The Rolling Motion of a Disk on a Horizontal Plane

Kirk T. McDonald
Joseph Henry Laboratories, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
[email protected]
(August 9, 2000)

Problem

Discuss the motion of a (thin) disk of mass m and radius a that rolls without slipping on
a horizontal plane. Consider steady motion in which the center of mass of the disk moves
in a horizontal circle of radius b, the special cases where b = 0 or b , as well as small
oscillations about steady motion. Discuss the role of friction in various aspects of the motion.

Solution

This classic problem has been treated by many authors, perhaps in greatest detail but very
succinctly by Routh in article 244 of [1]. Here, we adopt a vectorial approach as advocated
by Milne [2]. The equations of motion are deduced in sec. 2.1, and steady motion is discussed
in secs. 2.2 and 2.3. Oscillation about steady motion is considered in sec. 2.5, and effects
of friction are discussed in secs. 2.4, 2.6 and 2.7. Section 2.8 presents a brief summary of
the various aspects of the motions discussed in secs. 2.1-7. The issues of non-rigid-body
motion and rolling motion on curved surfaces are mentioned in sec. 2.9, using the science
toy Eulers Disk as an example.

2.1

The Equations of Motion

In addition to the z axis which is vertically upwards, we introduce a right-handed coordinate

2,
3)
related to the geometry of the disk, as shown in Fig. 1. Axis
triad of unit vectors (1,
lies along the symmetry axis of the disk. Axis 3
is directed from the center of the disk to
1
the point of contact with the horizontal plane, and makes angle to that plane. The vector
from the center of the disk to the point of contact is then

a = a3.

(1)

= 3
1
lies in the plane of the disk, and also in the horizontal plane. The sense
Axis 2

of axis 1 is chosen so that the component 1 of the angular velocity vector ~ of the disk
points in the direction of the velocity of the
about this axis is positive. Consequently, axis 2
point of contact. (For the special case where the point of contact does not move, 1 = 0 and

analysis is unaffected by the choice of direction of axis 1.)

1

[width=3.0in]rollingdisk.eps
Figure 1: A disk of radius a rolls without slipping on a horizontal plane. The
symmetry axis of the disk is called axis 1, and makes angle to the z axis,
which is vertically upwards. The line from the center of the disk to the point of
contact with the plane is called axis 3, which makes angle to the horizontal,
= 3
1,
and the
where 0 . The horizontal axis 2 is defined by 2
z. The angular velocity of the disk
horizontal axis r is defined by r = 2
2,
3)
about
about axis 1 is called 1 , and the angular velocity of the axes (1,
the vertical is called . The motion of the point of contact is instantaneously
in a circle of radius r. The distance from the axis of this motion to the center
of mass of the disk is labelled b.

Before discussing the dynamics of the problem, a considerable amount can be deduced
from kinematics. The total angular velocity ~ can be thought of as composed of two parts,

~ = ~axes + rel 1,

(2)

2,
3),
and rel 1
is the angular velocity of
where ~axes is the angular velocity of the triad (1,
the disk relative to the triad; the relative angular velocity can only have a component along
by definition. The angular velocity of the axes has component about the horizontal
1
(where the dot indicates differentiation with respect to time), and is defined to have
axis 2
is always horizontal, ~axes has no
component about the vertical axis z. Since axis 2
z r. Hence, the angular velocity of the axes can be written
component along the axis 2
= cos 1
+ 2
sin 3,

~axes = z + 2

(3)

sin 3,

z = cos 1

(4)

noting that
as can be seen from Fig. 1. The time rates of change of the axes are therefore

d1
= sin 2
3,

=
~ axes 1
dt

d2
= sin 1
cos 3,
= r,
=
~ axes 2
dt

d3
= 1
+ cos 2,

=
~ axes 3
dt

(5)
(6)
(7)

where the rotating horizontal axis r is related by

z = sin 1
+ cos 3.

r = 2

(8)

Combining eqs. (2) and (3) we write the total angular velocity as
+ 2
sin 3,

~ = 1 1
2

(9)

where
1 = cos + rel .

