Unit 3

Highway Alignment and Surveys

Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the alignment. The
highway
alignment can be either horizontal or vertical and they are described in detail in the following
sections.
3.1 Alignment
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment includes
level and gradients. Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the
construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment is xed and constructed,
it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly
structures by the roadside.
3.2 Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are:
The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the operation of
vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be provided.
It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at slopes,
embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial cost,
maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
3.3 Factors controlling alignment

We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy all
these requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
a)

Obligatory Points

b)

Traffic

c)

Geometric design

d)

Economics

e)

Other considerations

(a) Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These points
are classified into two categories.
(i)

Points through which it should pass

(ii)

Points through which it should not pass.

(i) Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass may cause the
alignment to often deviate from the shortest or easiest path.
Some of the examples are:

Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent path
and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach to the bridge
should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge
the highway alignment may be changed.

Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are to
either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends on
factors like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.

Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate town or
village nearby.

(ii) Obligatory points through which the alignment should not pass are:
Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose.
Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which would
result in an increase in initial cost. So the alignment may be deviated not to pass through that
point.
Lakes/Ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also necessitate
deviation of the alignment.
(b) Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-destination
data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should be drawn keeping in
view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
(c) Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance
etc. also govern the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be

required to change the alignment. The alignments should be finalized such that the obstructions
to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements of sight distance. The design standards
vary with the class of road and the terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.

(d) Economy: The alignment finalised should be economical. All the three costs i.e.
construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction cost can be
decreased much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and filling. Also try to
avoid very high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very higher
in these cases.
(e) Other considerations: Various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage
considerations, political factors, monotony and hydrological factors..
Drainage:
Political: If a foreign territory comes across a straight alignment, we will have to deviate the
alignment around the foreign land.
Monotony: For a flat terrain it is possible to provide a straight alignment, but it will be
monotonous for driving. Hence a slight bend may be provided after a few kilometres of straight
road to keep the driver alert by breaking the monotony.

Hydrological (rainfall/water table)

ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATION:
Before a highway alignment is finalised in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be
carried out. The survey may be completed in four stages i.e.
(a) Map study
(b) Reconnaissance
(c) Preliminary surveys
(d) Final location and detailed surveys
(a) Map study: With the help of topographic map it is possible to suggest the likely routes
of the road. In India, topographic maps are available from the survey of India with 15 of
30 m contour interval. The main features like rivers, hills, valleys, etc., are also shown
on these maps.
(b) Reconnaissance: It is a rapid and rough survey. During the survey, the physical
characteristics of the areal are inspected and the proposed route is thoroughly examined.
it is done without accurate instruments. Clinometers are used to determine the slopes of
the ground. It provides additional information not available in top sheets.
Objects: i). To study the feasibility or practicability of the proposed route
ii). To reduce the number of alternative routes to the minimum to select the best 2
or 3 routes.
iii) Source of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.

iv) Number and type of cross drainage structure, maximum flood level and natural
ground water level along the probable routes.
(c)

Preliminary Survey: This survey can be started on the basis of reconnaissance. It

consists of detailed survey of the alternative routes selected. After reconnaissance. It is
done by using the instruments such as chain, compass, tape, level & theodolite.
Objects: a. To select the best route.
b. To determine the centre line to be followed
c. To collect are additional information found necessary after reconnaissance.
d. To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspects and
to work out the cost of alternate proposals

(d) Final Location and Detailed Survey: The alignment finalized after the preliminary
survey is to be first located on the field by established the centre line.
This is done accurately by using instruments. The final route selected after the
preliminary survey is surveyed and located on the ground.
Objects:1. To establish temporary bench marks
2. To collect information required for
3. The preparation of working drawings
4. The preparation of detailed estimates
5. The design of road & bridges
6. Preparing specifications
7. Land acquisition
Drawing and report
Drawings
Key map : Proposed & existing roads and important places to be connected
Index map : General topography of the area
Preliminary survey plans : Various alternative alignments

 Detailed plans : Ground plan with alignment & boundaries

Longitudinal sections : As per the detailed plan
Detailed cross sections : The cross sections upto proposed right of way
Land acquisition plans and schedules
Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
Drawings of road intersections
Land plans showing quarries etc
Reports:
General details of the project and its importance
Materials, labour and equipment
Rates
Construction programming etc
Earth Work
Cut and Fill is the process of constructing a railway, road or canal whereby the amount of
material from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments, so
minimizing the amount of construction labor. This technique is widely practiced in mining
applications.
Angle of Repose: The maximum angle of slope at which sand, loose rock, etc. will remain in
place without sliding.
Allowance for settlement: Money given to employees who have to relocate due to their work.
The allowance is used to pay for expenses related to moving of residence such as transportation,
storage costs, temporary lodging and meals. The allowance may be given in lump- sum or
reimbursed upon submission of receipts.
Benching: Concrete laid on the side slopes of drainage channels where the slopes are interrupted
by manholes.Benching should be provided only where the works are to be done on highly
undulating & stiff ground/ steeply sloping ground.
Dressing: Dressing is normally required at one place i.e. at the place of excavation or at the
place of filling, hence the rates provided in the schedule include dressing only once, either at the
place of cut or at the place of fill.

