Pipeline and Riser System Design Course Manual
Pipeline and Riser System Design Course Manual
Pipeline and Riser System Design Course Manual
Pipeline hydraulics:
-
Introduction to single-phase gas and liquids, multiphase fluids and heavy/waxy crudes.
Challenges of Flow Assurance in pipelines
First Rule calculations for Pipeline pressure drops
First Rule calculations for Pipeline Pressure Surge
First Rule calculation for Time Line on Line Packing of Pipelines due to sudden valve closure.
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The governmental authorizations required are a permit to survey a route for a proposed gas
pipeline and an oil pipeline license, both issued under the Oil Pipelines Act. The oil pipeline
license confers on the holder the right to construct, maintain and operate a gas pipeline. It
also confers the right to construct, maintain and operate installations that are ancillary to the
construction, maintenance and operation of such pipeline, such as pumping stations, storage
tanks and loading terminals. A licence to construct and operate a refinery issued under the
Petroleum Act is required to construct and operate gas-processing facilities. An environmental
impact assessment approved by the Federal Ministry of Environment (FMoE) is required for
the construction and operation of any hydrocarbon transportation and storage facilities.
A permit to survey an Oil/Gas pipeline route is issued by the DPR. A license to construct and
operate an Oil/Gas Pipeline is also issued by the DPR.
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By virtue of the Land Use Act, 1978, the use of land for the construction of gas pipelines
constitutes an overriding public interest for which the government may compulsorily acquire
land.
Such acquisition is subject to the payment of compensation to the owner/occupier of the land.
The right to use land for the purposes of an Oil/Gas pipeline is inherent in the grant of an oil
pipeline licence as the license confers on the holder the right to enter upon, take possession
of, or use a strip of land of such width as may be specified in the license upon the route
specified in the licence.
The main pipeline transmission system in Nigeria is owned and operated by the Nigerian Gas
Company (NGC), a subsidiary of NNPC. This comprises of the Escravos-Lagos Pipeline
System (ELPS), also known as the Western Network, and the Alakiri-Obigbo- Ikot Abasi
Pipeline, also known as the Eastern Network. The NGC has granted distribution licences to
local distribution companies.
Code RequirementsPipeline Design
The design of pipelines is usually performed in three stages, namely;
Conceptual engineering,
Preliminary engineering or pre-engineering(FEED),
Detail engineering.
Conceptual Engineering
The primary objectives are normally:
- To establish technical feasibility and constraints on the system design and construction;
- To eliminate non viable options;
- To identify the required information for the forthcoming design and construction;
- To allow basic cost and scheduling exercises to be performed;
- To identify interfaces with other systems planned or currently in existence.
The value of the early engineering work is that it reveals potential difficulties and areas where
more effort may be required in the data collection and design areas.
Preliminary engineering or basic engineering (FEED)
The primary objectives are normally:
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- Perform pipeline design so that system concept is fixed. This will include: Verifying the
pipeline against design and code requirements for installation, To verify the sizing of the
pipeline; Determining the pipeline grade and wall thickness; commissioning and operation;
- Prepare authority applications;
- Perform a material take off sufficient to order the linepipe (should the pipe fabrication be a
long lead item, hence requiring early start-up)
The level of engineering is sometimes specified as being sufficient to detail the design for
inclusion into an Engineering, Procurement, Construction and Installation (EPCI) tender.
The EPCI contractor should then be able to perform the detailed design with the minimum
number of variations as detailed in their bid.
Detail engineering
The detailed engineering phase is, as the description suggests, the development of the design
to a point where the technical input for all procurement and construction tendering can be
defined in sufficient detail.
The primary objectives can be summarized as:
-Route optimization;
-Selection of wall thickness and coating;
-Confirm code requirements on strength, Vortex-Induced Vibrations (VIV), on-bottom stability,
global buckling and installation;
-Confirm the design and or perform additional design as defined in the preliminary
engineering;
-Development of the design and drawings in sufficient detail for the subsea scope. This may
include pipelines, tie-ins, crossings, span corrections, risers, shore approaches, subsea
structures;
-Prepare detailed alignment sheets based on most recent survey data;
-Preparation of specifications, typically covering materials, cost applications, construction
activities (i.e. pipelay, survey, welding, riser installations, spool piece installation, subsea tieins, subsea structure installation) and commissioning (i.e. flooding, pigging, Hydrotest,
cleaning, drying);
-Prepare material take off (MTO) and compile necessary requisition information for the
procurement of materials;
-Prepare design data and other information required for the certification authorities.
The design process required to optimize the pipeline size parameters is an iterative one and is
summarize in Figure below.
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Prior to conducting pipeline operations, the operator is required to submit and obtain approval
for an Application for Permit to lay pipeline from the authorities. The permit requires detailed
information about the pipeline operations program for evaluation with respect to operational
safety and pollution prevention measures.
Other information including project layout, design criteria for pipeline, specifications pipeline
safe operations, pipeline construction/installation technique and pipeline operations and
maintenance program required.
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ASME B31.4
ASME B31.8
ISO Standards
Document Number
ISO 3183
ISO 13623
Document Title
Steel Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways
Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
Valve Inspection and Test
Pipeline Valves, (steel gate, plug ball and check valves)
Specification for Fire Test for Valves
Transmission Systems
Process Instrumentation and Control
Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 3rd Edition,
1990.
Document Title
Petroleum and natural gas industries Steel pipe for pipeline
transportation systems
Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries Pipeline transportation
systems
ISO 15590-1
ISO 15590-1
ISO 15590-1
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OIL MINERAL
ACT AND OIL
PIPELINE ACT
FIRE
SAFE
TEST
TO API
6FA
VALVE
DESIGN
SPEC TO
API 6D
BOLTING
TO ANSI
BI6.20
PIPE
MATERIAL
STD
ASTM A312
TP 316L
PIPE
DESIGNTO
ANSI
B36.10
GASKET
DESIGN
STDTO
ANSI
BI6.20
CODE
REQUIRED
ASME
B31.4
STEEL
WELDING
SPEC.