(10)

The constraint that the disk rolls without slipping relates the velocity of the center of
mass to the angular velocity vector
~ of the disk. In particular, the instantaneous velocity
of the point contact of the disk with the horizontal plane is zero,
vcontact = vcm + ~ a = 0.

(11)

Hence,
vcm =

drcm
~ = a 1
+ a1 2,

= a3
dt

(12)

using eqs. (1) and (9).

Another kinematic relation can be deduced by noting that the point of contact between
the disk and the horizontal plane can aways be considered as moving instantaneously in a
circle whose radius vector we define as r = rr with r 0, as shown in Fig. 1. The horizontal
vector distance from the axis of this instantaneous circular motion to the center of mass of
the disk is labelled b = br, where
b = r a sin .
(13)
precesses about the vertical with angular velocity
comSince axis r (and axis 2)
z, the 2
But, according to eq. (12),
ponent of the velocity of the center of mass is
z br = b2.

this velocity is also a1 2. Thus,

b
1 = .
(14)
a
While 1 is defined to be nonnegative, length b can be negative if is negative as well. We
could use either 1 or b as one of the basic parameters of the problem. For now, we continue
to use 1 , as we wish to include the special cases of b = 0 and in the general analysis.
the rotating axes are not body axes, but the inertia tensor is diagonal
Except for axis 1,
with respect to them. We write
I11 = 2kma2 ,

I22 = kma2 = I33 ,

(15)

which holds for any thin circularly symmetric disc according to the perpendicular axis theorem; k = 1/2 for a disk with mass m concentrated at the rim, k = 1/4 for a uniform disk,
etc. The angular momentum Lcm of the disk with respect to its center of mass can now be
written as
~
+ 2
sin 3).

Lcm = I~
~ = kma2 (21 1
(16)
Turning at last to the dynamics of the rolling disk, we suppose that the only forces on it
are mgz due to gravity and F at the point of contact with the horizontal plane. For now,
we ignore rolling friction and friction due to the air surrounding the disk.
The equation of motion for the position rcm of the center of mass of the disk is then
m

d2 rcm
= F mgz.
dt2
3

(17)

The torque equation of motion for the angular momentum Lcm about the center of mass is
dLcm
= Ncm = a F.
dt

(18)

We eliminate the unknown force F in eq. (18) via eqs. (1) and (17) to find
2
1 dLcm
z + 3
d rcm .
= g3
ma dt
dt2

(19)

2
and 3
components
This can be expanded using eqs. (4), (5)-(7), (12) and (16) to yield the 1,
of the equation of motion,
(2k + 1) 1 +
sin = 0,
g
k2 sin cos + (2k + 1)1 sin (k + 1)
=
cos ,
a
sin + 2
cos + 21 = 0.

2.2

(20)
(21)
(22)

Steady Motion

For steady motion, =

= = 1 = 0, and we define steady = 0 , steady = 0
and 1,steady = 10 . The equations of motion (20) and (22) are now trivially satisfied, and
eq. (21) becomes
k20 sin 0 cos 0 + (2k + 1)10 0 sin 0 =

g
cos 0 ,
a

(23)

A special case of steady motion is 0 = /2, corresponding to the plane of the disk being
vertical. In this case, eq. (23) requires that 10 0 = 0. If 0 = 0, the disk rolls along a
straight line and 10 is the rolling angular velocity. If 10 = 0, the disk spins in place about
the vertical axis with angular velocity 0 .
For 0 6= /2, the angular velocity 0 z of the axes about the vertical must be nonzero.
We can then replace 10 by the radius b of the horizontal circular motion of the center of
mass using eqs. (13) and (14):


10

b
r
= 0 = 0
cos 0 .
a
a

(24)

Inserting this in (23), we find

20 =

g cot 0
g cot 0
=
.
ka cos 0 + (2k + 1)b
(2k + 1)r (k + 1)a cos 0

(25)

For /2 < 0 < the denominator of eq. (25) is positive, since r is positive by definition,
but the numerator is negative. Hence, 0 is imaginary, and steady motion is not possible in
this quadrant of angle 0 .
For 0 < 0 < /2, 0 is real and steady motion is possible so long as
b>

ak cos 0
.
2k + 1
4

(26)

In addition to the commonly observed case of b > 0, steady motion is possible with small
negative values of b
A famous special case is when b = 0, and the center of mass of the disk is at rest. Here,
eq. (25) becomes
g
,
(27)
20 =
ak sin 0
and 10 = 0 according to eq. (24), so that
rel = 0 cos 0 ,

(28)

according
recalling eq. (10). Also, the total angular velocity becomes simply
~ = 0 sin 0 3
to eq. (9), so the instantaneous axis of rotation is axis 3 which contains the center of mass
and the point of contact, both of which are instantaneously at rest.