Trimming: This comprises of removing grass and grass roots, touching the uneven surface to a
uniform surface (either horizontal or slopping), by scrapping off high patches and filling in low
patches with the scraped soil. The maximum depth of cutting or filling not exceeding 15 cm.
Lift: Lift for all modes of handling has to be measured in an upward direction, i.e. when the
materials are moved against the force of gravity. All lift shall be calculated on the basis of
designed section for earthen dam embankment i.e. it would be excluding shrinkage allowance.
Lift will be calculated on the height of the centre of gravity of the lifted material above the
average of stripped / embankment.

Lead: The lead for earthwork shall be measured from the centre of borrow area(s) to the centre
line of the dam/embankment and shall be measured as crow flies, the crawly distance being
measured from the geometrical centre of borrow area(s) to the centre of the dam/embankment.
While calculating the lead for payment and additional 5% over the distance calculated above
shall be added to cover circuitous path.
Borrow Pit: A borrow pit, also known as a sand box, is a term used in construction and civil
engineering. It describes an area where material (usually soil,gravel or sand) has been dug for
use at another location.[1] Borrow pits can be found close to many major construction projects.
For example, soil might be excavated to fill an embankment for a highway, clay might be
excavated for use in brick-making, gravel to be used for making concrete, etc.
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency
And safety of a highway. A poor design will result in lower speeds and result in reduction in
highway performance in terms of safety and comfort. In addition, it may increase the cost of
vehicle operations and lower the high way capacity. Horizontal alignment design involves the
understanding on the design aspects such as design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on
the vehicles. The horizontal curve design elements include design of super elevation, extra
widening at horizontal curves, design of transition curve, and setback distance.
The factors to be kept in mind for geometric design are as follows
1. The design should, at all times, situations, and environment, be safe, economical and
compatible
2. Vehicle dimensions such as length , width and height should be taken into consideration
3. Suitable provision should be made to incorporate future increased traffic
4. Factors related to humans and vehicles are suitably considered
5. Cost should be minimum( minimum cost includes construction, operation and maintenance
costs)
6. The design should be comprehensive and complete with drainage system, signs, markings,
medians , footpaths, signals and lighting system
Design Speed
Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric design, It directly
affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical curves. Design speed is
defined as a selected speed to determine the various geometric features of the roadway or Design
speed can also be defined as the highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel
with safety on the highway when weather conditions are conducive. Design speed depends on
the functional classification of the highway, the topography of the area in which the highway is
located, and the land use of the adjacent area. The design speed selected should be consistent
with the speed that motorists will be expected to drive

Usually to calculate the design speed for a highway, a graph of cumulative frequency (%) vs
Speed is drawn and
1. 95th or 98th percentile speed is usually taken as design speed
2. 85th percentile speed is usually taken as the upper speed limit
3. 15th percentile speed is usually taken as the lower speed limit
Based on the type of road And type of terrain the Design speed varies. The IRC has suggested
desirable or ruling speed as well as minimum suggested design speed
Terrain Classification
Terrain Classification
Plain
Rolling
Mountain
Steep

Cross slope
0-10
10-25
25-60
<60

The Recommended Design Speed

Type

Plain

Rolling

Hilly

Steep

NS&SH

100-80

80-65

50-40

40-30

MDR

80-65

65-50

40-30

30-20

ODR

65-50

50-40

30-25

25-20

VR

50-40

40-35

25-20

25-20

Cross sectional elements

The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross sections for highways, run-ways, and
taxiways is drainage. Details vary depending on the type of facility Highway cross sections
consist of traveled way, shoulders (or parking lanes), and drainage channels. Shoulders are
intended primarily as a safety feature. They provide for accommodation of stopped vehicles,
emergency use, and lateral support of the pavement. Shoulders may be either
paved or unpaved. Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed swales) or of paved
shoulders with berms or curbs and gut-ters. Cross section of various roads are given bellow.

Fig. Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

Fig..Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches

Pavement surface characteristics

For a safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important; the
friction between the wheels and the pavement surface, smoothness of the road surface, the light
refection characteristics of the top of pavement surface, and drainage to water.
Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also a ect the acceleration and
deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.
Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to friction
Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road. Various factors that affect friction are:
1. Type of pavement
2. Condition of the pavement
3. Condition of the tyre
4. Speed and load on the vehicle

The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting
multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f . The choice of the value
of f is a very complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coefficient
of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of later friction as
0.15. The former is useful in sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.
Unevenness
It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such one. Even if
a road is constructed with high quality pavers; it is possible to develop unevenness due to
pavement failures. Unevenness a ect the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety,
fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres. nevenness index is a measure of unevenness which
is the cumulative measure of vertical undulation of the pavement surface recorded per unit
horizontal length of the road. An unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as
good, a value less than 2500 mm.km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater
than 3200 mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.