AWS D10.4
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FLANGE
DESIGN TO
ANSI BI6.5
Steel Pipelines
Types and Grades of Pipe:
Due to the combination of strength, toughness, weldability and price the vast majority of trunklines and flowlines are constructed from carbon-manganese steel pipe manufactured and
tested in accordance with API Spec 5L specifications for line pipe.
For pipelines, only pipe manufactured by the seamless, electric weld, (ERW/EIW) longitudinal
submerged arc weld (SAW) and spiral SAW routes are considered.
Grades available are: Grade B (240 MPa, 35,000 psi yield strength) and the grades X42 (290
MPa, 42,000 psi yield strength) through X46, X52, X60, X65 to X70.
Lower grade pipe, up to grade X52, generally obtains adequate strength from normalized
carbon manganese steels. For grades X52 and upwards increased strength requires either
additions of other strengthening elements (niobium/vanadium), special rolling techniques
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(controlled rolling) or quenching and tempering. Satisfactory Group experience has been
obtained up to grades X70, with the majority of trunk-lines in X52 and X60 grades.
Pipe Sizes:
The international nomenclature - Diameter Nominal - written as Dn (50, 80,100, etc.) has been
used for size of pipe, flange, valve etc. throughout this Handbook; the values indicate a
nominal size in mm; the inch sizes have also been retained and are shown in brackets.
Full size and thickness ranges can be found in the relevant API specification.
The total ranges quoted are not universally available and pipe manufacturers offer a range of
diameters, wall thickness (WT) and grade combinations dependent on the production route
and specific pipe mill capabilities. Common sizes are shown below:
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For the combination of extremes of dia./WT/grade the above manufacturing ranges will be
limited in source.
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Selection:
With reference to the pipe production routes, traditionally ERW and spiral pipe has a higher
risk of undetected defects being present and they are therefore not used in critical
applications. However improvements have been made by some manufacturers in the ERW
process and it is now more widely used. (The widely approved pipe is called HFI welded pipe,
from the improved welding process using "high frequency induction").
In general the use of cold-expanded pipe is recommended. Cold expansion promotes pipe
roundness; it may reveal weld defects and can redistribute residual stresses after welding in a
favourable manner.
Additional Requirements:
General:
Each pipe manufacturing route has specific features which must be covered with regard to
inspection and testing to ensure a satisfactory product fit for installation and service. To this
extent SIPM have developed supplementary specification requirements and conducted mill
evaluations to assess the overall quality control and inspection capabilities of each mill.
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Even when using standard API and SIPM specifications it should be recognized that for
certain pipelines additional considerations are essential with respect to:
- Corrosion and operating modes
- Toughness
- Weldability, etc.
When selecting materials the overall operating mode of the lines should be considered.
In general the application of a corrosion allowance as a safeguard against corrosion is not
considered to be effective for larger pipelines.
For sour service, NACE MR-01-75 gives limits of sour conditions and materials suitably
resistant to sulphide stress cracking. For pipelines, it is recommended that resistance to
hydrogen induced cracking is also specified.
If it is required to operate the lines wet, and if there is significant CO2 present (which is often
the case), then the overall aggressive nature of the contents can result in excessive corrosion.
In these cases consideration of inhibition, drying, or use of special stainless steels should be
given. For two-phase or multi-phase lines the corrosivity of entrained water, its partition and
the effect of dissolved CO2 /H2S will require detailed review and analysis. It is recommended
that the advice of an experienced corrosion engineer is sought when designing for such lines.
(iii) Toughness
For gas and two-phase gas/condensate lines the pipe material should have sufficient inherent
toughness to resist fracture propagation. Two possible modes of fracture exist, i.e. brittle
(cleavage) and ductile (shear). By specifying a Drop Weight Tear Test (DWTT) at a
temperature lower than the minimum operating temperature (see API Spec 5L SR6)
propagation of brittle fractures can be avoided.
Even with fully ductile material it is possible to have long propagating fractures in high
pressure gas lines. For this to occur, the basic material toughness is only one parameter, the
others being type and pressure of gas, diameter and wall thickness, backfill conditions, etc.
For conventional steels, it has been shown that by selecting material with a sufficiently high,
fully ductile Charpy' energy, arrest of propagation can be achieved. Several empirical
relationships have been derived from full-scale tests with methane to predict the propagation
behaviour.
For rich gas or two-phase lines operating at higher pressures these relationships are not valid
and may be non-conservative. In certain cases it may be impossible to arrest a fracture by
pipeline material selection alone and alternative mechanical crack arrestors may be required.
For offshore lines these have often taken the form of modified buckle arrestors which have
been used throughout the length of the line.
For vent or flare lines the minimum temperature during venting must first be established. Such
lines normally operate under low pressure conditions (typically < 2 or 3 bar); consequently
insufficient stored energy is available for propagating fractures. It is however, necessary that
the pipe body, seam weld, and girth welds possess a minimum Charpy' toughness to avoid
initiation of brittle fracture at the low temperatures under external contraction stresses.
Weldability:
A measure of weldability can be expressed by the carbon equivalent (CE.) formula:
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Valves
General:
A great variety of valve types is commercially available. For reasons of economy,
interchangeability and minimum stock. the utilization of different types of valves shall be kept
to a minimum and, if possible, to standard types only.
To define the actual purpose of a valve, the following descriptions are preferred:
Block valves
Open or closed; e.g. to stop the flow, with minimum restrictions and pressure loss when open,
e.g ball valve and gate valve;
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Ball valves
Gate valves
Throttling valves
Throttling service; e.g. regulation of the fluid, continuous or in various steps between closed
and open limits of the valve;
e.g. Globe valves, Needle valves
Globe valve
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Needle valves
Check valves
Back flow prevention; e.g. reverse flow must be stopped if the upstream pressure drops below
static head or back pressure.