2.3

Shorter Analysis of Steady Motion with b = 0

The analysis of a spinning coin whose center is at rest can be shortened considerably by
noting at the outset that in this case axis 3 is the instantaneous axis of rotation. Then, the
and the angular momentum is simply
angular velocity is ~ = 3,
= kma2 3.

L = I33 3

(29)

Since the center of mass is at rest, the contact force F is just mgz, so the torque about the
center of mass is
mgz = dL .
N = a3
(30)
dt
We see that the equation of motion for L has the form
dL ~
= 0 L,
dt

(31)

where

~ 0 = g z.

(32)
ak
Thus, the angular momentum, and the coin, precesses about the vertical at rate 0 .
~ 0 is obtained from eq. (2) by noting that
~ 0,
A second relation between ~ and
~ axes =
so that
0 sin 0 3
= 3,

~ = (0 cos 0 + rel )1
(33)
using eq. (4). Hence,
= 0 sin 0 ,

(34)

rel = 0 cos 0 .

(35)

and
Combining eqs. (32) and (34), we again find that
20 =

g
,
ak sin 0
5

(36)

As 0 approaches zero, the angular velocity of the point of contact becomes very large, and
one hears a high-frequency sound associated with the spinning disk. However, a prominent
aspect of what one sees is the rotation of the figure on the face of the coin, whose angular
velocity 0 rel = 0 (1cos 0 ) approaches zero. The total angular velocity also vanishes
as 0 0.

2.4

Radial Slippage During Steady Motion

The contact force F during steady motion at a small angle 0 is obtained from eqs. (6), (12),
(17), (24) and (27) as
b
F = mgz
mgr.
(37)
ak sin 0
The horizontal component of force F is due to static friction at the point of contact. The
coefficient of friction must therefore satisfy

|b|
,
ak sin 0

(38)

otherwise the disk will slip in the direction opposite to the radius vector b. Since coefficient
is typically one or less, slippage will occur whenever ak sin 0 <
|b|. As the disk loses
energy and angle decreases, the slippage will reduce |b| as well. The trajectory of the
center of the disk will be a kind of inward spiral leading toward b = 0 for small .
If distance b is negative, it must obey |b| < ak cos 0 /(2k + 1) according to eq. (26). In
this case, eq. (38) becomes
cot 0

,
(39)
2k + 1
which could be satisfied for a uniform disk only for 0 >
/3. Motion with negative b is
likely to be observed only briefly before large radial slippage when 0 is large reduces b to
zero.

2.5

Small Oscillations about Steady Motion

We now suppose that , and 1 undergo oscillations at angular frequency $ about their
equilibrium values of the form
= 0 +  cos $t,

(40)

= 0 + cos $t,
1 = 10 + cos $t,

(41)
(42)

where , and are small constants. Inserting these in the equation of motion (22) and
equating terms of first order of smallness, we find that
=

2
(0 cos 0 + 10 ).
sin 0

(43)

From this as well as from eq. (40), we see that / sin 0  1 for small oscillations. Similarly,
eq. (20) leads to
0 sin 0
,
(44)
= 
2k + 1
and eq. (21) leads to
$ 2 (k + 1) = (2k + 1)(10 0 cos 0 + 0 sin 0 + 10 sin 0 ) + k20 (1 2 cos2 0 )
g
2k0 sin 0 cos 0  sin 0 .
(45)
a
Combining eqs. (43)-(45), we obtain
$ 2 (k + 1) = 20 (k(1 + 2 cos2 0 ) + sin2 0 ) (6k + 1)10 0 cos 0
g
2
+2(2k + 1)10
sin 0 ,
a

