the PCB to remove heat.
Group low power and low frequency circuits away from high current and high
frequency circuits.
Group of high frequency circuits near the connector to reduce path length cross
talk and noise.
Group analog circuit separately from digital logic.
Grouping components & circuits appropriately will reduce cross talk efficiently.
Careful placement of the board will make production of circuit easier and less
error prone. Determine the location and direction of the components so that a
pick
& place machine can easily assemble a circuit board without manual
intervention.
Allow plenty of clearance around mechanical supports. It is embarrassing and
costly to find a trace shorted to an enclose post or a component jammed against
the card cage. If possible leave room around large and complex components for
sockets on the prototype boards to speed testing and development.

PROCEDURE:
(i)

For assembling electronic components in PCB board

Study the given electronic circuit.

The master pattern of PCB is made on a thick sheet with a reverse carbon placed
under to take the mirror image on reverse side of the sheet.
Clean the copper side of the PCB with alcoholic spirit or petrol in order to make
it free from dust and contaminations.
The mirrors image of pattern is copied to the base laminate on the board with
the help of ball point pen. Holes position should be marked carefully.
The copied track is marked with the help of enamel point or use silver pen.
The board is dipped in a solution of FeCl3 for some time to remove the excess
copper then it should be cleaned under running water and it should be dried.
The marker ink/Point is removed with the help of alcohol or petrol.
Using a driller, holes of suitable diameter are drilled on the board and then clean
the hole.
Varnish coating is given on the PCB in order to prevent the oxidation.
Using Continuity tester, the board is tested for continuity.
Note:
If the circuit is continuous while checking beep sound will come when the
multimeter is put in beep node. If the circuit is not continuous no beep sound will
come.
Precaution:
The terminal of the components should be thoroughly cleaned also soldering

care should be taken while selecting the proper size of soldering HD.

SOLDERING SIMPLE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS:

A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a
plastic board. The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path.
Leads of components mounted on the board are inserted through holes on the board
and the conductive copper. These leads are soldered to the copper at the end of the
hole. If excessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from the board or the
components on the board get damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30 Watts is used
to heat the junction. The surface of copper bonded to the board should be properly
prepared and cleaned before soldering. Flux is applied on circuits and component
leads.
Check the conductive strips and pads on the board before soldering. Avoid
excess solder to prevent two copper paths from bridging. When solder globules form
on the junction area, remove them by cleaning the soldering tip using a cloth.

CHECKING CONTINUITY:
The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero ohms of
resistance. Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To test continuity,
select the lowest ohm range. A wire may have an internal break, which is not visible
due to insulation, or the wire may have a bad connection at the terminals. Checking for
zero ohms between any two points tests the continuity. A break in the conducting path
is evident from the reading of infinite resistance. In a cable of wires, individual wires
are identified with colors. Consider the figure, where the individual wires are not seen,
but you wish to find the wire that connects to terminal A. This is done by, checking
continuity of each wire to terminal A. The wire that has zero ohms is the one
connected to this terminal. Continuity of a long cable may be tested by temporarily
short-circuiting the other ends of the wires. The continuity of both wires may be
checked for zero ohms. In a digital multimeter, a beep mode is available to check
continuity. The connectivity between the terminals is identified by the beep sound.

RESULT:
Thus, the electronic components via resistor and capacitor were joined through
soldering and continuity of a circuit is checked successfully.
MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR OF

EX.NO:5

HALF WAVE & FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:
To design half wave and full wave rectifiers filter and to measure the ripple
factor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
SL.No Instruments/Components Required

Type/range

Quantity

1.

Transformer

(9-0-9)v

2.

Resistor

1K

3.

CRO

30 MHz

4.

Bread board

5.

Connecting Wires

Single Strand few

THEORY:
Half Wave Rectifier

In a half wave rectifier only one diode is used in the secondary of the
transformer, during the positive half cycle the diode conducts and only the positive
portion of the input signal is delivered to the load. During the negative half cycle the
diode will not conduct, since it is reverse biased and there is no output delivered to the
load.

Full Wave Rectifier Using Centre Tapped Transformer

The full wave Centre tapped rectifier uses two diodes connected to the
secondary of Centre tapped transformer. The input voltage is coupled through the
transformer to the Centre tapped secondary, half of the total secondary voltage
appears between the Centre tapped and each end of the secondary winding. For a
positive half cycle of the input voltage, the upper diode D1 is forward biased and the
lower diode D2 is reverse biased. The current path is through D1 and load (RL), for
negative half cycle of the input voltage the diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is
forward biased. Now the current path is through diode (D2) and resistor (RL), because
of output current during both cycle is in same direction, the output voltage developed
across the load resistor is a full wave rectified voltage.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The full wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, when the input cycle is + ve, the
diode D2 & D3 are forward biased and conducts current , the voltage is developed
across RL which is the +ve half of the input cycle during this time D1 & D4 are
reverse biased. When input cycle is ve the diodes D1 & D4 are forward biased and
conducts current in same direction through RL as during +ve cycle. During ve half
diode D2 & D3 are reverse biased, so a full wave rectifier output appears occurs the
RL as a result of this action.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Half Wave Rectifier

MODEL GRAPH:

Full Wave Rectifier

MODEL GRAPH

TABULATION
INPUT:
RECTIFIER
TYPE
HALFWAVE
FULLWAVE

AMPLITUDE

TIME
PERIOD

HALFWAVE RECTIFIER:
S.NO

Vm(v)

Vac

Vdc

r = (Vac/Vdc)*100

Vac

Vdc

r = (Vac/Vdc)*100

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER:
S.NO

Vm(v)

CALCULATION
Half wave rectifier
The RMS voltage is given by

Vrms

Vm
2

The average dc voltage for half wave rectified output is Vdc = Vm /

2

Vac Vrms Vdc

Therefore ripple factor(r) %

=(Vac/Vdc)*100

Vrms

Vm
2

Full wave Rectifier

The RMS voltage is given by
The average dc voltage for half wave rectified output is Vdc= (2Vm) /
Ripple factor =(Vac/Vdc)*100Vac 2 Vrms 2 Vdc 2

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram, with correct polarity
provision given to the circuit from the transformer.
2. The Peak voltage (Vm) is noted and the corresponding % of ripple factor(r)
is calculated and compared with theoretical calculation.

RESULT:
Thus half wave and full wave rectifier is designed, ripple factor is measured
and output is verified.