Relief valves
Overpressure control; e.g. to safeguard a system against excess pressure
e.g. Safety relief valves.
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Selection of Valves:
Valve selection is of major importance, both from necessity to obtain trouble-free operation of
the pipeline system and from the point of view of the overall economics involved: An incorrect
choice can cause serious trouble; sometimes involving major changeover from initial
selection.
The valves to API Spec 6D follow the pressure/temperature rating to ANSI B 16.5 and ANSI B
16.34 up to a maximum temperature of 120 C.
Submarine Valves:
Many problems have been experienced with the applications of valves subsea. As a result
submarine valves and actuators are the subject of an extensive evaluation programme.
Selection of Valve Construction Materials:
For the pressure containing parts, only forged or cast steel is allowed. The selection of
materials for internal components of valves is sensitive to the type of service. The advice of an
experienced corrosion engineer should be sought.
Flanges
All flanges up to and inclusive Dn 600 (24 in.) used in pipelines shall be according to ANSI
16.5 (latest issue).
For sizes above Dn 600 (24 in.) the flanges shall be in accordance with MSS-SP-44 (MSS Manufacturers Standardisation Society-USA, latest issue).
The pressure/temperature limitations of the flanges including the larger sizes according to
MSS-SP-44 shall be according to ANSI B 16.5. The flanges shall be provided either with a
raised face or with a ring joint face.
Raised face flanges shall have a contact surface, suitable for the type of gasket to be used,
i.e.:
- For CAF (compressed asbestos fibre) gaskets;
Serrated spiral finish', i.e. surface roughness of approximately RA 12.5 (m).
- For spiral wound gaskets;
Smooth finish', i.e. surface roughness between RA 3.2 and RA 6.3 to ANSI B 46.1.
- Ring joint flanges shall be provided with a groove type and surface finish as specified in
ANSI B 16.5.
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Bends,
Pipeline bends are required for change in flow direction, and comprises mainly of cold bends
and hot bends, Mitered bends shall not be used for pipeline operation.
Cold bends are often referred to as field bends, and should comply with the minimum
requirements of the ANSI B31.4/B31.8 Codes and generally conform to the Figure below.
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A bend made from line pipe at ambient temperature, normally on the construction site, using a
Mechanical bending machine.
Picture of pipes undergoing mechanical bending at construction site
While Hot Bends are made under factory conditions by hot working pipes.
The elastic radius of curvature of the pipeline along its route should not be less than 500xD, D
being the pipeline diameter. Hot bends should be used when lower values are necessary.
Picture of Hot induction bends at the factory
All main line bends should have a sufficient radius to allow the passage of internal inspection
tools. Most internal inspection tools are able to pass a minimum of 3 D bends for pipeline
diameters of 12 and above, 5 D bends for pipeline diameters between 6 and 10. For
pipeline diameters below 6, the required bends depend on the pipe internal bore (7 D to 10
D). This is only indicative and can also be influenced by wall thickness and extent of out-ofroundness of the pipe.
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Barred tees,
Tee-piece provided with bars across the internal bore of the branch pipe to prevent entry of a
pig.
Barred tees shall be installed at all branch connections with a diameter equal to or greater
than 50 % of the pipeline diameter. This shall be reduced to 25 % where sphering is to be a
regular activity.
If sphering is required consideration shall be given to the use of sphere tees, as spheres may
be held up or be destroyed at a normal or barred tee. Sphere tees should have a drainage
provision to prevent collection of debris and liquids which could cause a corrosive
environment in the sphere tee annulus. Sphere tees should not be used subsea because of
the difficulty of providing this drainage facility.
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Pigging System
Pipelines built for the transportation of liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons normally require
thorough cleaning to achieve the following objectives:
(a) To reduce the risk of corrosion induced by the presence of debris.
(b) To protect downstream plant facilities from fouling.
(c) To maintain the transport efficiency and the quality of the product.
Below is the summary of the main pipeline cleaning methods and their application to pipelines
at different stages in their lifetime.
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The use of pigs and spheres in pipeline operation has become a well-accepted procedure.
However, the full extent of the advantages that their use may provide is not always
recognised. This may be due to various reasons such as inexperience in pig operation, and
unfamiliarity with the recent and fast growing development of new applications which form part
of routine operation in other pipelines or plants.
The various field applications, the different types of pigs available together with their
characteristics, and the conditions required for correct operation are described so as to
provide guidelines for each application.
Foam Pigs
Foam pigs are generally used for liquid removal, swabbing, drying, product separation and
many cleaning duties. Foams are often suited to pipeline systems with very tight radii or
mitred bends and where significant reductions in internal diameter exist.
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Gauge Pigs
Pigs having a steel body and fitted with two or more cups:
Type 1 - gauging pig: used during construction to check the pipeline for buckles or dents.
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Spheres
Spherical moulded tools made of polyurethane or neoprene (of which the larger sizes are
inflatable); mainly used for product separation, and controlling liquid hold-up.
Application
Liquid removal from wet gas systems
Product separation
hydrostatic line testing
Wax control in crude oil pipelines.
Meter proving
Will negotiate tight bends
Intelligent PIGS
The use of instrumented pigs to inspect a pipeline from the inside is a rapidly maturing
technology. In-line inspection also called smart pigging or intelligent pigging refers to the use
of an electronically instrumented device traveling inside the pipeline that measures
characteristics of the pipe wall. Any change in pipe wall can theoretically be detected. These
devices can also detect pipe wall cracks, laminations, and other material defects. Coating
defects may someday also be detected in this fashion. The pipe conditions found that require
further evaluation are referred to as anomalies.