(46)

which agrees with Routh [1], noting that our k, 0 , and 10 are his k 2 , , and n.
For the special case of a wheel rolling in a straight line, 0 = /2, 0 = 0, and
g
2
$ 2 (k + 1) = 2(2k + 1)10
.
a
The rolling is stable only if
2
>
10

(47)

g
.
2(2k + 1)a

(48)

Another special case is that of a disk spinning about a vertical diameter, for which
0 = /2 and 10 and b are zero. Then, eq. (46) indicates that the spinning is stable only
for
s
g
|0 | >
,
(49)
a(k + 1)
which has been called the condition for sleeping. Otherwise, angle decreases when
perturbed, and the motion of the disc becomes that of the more general case.
Returning to the general analysis of eq. (46), we eliminate 10 using eq. (24) and replace
the term (g/a) sin 0 via eq. (25) to find
$2
b
sin2 0
2
2
(k
+
1)
=
3k
cos

+
sin

+
(6k
+
1)
cos

(2k
+
1)
0
0
0
20
a
cos 0
2
b
+ 2 2 (2k + 1).
a
q

(50)

The term in eq. (50) in large parentheses is negative for 0 > tan1 (6k + 1)/(2k + 1),
which is about 60 for a uniform disk. Hence for positive b the motion is unstable for large

0 , and the disk will appear fall over quickly into a rolling motion with 0 <
60 , after which
0 will decrease more slowly due to the radial slippage discussed in sec. 2.4, until b becomes
very small. The subsequent motion at small 0 is considered further in sec. 2.6.
The motion with negative b is always stable against small oscillations, but the radial
slippage is large as noted in sec. 2.4.
7

For motion with b  a, such as for a spinning coin whose center is nearly fixed, the
frequency of small oscillation is given by
s

$
=
0

3k cos2 0 + sin2 0
.
k+1

For small angles this becomes

$

3k
.
k+1

(51)

(52)
q

For a uniform disk with k = 1/4, the frequency $ of small oscillation approaches 3/50 =
0.770 , while for a hoop with k = 1/2, $ 0 as 0 0.
The effect of this small oscillation of a spinning coin is to produce a kind of rattling sound
during which the frequency sounds a bit wrong. This may be particularly noticeable if a
surface imperfection suddenly excites the oscillation to a somewhat larger amplitude.
The radial slippage of the point of contact discussed in sec. 2.4 will be enhanced by the
rattling, which requires a larger peak frictional force to maintain slop-free motion.
As angle 0 approaches zero, the slippage keeps the radius b of order a sin 0 . For small
0 , b 0 a and eq. (50) gives the frequency of small oscillation as
s

$ 0

3k + (6k + 1)0
.
k+1

(53)

For a uniform disk, k = 1/4, and eq. (53) gives

s

$ 0

3 + 100
.
5

(54)

When 0 0.2 rad, the oscillation and rotation frequencies are nearly identical, at which
time a very low frequency beat can be discerned in the nutations of the disk. Once 0
drops below about 0.1 rad, the low-frequency nutation disappears and the disk settles into
a motion
q in which the center of mass hardly appears to move, and the rotation frequency
0 g/ak0 grows very large.
For a hoop (k = 1/2), the low-frequency beat will be prominent for angles near zero.

2.6

Friction at Very Small

In practice, the motion of a spinning disk appears to cease rather abruptly for a small value
of the angle , corresponding to large precession angular velocity . If the motion continued,
the velocity a of the point of contact would eventually exceed the speed of sound.
This suggests that air friction may play a role in the motion at very small , as has been
discussed recently by Moffatt [3].
When the rolling motion ceases, the disk seems to float for a moment, and then settle
onto the horizontal surface. It appears that the upward contact force Fz vanished, and
the disk lost contact with the surface. From eqs. (12) and (17), we see that for small ,
Fz ma
mg. Since the height of the center of mass above the surface is h a for
8

small , we recognize that the disk loses contact with the surface when the center of mass
is falling with acceleration g.
Moffatt invites us to relate the power P dissipated by friction to the rate of change dU/dt
of total energy of the disk. For a disk moving with b = 0 at a small angle (t),
1
1
1
3
U = mh 2 + I33 2 + mgh ma2 2 + mag,
2
2
2
2

