Spectroscopy: Principles,

Theory, Techniques and

Applications

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information.
PDF generated at: Sat, 30 May 2009 17:33:36 UTC

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy-An Introduction
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy was originally the
study of the interaction between
radiation and matter as a function
of

wavelength

historically

[1]

().
,

In

fact,

spectroscopy

referred to the use of visible light

dispersed

according

to

its

wavelength, e.g. by a prism. Later

the concept was expanded greatly
to comprise any measurement of a
quantity

as

function

of

either

wavelength or frequency. Thus it

also can refer to a response to an
alternating

field

or

Animation of the dispersion of light as it travels through a

triangular prism

varying

frequency (). A further extension

of the scope of the definition added energy (E) as a variable, once the very close
relationship E = h for photons was realized (h is the Planck constant). A plot of the
response as a function of wavelengthor more commonly frequencyis referred to as a
spectrum; see also spectral linewidth.
Spectrometry is the spectroscopic technique used to assess the concentration or amount
of a given species. In those cases, the instrument that performs such measurements is a
spectrometer or spectrograph.
Spectroscopy/spectrometry is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the
identification of substances through the spectrum emitted from or absorbed by them.
Spectroscopy/spectrometry is also heavily used in astronomy and remote sensing. Most
large telescopes have spectrometers, which are used either to measure the chemical
composition and physical properties of astronomical objects or to measure their velocities
from the Doppler shift of their spectral

lines.

Spectroscopy

Classification of methods
Nature of excitation
measured
The type of spectroscopy depends
on the physical quantity measured.
Normally,

the

quantity

that

is

measured is an intensity, either of

energy absorbed or produced.
Electromagnetic spectroscopy
involves interactions of matter
with electromagnetic radiation,
such as light.
Electron spectroscopy
involves interactions with
electron beams. Auger

Extremely high resolution spectrum of the Sun showing

thousands of elemental absorption lines (Fraunhofer lines)

spectroscopy involves inducing the Auger effect with an electron beam. In this case the
measurement typically involves the kinetic energy of the electron as variable.
Mass spectrometry involves the interaction of charged species with magnetic and/or
electric fields, giving rise to a mass spectrum. The term "mass spectroscopy" is
deprecated, for the technique is primarily a form of measurement, though it does
produce a spectrum for observation. This spectrum has the mass m as variable, but the
measurement is essentially one of the kinetic energy of the particle.
Acoustic spectroscopy involves the frequency of sound.
Dielectric spectroscopy involves the frequency of an external electrical field
Mechanical spectroscopy involves the frequency of an external mechanical stress, e.g. a
torsion applied to a piece of material.

Measurement process
Most spectroscopic methods are differentiated as either atomic or molecular based on
whether or not they apply to atoms or molecules. Along with that distinction, they can be
classified on the nature of their interaction:
Absorption spectroscopy uses the range of the electromagnetic spectra in which a
substance absorbs. This includes atomic absorption spectroscopy and various
molecular techniques, such as infrared spectroscopy in that region and nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in the radio region.
Emission spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in which a substance
radiates (emits). The substance first must absorb energy. This energy can be from a
variety of sources, which determines the name of the subsequent emission, like
luminescence. Molecular luminescence techniques include spectrofluorimetry.
Scattering spectroscopy measures the amount of light that a substance scatters at
certain wavelengths, incident angles, and polarization angles. The scattering process is
much faster than the absorption/emission process. One of the most useful applications of
light scattering spectroscopy is Raman

spectroscopy.

Spectroscopy

Common types
Absorption
Absorption spectroscopy is a technique in which the power of a beam of light measured
before and after interaction with a sample is compared. When performed with tunable
diode laser, it is often referred to as Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS).
It is also often combined with a modulation technique, most often wavelength modulation
spectrometry (WMS) and occasionally frequency modulation spectrometry (FMS) in order
to reduce the noise in the system.

Fluorescence
Fluorescence

spectroscopy

uses

higher energy photons to excite a

sample, which will then emit lower
energy photons. This technique
has become popular for its
biochemical

and

medical

applications, and can be used for

confocal microscopy, fluorescence
resonance energy transfer, and
fluorescence lifetime imaging.

X-ray
When

Spectrum of light from a fluorescent lamp showing prominent

X-rays

of

sufficient

mercury peaks

frequency (energy) interact with a

substance, inner shell electrons in the atom are excited to outer empty orbitals, or they may
be removed completely, ionizing the atom. The inner shell "hole" will then be filled by
electrons from outer orbitals. The energy available in this de-excitation process is emitted
as radiation (fluorescence) or will remove other less-bound electrons from the atom (Auger
effect). The absorption or emission frequencies (energies) are characteristic of the specific
atom. In addition, for a specific atom small frequency (energy) variations occur which are
characteristic of the chemical bonding. With a suitable apparatus, these characteristic Xray frequencies or Auger electron energies can be measured. X-ray absorption and emission
spectroscopy is used in chemistry and material sciences to determine elemental
composition and chemical bonding.
X-ray crystallography is a scattering process; crystalline materials scatter X-rays at welldefined angles. If the wavelength of the incident X-rays is known, this allows calculation of
the distances between planes of atoms within the crystal. The intensities of the scattered Xrays give information about the atomic positions and allow the arrangement of the atoms
within the crystal structure to be calculated.