The industry began to use these tools in the 1980s, but ILI presently benefits from
advancements in electronics and computing technology that make it much more useful to the
pipeline industry. State-of-the-art ILI has advanced to the point that many pipeline companies
are basing extensive integrity management programs around such inspection. A wealth of
information is expected from such inspections when a high quality, n-line device is used and
supported by knowledgeable data analysis. It is widely believed that pipe anomalies that are
of a size not detected through failure under a normal pressure test can be detected through
ILI.
While increasingly valuable, the technology is arguably inexact, requiring experienced
personnel to obtain most meaningful results. The ILI tools cannot accommodate all pipeline
system designs-there are currently restrictions on minimum pipe diameter, pipe shape, and
radius of bends. All current ILI tools have difficulties in detecting certain types of problems
sometimes a combination of tools is needed for full defect detection. In-line inspection is also
relative costly. Pre cleaning of the pipeline, possible service interruptions, risks of
unnecessary repairs, and possible blockages caused by the instrument
are all possible additional costs to the operation. The ILI process often involves trade-offs
between more sensitive tools(and the accompanying more expensive analyses) requiring
fewer excavation verifications and less expensive tools that generate less accurate results
and hence require more excavation verifications. Because this technique discovers existing
defects only, it is a lagging indicator of active failure mechanisms. ILI must be performed at
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sufficient intervals to detect serious defect formations before they become critical. General
types of anomalies that can be detected to varying degrees by ILI include:
Geometric anomalies (dents, wrinkles, out-of-round pipe)
Metal loss (gouging and general, pitting, and channeling corrosion)
Laminations, cracks, or crack like features
Some examples of available ILI devices are caliper tools, magnetic flux leakage low- and highresolution tools. Ultrasonic wall thickness tools, ultrasonic crack detection tools, and elastic
wave crack detection tools. Each of these tools has specific applications. Most tools can
detect previous third-party damage or impacts from other outside forces.
o Magnetic Flux Leakage tools (including MagneScan, TranScan and Elastic Wave)
Magnetic flux leakage tools identify areas of metal loss with the size of the detectable area
dependent on the degree of resolution of the tool.
MagneScan tools offer true high resolution performance, delivering the detailed data and high
confidence levels essential for a productive integrity management program. They can be used
in every conceivable type of pipeline inspection: in dry or liquid product, overland or subsea, in
diameters from 6 to 56 inches (15 to 142 cm).
They record the position of the following pipeline features and anomalies:
Internal and external pitting and general corrosion on the pipe body
Metal loss in the vicinity of welds
Metal loss associated with dents and under casings
MagneScan tools are designed to locate and size areas of metal loss of 10 percent of wall
thickness or greater, and in practice, detect metal loss even smaller.
Picture of MagneScan by GE
When MagneScan was introduced in 1975, its advanced Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
technology set the standard for reliable metal-loss inspection. Now equipped with Triax
sensors and a number of other innovations, MagneScan is again setting new standards. Triax
can read MFL signals on three separate axes (versus one or two with traditional MFL tools),
enabling detection of general and axial defects from the same inspection data. This can
eliminate the need to launch separate tools for each class of defects - increasing your data
utility and decreasing your overall inspection costs.
MagneScan surveys use highly specialized analytical software to get the most out of the
inspection data. A database of candidate features is extracted automatically from this data,
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and internal and external anomalies are separated. Custom display software is used to
examine and analyze the data to separate metal loss and manufacturing flaws. Display
options include line trace (B-Scan) and false color (C-Scan) images. Metal objects, dents and
girth weld anomalies are also added to the database. Search algorithms are used to select the
most significant flaws for detailed assessment, based on a comprehensive library of known
flaws and computer-based modeling.
MagneScan inspection results.
The inspection results are prioritized to allow rapid assessment of a pipeline's condition and
the need for corrective action.
o Ultrasonic tools (including UltraScan WM, UltraScan CD, EMAT)
Ultrasonic wall thickness tools detect general wall thinning and laminations. So-called crack
tools are specifically designed to detect cracks, especially those whose orientation is difficult
to detect by other means.
Ultrasound is a non-destructive testing technology which has been applied for a variety of
inspection tasks for many years now. A major advantage provided by ultrasound is the ability
to provide quantitative measurements. This means that the actual wall thickness of a pipe
section can be determined with a high accuracy and reliability. The reporting accuracy
regarding depth measurement for the latest generation of tools is 0.4 mm. The highest
possible resolution 0.06 mm. usually threshold for depth measurement of metal loss or cracks
are set at 1 mm, lower thresholds are possible.
There are different ways, using different types of transducers, how the ultrasound principles
are technically applied, for instance piezo-electric transducers, transducers based on electromagnetic acoustic transmission or phased arrays. The most widely used tools based on
ultrasound and available from several vendors make use of piezo-electric transducers.
Ultrasound further constitutes the only reliable technology currently available for the detection
and sizing of cracks in pipelines.
Figure 5.1.0 shows the principle applied for wall thickness measurement. This principle is
used for the detection and sizing of metal loss features, such as corrosion or gouging and also
for the quantitative wall thickness measurement. An added benefit is the ability to detect and
identify mid-wall flaws such as laminations and inclusions and also certain categories of
material separations and voids, such as HIC (hydrogen induced cracking).
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The important issue is that the sensors (transducers) are aligned at right angles to the wall to
be inspected. The transducers used are operated in an impulse-echo mode; with other words
they act as transmitters and receivers of the acoustic wave used for the measurement. The
type of transducer chosen (i.e. dynamic range, focal point etc.) and the characteristics of the
electronics used (i.e. pulse repetition frequency, sampling rate etc.) have major influence on
the detection threshold, accuracy and depth and length resolution. The width resolution is
determined by the arrangement of the sensors around the circumference, i.e. the mechanical
design of the sensor carrier
Figure 5.2.0 depicts the crack inspection principle. Here slanted probes are used. The sensor
carrier design must ensure that the incident ultrasound signals are refracted in a manner that
they will propagate under 45 inside the pipe.