(55)

using eq. (34) and assuming that eq. (36) holds adiabatically. Then,
dU
5
3
ma2

+ mag mag ,
dt
2
2

(56)

where the second approximation holds when Fz 0 and ma

mg.
For the dissipation of energy we need a model. First, we consider rolling friction, taken to
be the effect of inelastic collisions between the disk and the horizontal surface. For example,
suppose the surface features small bumps of average height with average spacing . We
suppose that the disk dissipates energy mg when passing over a bump. The time taken for
the rotating disk to pass over a bump is /a, so the rate of dissipation of energy to rolling
friction is
mg
mag
P =
=
.
(57)
/a

A generalized form of velocity-dependent rolling friction could be written as
P =

mag
.


(58)

Equating this to the rate of change (56) of the energy of the disk, we find


2
2 g
=
5
5 ak
which integrates to give

(+2)/2 =
and
=

+2
5

+2 g
5
ak

!2/(+2) 

g
ak

/2

/2

/(+2)

(59)

(t0 t),

(60)

(t0 t)2/(+2) .

(61)

/2

In this model, the angular velocity obeys

=

5g/( + 2)ak
t0 t

!1/(+2)

(62)

which exhibits what is called by Moffatt a finite-time singularity.

However, the premise of this analysis is that it will cease to hold when
= g/a and the
disk loses contact with the surface. Taking the derivative of eq. (61), this gives
g
2
=
a
( + 2)2

+2
5

!2/(+2) 

g
ak

1/(+2)

(t0 t)2(+1)/(+2) ,

(63)

and
(t0 t)

2/(+2)

2
( + 2)2

!1/(+1)

+2
5

!2/(+1)(+2) 

g
ak

/(+1)(+2)  1/(+1)

g
a

(64)

for the time t0 t when the disk leaves the surface. At that time,
2(g/a)(1)
252 k

min =

!1/(+1)

(65)

For a uniform disk with k = 1/4, and the simplest rolling friction model with = 1, this
gives min = 0.57/. If the bump-spacing parameter  had a value of 10, then min 3.4 ,
which is roughly as observed.
Moffatt [3] ignores rolling friction, but makes a model for viscous drag of the air between
the disc and the surface. He finds


2a
=
(t0 t)
m
and
g
=
ak

m/2a
t0 t

1/3

(66)

(67)

!1/6

where = 1.8 104 g-cm1 -s is the viscosity of air. This also yields min of a few degrees,
and hence a similar value for max . Formally, the air-drag model is the same as a rollingfriction model with = 4.
The main distinguishing feature between the various models for friction is the different
time dependences (62) for the angular velocity as angle decreases. An experiment should
be performed to determine whether any of these models corresponds to the practical physics.

2.7

Rising of a Rotating Disk When Nearly Vertical ( /2)

A rotating disk can exhibit rising when launched with spin about a nearly vertical diameter,
provided there is slippage at the point of contact with the horizontal plane. That is, the
plane of the disc may rise first towards the vertical, before eventually falling towards the
horizontal.
The rising of tops appears to have been considered by Euler, but rather inconclusively.
The present explanation based on sliding friction can be traced to a note by H.T. in 1839
[4].
Briefly, we consider motion that is primarily
q rotation about a nearly vertical diameter.
The angular velocity about the vertical is > g/a(k + 1), large enough so that sleeping
at the vertical is possible. The needed sliding friction depends on angular velocity component
1 = b/a being nonzero, which implies that the center of mass moves in a circle of radius

b  a in the present case. Then, 1  , and the angular momentum (16) is L 3,

which is almost vertically upwards (see Fig. 1). Rising depends on slippage of the disk at
the point of contact such that the lowermost point on the disk is not at rest but moves
10

 which is opposite to the direction of motion of the center of mass.

with velocity a1 2,
on the disk, with
Corresponding to this slippage, the horizontal surface exerts friction Fs 2
= aFs 1,
pushes the angular momentum
Fs 2
Fs > 0. The related torque, Ns = a3
towards the vertical, and the center of mass of the disk rises.
The most dramatic form of rising motion is that of a tippe top, which has recently
been reviewed by Gray and Nickel [5].