Drainage
The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in
draining out the water from the surface in less time.
Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain o rain water from road surface.
We have seen almost all highways being raised in the middle portion of the road surface with
respect to the edges. This cross slope in the transverse direction is called as the Camber (or
Cant). It is generally provided with the sole purpose of draining the rain water from the road
surface towards the edges.
Other objectives of providing camber are:

Protection of the road surface, especially for gravel and bituminous roads by draining the
unwanted water as quickly as possible.

Protection of the subgrade by providing good drainage conditions.

For safety considerations, as wet pavement conditions are quite undesirable from safe
driving point of view.

Values of cambers depending upon the type of pavement

Pavement type
Cement concrete Bituminous
Gravelled
Camber, %
1.5 to 2%
2 to 3 %
4%

Earthen
5%

Excessive camber should not be provided unnecessarily because of the following reasons:

Due to steep cross slope, most of the vehicles will have the tendency to move along the
centre line of the road, thus affecting the road capacity.

Major accidents can be caused due to instability of highly loaded vehicles.

The edges will wear out faster than the central part.

Cross rots are formed.

Straight line camber

These are provided with two equal uniform straight line slopes at both sides of the crown and are
also known as Plane cross slopes. They are generally adopted for very flat slopes such as PCC or
RCC Pavement
Parabolic Camber
Parabolic cambers are designed for fast moving highways. A favourable condition for overtaking
operation is provided due to the curved cross slope. As the slope increases outward to the road
edge, the flow of surface water away from the pavement is enhanced. One disadvantage of
parabolic cambers is that they are very difficult to construct
Composite camber
Composite camber may be composed of partly parabola and partly straight line or two straight
lines having different slopes. Generally central part of the road is made parabolic and provided
with straight slopes near edges. This helps to decrease in intensity of pressure by increasing the
contact area of the wheel

Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n%
(Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.
Light
reflection
White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day time.
Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night

Concrete
roads
has
better
visibility
and
less glare
It is necessary that the road surface should be visible at night and reflection of light is the factor
that answers it

Width of carriage way

Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane
and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane
and number of lanes.
Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance
improves operating speed and safety.
The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 m and the desirable side clearance for
single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane
road. However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on either side and 1.06 m in the
center. Therefore, a two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane
Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Different types of kerbs are
Low or mountable kerbs :
Semi-barrier type kerbs :
Barrier type kerbs :
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Low or mountable kerbs:This type of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to
remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which
allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and
channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage
Semi-barrier type kerbs:When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided.
Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment
of parking vehicles, but at emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
Barrier type kerbs : They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They
are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height
of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
Submerged kerbs : They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement
edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability
to the pavement.
Road margins

The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
Shoulders
Parking lanes
Bus-bays
Service roads
Cycle track
Footpath
Guard rails

Shoulders: Shoulders are provided along the road edge and is intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base
and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded
truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space
around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 2.0 m for the shoulders.
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is preferred because
it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m
width in the case of parallel parking.
Bus-bays , Service roads

Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that
they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at
least 75 meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not
affected by the bus-bay.

Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like freeways
and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by
a separator and access to the highway will be providedm only at selected points. These
roads are provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and also the speed of
the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.

Cycle track, Footpath

 Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high. Minimum
width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional track.
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are
provided
for
the safety
of
the
pedestrians
when
both
the
pedestrian
traffic and vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on
the
traffic. The
footpath
should
be
either
as
smooth
as
the
pavement or more smoother than that to encourage pedestrian to use the footpath.
Guard rails , Width of formation Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually
when the road is on an embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Various designs of guard rails
are there. Guard stones painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give
better
visibility
of
curves
at night
under
headlights
of
vehicles.
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way
including separators
and
shoulders.
This
does
not
include
the
extra land in formation/cutting.

Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway
and may reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along
highways,
control
lines
and building
lines
may
be
provided.
Control line is a line which represents the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity
in relation to a road. Building line represents a line on either side of the road, between which and
the road no building activity is permitted at all. The right of way width is governed by:
Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and road
margins.
Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical
alignment.
Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
Sight distance considerations : On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner
side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating future
developments
like
widening
of
the road.

The
importance
of
reserved
land
is emphasized
by
the
following.
Extra width of land is available for the construction of roadside facilities.
Land acquisition is not possible later, because the land may be occupied for various
other purposes (buildings, business etc.).