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GE Ultra Scan Duo is the first tool capable of inspecting for cracking and metal loss at the
same time. This pioneering two-in-one benefit is a result of Phased Array Technology adapted
from GE Healthcares MRI technology. Whether running in WM or Duo mode, the tools
advancements include superior pitting identification and wall thickness measurement.
Caliper vehicles (including CalScan)
Caliper tools are used to locate pipe deformations such as dents or out-of-round areas.
Caliper pigs measure internal profile variations like dents, ovality and internal diameter
transitions with the primary objective being to detect mechanical damage and/or ensure that a
less flexible metal loss inspection pig can pass through the pipeline. Caliper pigs are normally
designed to be flexible and can pass 25% ID reductions.
Most of the Caliper pigs are equipped with mechanical sensors (fingers) that follow the inner
profile of the pipe wall. Typically, these pigs can detect dents and ID reductions of between1%
and 2% of the pipe diameter. A drawback of the mechanical caliper pig is that false
Readings can be obtained from debris or solid wax. Established contractors that offer services
with mechanical caliper pigs are Pipetronix, Enduro Pipeline Services and TD
Williamson(TDW).
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Some tools have the additional capability to measure the bend radii.
H Rosen Engineering (HRE) offers a service with a caliper pig that uses eddy current
proximity probes and which is called the Electronic Gauging Pig (EGP). The 8 probes are
mounted in a conical nose at the front or rear of the pig. This pig has the advantage that the
pig is very rugged and insensitive to debris or wax. When required the EGP can be mounted
with a larger cone by which the sensitivity can be increased from about 1.5% ID reduction to
about 0.5% ID reduction, at the expense of the pigs flexibility.
Pipeline location vehicles (including ScoutScan)
Data from an Inertial Mapping Unit (IMU) is combined with an MFL analysis to provide GIS
coordinates to locate identified corrosion in your pipeline. Mapping can also identify pipeline
displacement, which can compromise the integrity of your pipeline. The Mapping tool is ideal
when operating in remote areas, saving you time and money by reducing the amount of postprocessing and Mapping required, facilitating quick decision-making. Current technology is still
being upgraded to address newly identified concerns.
Figure 5.5.0 area survey imagery based on scout scan.
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in-line inspection data from four pipelines, although some uncertainties remain. An example
wet gas ICDA method shows promise, but needs to be further developed and validated.
Pig Launchers/Receiver Design
Pig traps are used for inserting pigs into a pipeline then launching, receiving, and finally
removing them without flow interruption. Pig traps are not generally proprietary products and
are usually made to a specification drawn up by the user. However, pig trap closures are
proprietary products and form a critically important part of a pigging system. Safety is a major
consideration in the selection of a closure. All closures must have a built-in safety lock which
prevents them being opened while the trap is pressurized.
Pig receiver and Pig launcher configuration used for pipeline loops.
A basic line diagram is shown in Figure below
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All pipelines shall be suitable to pass pigs, even if pig traps are not permanently installed.
Pigging should be used for the pre-commissioning, commissioning and decommissioning of
pipelines, cleaning and corrosion control (removal of wax, debris and stagnant liquids, batch
inhibition), the control of liquid hold-up in gas lines, inspection with intelligent pigs, and
pipeline repairs if required. Permanent pigging facilities should be justified based on an
analysis of pigging frequency and operational constraints. The maximum acceptable distance
between pigging stations should be decided on the basis of anticipated pig wearing amount of
collected solids.
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The pressure rating of fittings will equal or exceed that of the matching pipe.
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Complete Pig launcher and receiver system and data for 12 to 40 pipelines.
A minimum of one pig length of straight run pipe shall be installed between bends, outlets,
bends and outlets, check valves, and bends and check valves. Through-conduit gate and ball
valves can be treated as straight runs of pipe. The number of bends in piping shall be kept to
a minimum. A typical layout for a pigging system is illustrated in Figure below.
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End Closures
End closures will be designed to meet the requirements of ASME Section VIII. They may be
motorized with alternate provisions for one-man manual operation. As a safety feature, the
end closures will be specified to ensure that the closure cannot be opened if the barrels are
under pressure.
Pig Detectors
Where specified, pig detectors will be of the mechanical trigger or plunger type, unidirectional,
for local and remote indication. Pig detectors will be located to indicate successful receipt and
launching of pigs. Pig detectors mounted on the buried mainline will be supplied with an
extension to maintain the signal mechanism a minimum of 2 feet above finished grade. The
signal mechanism will be capable of interfacing with the station control logic to initiate stationoperating sequences necessary for the receipt of launching of pigs.
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Shell test, the seat must be tested to a pressure not less than 1.5 times the maximum
service pressure rating. Except for swing check valves, test pressure during the seat test must
be applied successively on each side of the closed valve with the opposite side open. No
visible leakage is permitted.
After the last pressure test is completed, the valve must be operated through its full travel to
demonstrate freedom from interference.
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The valves should be located in a non-hazardous area, e.g. close to the plant fences.
For offshore pipelines, an ESD valve shall be located at the top of each riser connected to an
offshore platform. It should be placed below the platform lower deck level for protection
against topsides incidents.
For pipelines connected to manned offshore complexes, and in addition to the top of riser
ESD valve, a subsea ESD valve located on seabed close to the platform may be considered.
Subsea valves should be justified by a quantitative risk assessment.
The distance of the subsea ESD valve from the platform should be derived such that the
combined risk associated with the platform activities and the pipeline fluid inventory between
the valve and the platform is minimized.
ESD valves should not incorporate bypass arrangements. Pressure balancing, if required prior
to valve opening, should be done using the operational valves located immediately upstream
or downstream of the ESD valve.
Block valves actuation Three methods of operating block valves can be considered: locally,
remotely and automatically. The appropriate method shall be determined from a study of the
likely effects of a leak and acceptable released volumes, based on the total time in which a
leak can be detected, located and isolated. The closure time of the valves shall not create
unacceptably high surge pressures.