2.8

Summary of the Motion of a Disk Spun Initially About a

Vertical Diameter

If a uniform disk is given a large initial angular velocity about a vertical diameter, and
the initial horizontal velocity of the center of mass is very small, the disk will sleep until
friction at the point of contact reduces the angular velocity below that of condition (49). The
disk will then appear to fall over rather quickly into a rocking motion with angle 60
(sec. 2.5). After this, the vertical angular velocity will increase ever more rapidly, while
angle decreases, until the disk loses contact with the table at a value of of a few degrees
sec. 2.6). The disk then quickly settles on to the horizontal surface. One hears sound at
frequency /2, which becomes dramatically higher until the sound abruptly ceases. But if
one observes a figure on the face of the disk, this rotates every more slowly and seems almost
to have stopped moving before the sounds ceases (sec. 2.3).
If the initial motion of the disk included a nonzero initial velocity in addition to the spin
about a vertical diameter, the center of mass will initially move in a circle whose radius
could be large (sec. 2.3). If the initial vertical angular velocity is small, the disc will roll in
a large circle, tilting slightly inwards until the rolling angular velocity 1 drops below that
of condition (48). While in most cases the angle of the disk will then quickly drop to 60
or so, occasionally will rise back towards 90 before falling (sec. 2.7). As the disk rolls and
spins, the center of mass traces an inward spiral on average, but nutations about this spiral
can be seen, often accompanied by a rattling sound. The nutation is especially prominent
for 10 15 at which time a very low beat frequency between that of primary spin and
that of the small oscillation can be observed (sec. 2.5). As decreases below this, the radius
of the circle traced by the center of mass becomes very small, and the subsequent motion is
that of a disk without horizontal center of mass motion.

2.9

The Tangent Toy Eulers Disk

An excellent science toy that illustrates the topic of this article is Eulers Disk, distributed
by Tangent Toy Co. [6]. Besides the disk itself, a base is included that appears to be the key
to the superior performance exhibited by this toy. The surface of the base is a thin, curved
layer of glass, glued to a plastic backing. The base rests on three support points to minimize
rocking.
As the disk rolls on the base, the latter is noticeably deformed. If the same disk is rolled
on a smooth, hard surface such as a granite surface plate, the motion dies out more quickly,
and rattling sounds are more prominent. It appears that a small amount of flexibility in the
11

base is important in damping the perturbations of the rolling motion if long spin times are
to be achieved.
Thus, high-performance rolling motion is not strictly a rigid-body phenomenon. However,
we do not pursue the theme of elasticity further in this paper.
The concave shape of the Tangent Toy base helps center the rolling motion of the disk,
and speeds up the reduction of an initially nonzero radius b to the desirable value of zero.
An analysis of the motion of a rolling disk on a curved surface is more complex than that
of rolling on a horizontal plane because there are four rather than three degrees of freedom
in the former case, but only three equations of motion. A discussion of a disk rolling inside
a sphere on an orbit far from the lowest point of the sphere has been given in [7].
The author thanks A. Ruina for insightful correspondence on this topic.

References

[1] E.J. Routh, The Advanced Part of a Treatise on the Dynamics of a System of Rigid
Bodies, 6th ed., Macmillan (London, 1905); reprinted by Dover Publications (New York,
1955).
[2] E.A. Milne, Vectorial Mechanics, Interscience Publishers (New York, 1948).
[3] H.K. Moffatt, Eulers disk and its finite-time singularity, Nature 404, 833-834 (2000).
[4] H.T., Note on the Theory of the Spinning Top, Camb. Math. J. 1, 42-44 (1839).
[5] C.G. Gray and B.G. Nickel, Constants of the motion for nonslipping tippe tops and
other tops with round pegs, Am. J. Phys. 68, 821-828 (2000).
[6] J. Bendik, The Official Eulers Disk Website, http://www.eulersdisk.com/
Tangent Toy Co., P.O. Box 436, Sausalito, CA 94966, http://www.tangenttoy.com/
[7] K.T. McDonald, Circular orbits inside the sphere of death, Am. J. Phys. 66, 419-430
(1998). A version with slightly revised figures is at
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/mcdonald/examples/sphereofdeath.ps

12