Spectroscopy

Flame
Liquid solution samples are aspirated into a burner or nebulizer/burner combination,
desolvated, atomized, and sometimes excited to a higher energy electronic state. The use of
a flame during analysis requires fuel and oxidant, typically in the form of gases. Common
fuel gases used are acetylene (ethyne) or hydrogen. Common oxidant gases used are
oxygen, air, or nitrous oxide. These methods are often capable of analyzing

metallic

element analytes in the part per million, billion, or possibly lower concentration ranges.
Light detectors are needed to detect light with the analysis information coming from the
flame.
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy - This method uses flame excitation; atoms are excited
from the heat of the flame to emit light. This method commonly uses a total consumption
burner with a round burning outlet. A higher temperature flame than atomic absorption
spectroscopy (AA) is typically used to produce excitation of analyte atoms. Since analyte
atoms are excited by the heat of the flame, no special elemental lamps to shine into the
flame are needed. A high resolution polychromator can be used to produce an emission
intensity vs. wavelength spectrum over a range of wavelengths showing multiple element
excitation lines, meaning multiple elements can be detected in one run. Alternatively, a
monochromator can be set at one wavelength to concentrate on analysis of a single
element at a certain emission line. Plasma emission spectroscopy is a more modern
version of this method. See Flame emission spectroscopy for more details.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (often called AA) - This method commonly uses a preburner nebulizer (or nebulizing chamber) to create a sample mist and a slot-shaped burner
which gives a longer pathlength flame. The temperature of the flame is low enough that
the flame itself does not excite sample atoms from their ground state. The nebulizer and
flame are used to desolvate and atomize the sample, but the excitation of

the analyte

atoms is done by the use of lamps shining through the flame at various wavelengths for each
type of analyte. In AA, the amount of light absorbed after going through the flame
determines the amount of analyte in the sample. A graphite furnace for heating the sample
to desolvate and atomize is commonly used for greater sensitivity. The graphite furnace
method can also analyze some solid or slurry samples. Because of
selectivity, it is still a commonly used method of analysis for

its good sensitivity and

certain trace elements in

aqueous (and other liquid) samples.

Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy - This method commonly uses a burner with a
round burning outlet. The flame is used to solvate and atomize the sample, but a lamp
shines light at a specific wavelength into the flame to excite the analyte atoms in the
flame. The atoms of certain elements can then fluoresce emitting light in a different
direction. The intensity of this fluorescing light is used for quantifying the amount of
analyte element in the sample. A graphite furnace can also be used for atomic
fluorescence spectroscopy. This method is not as commonly used as atomic absorption or
plasma emission spectroscopy.
Plasma Emission Spectroscopy In some ways similar to flame atomic emission
spectroscopy, it has largely replaced it.
Direct-current plasma (DCP)
A direct-current plasma (DCP) is created by an electrical discharge between two electrodes.
A plasma support gas is necessary, and Ar is common. Samples can be deposited on one of
the electrodes, or if conducting can make up one electrode.

Spectroscopy
Glow discharge-optical emission spectrometry (GD-OES)
Inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES)
Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) (LIBS), also called Laser-induced plasma
spectrometry (LIPS)
Microwave-induced plasma (MIP)
Spark or arc (emission) spectroscopy - is used for the analysis of metallic elements in
solid samples. For non-conductive materials, a sample is ground with graphite powder to
make it conductive. In traditional arc spectroscopy methods, a sample of the solid was
commonly ground up and destroyed during analysis. An electric arc or spark is passed
through the sample, heating the sample to a high temperature to excite the atoms in it. The
excited analyte atoms glow emitting light at various wavelengths which could be detected
by common spectroscopic methods. Since the conditions producing the arc emission
typically are not controlled quantitatively, the analysis for the elements is qualitative.
Nowadays, the spark sources with controlled discharges under an argon atmosphere allow
that this method can be considered eminently quantitative, and its use is widely expanded
worldwide through production control laboratories of foundries and steel mills.

Visible
Many atoms emit or absorb visible light. In order to obtain a fine line spectrum, the atoms
must be in a gas phase. This means that the substance has to be vaporised. The spectrum is
studied in absorption or emission. Visible absorption spectroscopy is often combined with
UV absorption spectroscopy in UV/Vis spectroscopy. Although this form may be uncommon
as the human eye is a similar indicator, it still proves useful when distinguishing colours.