Automatic valves can be activated by detection of low pressure, increased flow, rate of loss of
pressure or a combination of these, or a signal from a leak detection system. Low pressure
detection shall not be used if the control system is designed to maintain the pipeline pressure.
Automatic valves shall be fail-safe.
For onshore pipelines transporting toxic gas, the installation of remotely operated
sectionalizing block valves is recommended to further reduce the extent of a leak.
The emergency shutdown valves should be automatically actuated when an emergency
shutdown condition occurs at the plant or facility.
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1. In reference to the various modes of system operation, determine the function(s) a valve
has to perform.
2. Based upon the valve functions, the valve type(s) can be selected. The valve needed may
be an isolation valve or a stop valve. What are the choices available?
3. Similarly, the valve required may be a check valve or the valve required to stop the flow in
reverse direction. There are many different types of check valve.
Which is the most suitable?
4. Does flow need to be throttled? Based upon the amount of throttling required, one may
select a globe valve, butterfly valve, or a needle valve. Size limitations also play a role in the
availability of these valves.
5. If flow has to be regulated and controlled based on variation in pressure, temperature, fluid
level, or the design limitations of a component or equipment the valve required would be a
control valve.
6. The first step is to determine the valve type: isolation, check, or a control valve. If the
component or the piping system is required to be protected against overpressure built up, then
one of the pressure-relief devices ought to be selected.
7. To begin the selection process, Table above provides a good starting point.
8. The next step is to narrow down the choices of valves to be used. As discussed earlier,
there are several different designs available in different categories of valves. For example,
large-size butterfly valves are preferred to large-size gate valves as stop valves in lowpressure and low-temperature cooling water systems, due to space, weight, actuator, and cost
considerations.
o Select Valve Size
1. Pipe size will indicate the valve size unless there are other requirements that may make it
necessary to install a smaller- or larger-than-pipe-size valve.
2. The valve availability is one of those factors. In addition, some valves are not manufactured
in certain small or large sizes. Refer to valve vendor catalogs and evaluate application
requirements and valve features in addition to space, cost and, operational concerns.
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1. Maintenance considerations are important for the selection of valves. The plant designer
must provide for access, assembly, and disassembly of valves.
2. Space limitations may impose restrictions on the use of a particular type of valve even
though it may be the most suitable valve for the application. Select an alternative valve.
3. When plants are designed for long life, the valves selected must not require frequent
maintenance, with the exception of items such as the replacement of packing or lubrication.
o Initial Cost
1. A low-initial-cost valve may necessitate frequent repairs or replacements of the valve or
valve parts. Be aware of future costs involved.
2. High initial costs may be prohibitive. Therefore, a compromise may be made to choose the
right valve for the application.
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PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
Introduction to single-phase gas and liquids, multiphase fluids and heavy/waxy
crudes.
A multiphase flow contains at least two separate phases, such as a liquid and a solid, a gas
and a solid, a liquid and a gas, or two immiscible liquids. A single-phase flow, on the other
hand, contains either a single liquid or gas without solids in it, or without any other immiscible
liquid or gas. The flows of water, oil, natural gas, air, etc. are all examples of single-phase
flow. Water laden with sediment particles or air bubbles is a two-phase flow. If the flow of
water contains both air bubbles and sediment, it is a three-phase flow and so forth. A liquid
with dissolved gas or another dissolved liquid, or with homogeneous suspension of very fine
particles of solids, can be considered and treated as a single-phase flow, although in reality
two phases are involved.
A flow is said to be incompressible if the density of any particle in the flow, be it a fluid or a
solid particle, remains constant as the particle travels with the flow. A flow is said to be
homogeneous if the density is constant throughout the flow. A single-phase incompressible
flow is a homogeneous flow, whereas a multiphase incompressible flow is not homogeneous.
For instance, for a pipe flow of water carrying gravel, the density of the flow is not the same
everywhere at a given time, depending on whether water or gravel exists at the location at a
given time.
Normally, both liquid and gas are treated as incompressible flow. However, when the speed of
a gas approaches, equals to, or exceeds the velocity of sound, large density changes occur in
the flow within short distances and the flow can no longer be treated as incompressible. Also,
when any gas is flowing through a long pipeline, there can be substantial change of the
density of the gas over a long distance due to pressure change along the pipe even when the
speed involved is low. Therefore, not all gas pipelines can be treated as incompressible, even
when the velocity is low.
Two-phase flow of liquid and gas is a very complex physical process. Even when the best
existing correlations for pressure drop and liquid holdup are used, predictions may be in error
as much as 20%. Nevertheless, as gas exploration and production have moved into remote
offshore, arctic, and desert areas, the number of two-phase pipelines has increased.
To determine whether two-phase flow will exist in a pipeline, the expected flowing pressure
and temperature ranges in the line must be plotted on a phase diagram for the fluid.
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The Figure above shows that composition B will flow as a single-phase fluid as it enters the
pipeline. However, as the pressure drops it becomes a two-phase mixture through part of the
pipeline. On the other hand, composition A will flow as a single-phase (dense fluid or gas)
through the entire length of the line. Composition C will flow as a liquid throughout the entire
length of the line.
In most production situations the fluid coming out of the well bore will be in two-phase flow.
Once an initial separation is made, the gas coming off the separator can be considered to be
single-phase gas flow even though it will have some entrained liquids. The liquid coming off
the separator is assumed to be in single-phase liquid flow even though it will contain some
gas after it has taken a pressure drop through a liquid control valve.
Other than well flowlines, the most common two-phase pipelines exist in remote locations,
especially offshore, where gas and oil that have been separated and metered are combined
for flow in a common line to a central separation facility.
Horizontal Flow
When a gas-liquid mixture enters a pipeline, the two phases tend to separate with the heavier
liquid gravitating to the bottom. The figure below shows typical flow patterns in horizontal twophase pipe flow.
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The type of flow pattern depends primarily on the superficial velocities as well as the system
geometry and physical properties of the mixture. At very low gas-liquid ratios, the gas tends to
form small bubbles that rise to the top of the pipe. As the gas-liquid ratio increases, the
bubbles become larger and eventually combine to form plugs. Further increases in the gasliquid ratio cause the plugs to become longer, until finally the gas and liquid phases flow in
separate layers; this is stratified flow.
As the gas flow rate is increased, the gas-liquid interface in stratified flow becomes wavy.
These waves become higher with increasing gas-liquid ratios, until the crest of the waves
touches the top of the pipe to form slugs of liquid which are pushed along by the gas behind
them.
These slugs can be several hundred feet long in some cases. Further increases in the gasliquid ratio may impart a centrifugal motion to the liquid and result in annular flow.
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At extremely high gas-liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the flowing gas stream.
The Figure above is a flow regime map that shows how the flow regime for horizontal pipes
depends primarily on the superficial gas and liquid flow rates. Experience has shown that
generally flow regime maps are not always accurate, but they can be used as qualitative
guides.
In most two-phase flow lines in the field, slug flow is predominant in level and uphill lines. In
downhill lines, stratified flow is predominant.
However, if the slope of the downhill line is not very steep and the gas velocity is high, slug
flow may be observed. The criterion for transition from stratified to slug flow in downhill lines is
not well defined.
Vertical Flow
The two-phase flow patterns in vertical flow are somewhat different from those occurring in
horizontal or slightly inclined flow. Vertical twophase flow geometries can be classified as
bubble, slug-annular, transition, and annular-mist, depending on the gas-liquid ratio. All four
flow regimes could conceivably exist in the same pipe. One example is a deep well producing
light oil from a reservoir that is near its bubble point. At the bottom of the hole, with little free
gas present, flow would be in the bubble regime. As the fluid moves up the well, the other
regimes would be encountered because gas continually comes out of solution as the pressure
continually decreases. Normally flow is in the slug regime and rarely in mist, except for
condensate reservoirs or steam-stimulated wells. The different flow regimes are shown in
Figures below, which gives approximate flow regimes as a function of superficial gas and
liquid flow rates. These flow regimes are described below:
1. Bubble Flow: The gas-liquid ratio is small. The gas is present as small bubbles, randomly
distributed, whose diameters also vary randomly.
The bubbles move at different velocities depending upon their respective diameters. The liquid
moves up the pipe at a fairly uniform velocity, and except for its density, the gas phase has
little effect on the pressure gradient.
2. Slug Flow: In this regime the gas phase is more pronounced. Although the liquid phase is
still continuous, the gas bubbles coalesce and form stable bubbles of approximately the same
size and shape, which are nearly the diameter of the pipe. They are separated by slugs of
liquid.
The bubble velocity is greater than that of the liquid and can be predicted in relation to the
velocity of the liquid slug. There is a film of liquid around the gas bubble. The liquid velocity is
not constant; whereas the liquid slug always moves upward (in the direction of bulk flow), the
liquid in the film may move upward, but possibly at a lower velocity, or it may even move
downward. These varying liquid velocities not only result in varying wall friction losses, but
also result in liquid holdup, which influences flowing density. At higher flow velocities, liquid
can even be entrained in the gas bubbles. Both the gas and liquid phases have significant
effects on pressure gradient.
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3. Transition Flow: The change from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase
occurs in this region. The liquid slug between the bubbles virtually disappears, and a
significant amount of liquid becomes entrained in the gas phase. In this case, although the
effects of the liquid are significant, the gas phase is predominant.
Transition flow is also known as "churn flow."
4. Annular-Mist Flow: The gas phase is continuous. The bulk of the liquid is entrained and
carried in the gas phase. A film of liquid wets the pipe wall, but its effects are secondary. The
gas phase is the controlling factor.
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Where:
p = pressure loss, Pa
f = friction factor,
L = length, m
d = internal diameter, m
v = average flow velocity, m/s
= fluid density, kg/m3
Friction Factor
There are two factors in use, generally indicated by:
f = Moody-Weissbach friction factor, which is the most universally used
fn = Fanning friction factor
The relationship is f = 4 fn
The type of flow is characterised by the dimensionless Reynolds number and the friction factor
is related to it, i.e.
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2. Turbulent flow if Re > 3000: f can be calculated with the Colebrook-White equation, which
relates f, Re and roughness of the pipe wall by:
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Using volume flow as input instead of velocity, the general pressure loss equation transforms
to:
z = compressibility factor
p = pressure, MPa
L = length, m
T = flowing temperature, K
q = flow, m3/s (standard conditions: 15 C, 101.325kPa)
d = internal diameter, m
f = friction factor
Note: When is density of gas at standard conditions (101 .325 kPa and 15 C):
C = 5.7 x 10-10 MPa/K
If is relative density compared to air (at standard conditions)
C = 7.0 x 10-10 MPa kg/(K m3)
Pressure Surges
Pressure surges in a pipeline are created by a change in momentum of the moving stream,
e.g. by closing a valve, the origin of the pressure surge being at the point where the
momentum of flow is changed.
Because of the low density of gases compared to liquids, pressure surges are not of concern
in gas lines.
The theoretical maximum pressure surge that can be created in a pipeline would be caused
by an instantaneous total blockage of the flow and would occur at the point of flow retardation,
e.g. the valve.
The maximum surge pressure is the sum of two components:
(a) The instantaneous pressure increase at the moment of total flow blockage
(b) The subsequent gradual pressure rise due to the line packing' effect.