Ultraviolet
All atoms absorb in the Ultraviolet (UV) region because these photons are energetic enough
to excite outer electrons. If the frequency is high enough, photoionization takes place. UV
spectroscopy is also used in quantifying protein and DNA concentration as well as the ratio
of protein to DNA concentration in a solution. Several amino acids usually found in protein,
such as tryptophan, absorb light in the 280 nm range and DNA absorbs light in the 260 nm
range. For this reason, the ratio of 260/280 nm absorbance is a good general indicator of
the relative purity of a solution in terms of these two macromolecules. Reasonable
estimates of protein or DNA concentration can also be made this way using Beer's law.

Infrared
Infrared spectroscopy offers the possibility to measure different types of inter atomic bond
vibrations at different frequencies. Especially in organic chemistry the analysis of IR
absorption spectra shows what type of bonds are present in the sample. It is also an
important method for analysing polymers and constituents like fillers, pigments and
plasticizers.

Near Infrared (NIR)

The near infrared NIR range, immediately beyond the visible wavelength range, is
especially important for practical applications because of the much greater penetration
depth of NIR radiation into the sample than in the case of mid IR spectroscopy range. This

Spectroscopy

allows also large samples to be measured in each scan by NIR

spectroscopy,

and

is

currently employed for many practical applications such as: rapid grain analysis, medical
diagnosis pharmaceuticals/medicines

[2]

, biotechnology, genomics

analysis,

proteomic

analysis, interactomics research, inline textile monitoring, food analysis and chemical
imaging/hyperspectral imaging of intact organisms

[3] [4] [5]

plastics,

textiles,

insect

detection, forensic lab application, crime detection, various military applications, and so on.

Raman
Raman spectroscopy uses the inelastic scattering of light to analyse vibrational and
rotational modes of molecules. The resulting 'fingerprints' are an aid to analysis.

Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS)

CARS is a recent technique that has high sensitivity and powerful applications for in vivo
[6]
spectroscopy and imaging
.

Nuclear magnetic resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analyzes the magnetic properties of certain
atomic nuclei to determine different electronic local environments of hydrogen, carbon, or
other atoms in an organic compound or other compound. This is used to help determine the
structure of the compound.

Photoemission
Mssbauer
Transmission or conversion-electron (CEMS) modes of Mssbauer spectroscopy probe the
properties of specific isotope nuclei in different atomic environments by analyzing the
resonant absorption of characteristic energy gamma-rays known as the Mssbauer effect.

Other types
Acoustic spectroscopy
Auger Spectroscopy
A method used to study surfaces of materials on a micro-scale. It is often used in
connection with electron microscopy.
Cavity ring down spectroscopy
Circular Dichroism spectroscopy
Dielectric spectroscopy
Force spectroscopy
Fourier transform spectroscopy
An efficient method for processing spectra data obtained using interferometers. Nearly
all infrared spectroscopy (Such as FTIR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ( NMR)
spectroscopy are based on Fourier transforms.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
Hadron spectroscopy
Studies the energy/mass spectrum of hadrons according to spin, parity, and other
particle properties. Baryon spectroscopy and meson spectroscopy are both types of

Spectroscopy
hadron spectroscopy.
Inelastic electron tunnelling spectroscopy (IETS)
Uses the changes in current due to inelastic electron-vibration interaction at specific
energies which can also measure optically forbidden transitions.
Inelastic neutron scattering
Like Raman spectroscopy, but with neutrons instead of photons.
Mechanical spectroscopy
Involves interactions with macroscopic vibrations, such as phonons. An example is
acoustic spectroscopy, involving sound waves.
Neutron spin echo spectroscopy
Measures internal dynamics in proteins and other soft matter systems
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Photoacoustic spectroscopy
Measures the sound waves produced upon the absorption of radiation.
Photothermal spectroscopy
Measures heat evolved upon absorption of radiation.
Raman optical activity spectroscopy
Exploits Raman scattering and optical activity effects to reveal detailed information on
chiral centers in molecules.
Terahertz spectroscopy
Uses wavelengths above infrared spectroscopy and below microwave or millimeter
wave measurements.
Time-resolved spectroscopy
Spectroscopy of matter in situations where the properties are changing with time.
Thermal infrared spectroscopy
Measures thermal radiation emitted from materials and surfaces and is used to
determine the type of bonds present in a sample as well as their lattice environment.
The techniques are widely used by organic chemists, mineralogists, and planetary
scientists.

Background subtraction
Background subtraction is a term typically used in spectroscopy when one explains the
process of acquiring a background radiation level (or ambient radiation level) and then
makes an algorithmic adjustment to the data to obtain qualitative information about any
deviations from the background, even when they are an order of magnitude less
decipherable than the background itself.
Background subtraction can effect a number of statistical calculations (Continuum,
Compton, Bremsstrahlung) leading to improved overall system performance.