(a) The magnitude of the instantaneous surge can be calculated using Joukowsky's equation:
Ps = c v
Where:
Ps = surge pressure, Pa
= liquid density, kg/m3
c = speed of sound in liquid, m/s (typically about 1200 m/s in crude)
v = velocity change, m/s
c is calculated from:
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Where:
K = liquid bulk modulus, Pa (see Figure 1.1-16)
E = Youngs modulus of steel, 210 x 109 Pa
d = pipe internal diameter, m
tw = pipewall thickness, m
= liquid density, kg/m3
(b) The pressure due to line packing at the point of closure will, if no protective measures are
taken, continue to rise until the positive surge travelling upstream has reached the constant
pressure end-point (e.g. a tank) and returned to the valve, i.e. during the time
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decades with little change, despite significant improvements and developments in the pipeline
technology. Considering the precise design and effective quality and operational control
achieved by modern industry, and with the availability of new materials, it has been realized
that there is a need to rationalize the wall thickness sizing practice for a safe and costeffective design.
New design codes provide guidance on application of high strength and new materials, as well
as design of high pressure and high temperature pipelines.
Pipe material type, i.e. rigid, flexible, or composite, should be determined considering:
Conveyed fluid properties (sweet or sour) and temperature
Pipe material cost
Installation cost
Operational cost (chemical treatment)
There are several different pipes used in offshore oil & gas transportation as follows:
Low carbon steel pipe
Corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) pipe
Clad pipe
Composite pipe
Flexible pipe
Flexible hose
Coiled tubing
Low Carbon Steel Pipe
Low carbon (carbon content less than 0.29%) steel is mild and has a relatively low tensile
strength so it is used to make pipes. Medium or high carbon (carbon content greater than
0.3%) steel is strong and has a good wear resistance so they are used to make forging,
automotive parts, springs, wires, etc. Carbon equivalent (CE) refers to method of measuring
the maximum hardness and weldability of the steel based on chemical composition of the
steel. Higher C (carbon) and other alloy elements such as Mn (manganese), Cr (chrome), Mo
(molybdenum), V (vanadium), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), etc. tend to increase the hardness
(harder and stronger) but decrease the weldability (less ductile and difficult to weld). The CE
shall not exceed 0.43% of total components, per API-5L, as expressed below.
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Yield stress
In elastic region, when the load is removed, the pipe tends to go back to its origin. If the load
exceeds the elastic limit, the pipe does not go back to its origin when the load is removed.
Instead, the stress reduces the same rate (slope) as the elastic modulus and reaches a
certain strain at zero stress, called a residual strain.
Depending on pipe manufacturing process, there are several pipe types as:
Seamless pipe
DSAW (double submerged arc welding) pipe or UOE pipe
ERW (electric resistant welding) pipe
Seamless pipe is made by piercing the hot steel rod, without longitudinal welds. It is most
expensive but ideal for small diameter, deepwater, or dynamic applications.
DSAW or UOE pipe is made by folding a steel panel with a U press, O press and
expansion (to obtain its final OD dimension).
The longitudinal seam is welded by double (inside and outside) submerged arc welding.
DSAW pipe is produced in sizes from 18" through 80" OD and wall thicknesses from 0.25"
through 1.50".
ERW pipe is cheaper than seamless or DSAW pipe but it has not been widely adopted by
offshore industry, especially for sour or high pressure gas service, due to its variable electrical
contact and inadequate forging upset. However, development of high frequency induction
(HFI) welding enables to produce better quality ERW pipes.
CRA (Corrosion resistant alloy) Pipe
Depending on alloy contents, CRA pipe can be broken into follows:
Stainless steel: 316L, 625 (Inconel), 825, 904L, etc.
Chrome based alloy: 13 Cr, Duplex (22 Cr), Super Duplex (25 Cr), etc.
Nickel based alloy : 36 Ni (Invar) for cryogenic application such as LNG (liquefied
natural gas) transportation (-160 o C)
Titanium: Light weight (56% of steel), high strength (up to 200 ksi tensile), high
corrosion resistance, low elastic modulus, and low thermal expansion, but high cost
(~10 times of steel). Good for high fatigue areas such as riser touchdown region,
stress joint, etc.
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Aluminum: Light weight (1/3 of steel), low elastic modulus (1/3 of steel), high corrosion
resistance, but low strength (only up to 90 ksi tensile). Applications can include casing,
air can, and risers.
Clad Pipe
Clad pipe is a combination of low carbon steel (outer pipe) and CRA (inner pipe). This pipe
reduces material cost by using a thin wall CRA pipe at inner pipe wall surface to resist internal
corrosion. And the carbon steel outer pipe wall provides structural integrity. Special caution
should be addressed during clad pipe welding to the low carbon steel pipe; since hydrogen
induced cracking (HIC) can occur by dissimilar material welding process.
Composite Pipe
A carbon-fiber or graphite material for small size pipe in low pressure application has been
developed for mostly topside piping and onshore pipeline. However, its application is going to
expand to subsea use due to its excellent corrosion resistant and low thermal expansion.
Flexible Pipe
Flexible pipe consists of steel layers and plastic layers. Each layer is un-bonded and moves
freely from each other. It is known for excellent dynamic behavior due to its flexibility.
However, the flexible pipe size is limited by burst and collapse resistance capacities. The
maximum design temperature is 130 oC due to plastic layers limit.
The maximum pipe size made by the industry is 19 by year 2006. Flexible pipes
manufacturing limit (maximum design pressure) is shown in Figure below.
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Each steel and plastic layer has a different function as shown in Figure above. For a sour
service, a stainless steel carcass is required. For a water injection line, a smooth plastic bore
can be used. The smooth bore is not normally used for gas applications due to gas
permeation problem. The pressure build-up in the annulus of the pipe can occur due to
diffusion of gas through the plastic sheaths. When no carcass is present, the inner plastic
layer will collapse if the annulus pressure exceeds the bore pressure, such as shut-off case.
To avoid this problem, gas vent valves are installed at end fitting to relieve the annulus
pressure. Rough bore (with carcass) can cause noise and vibrations at high flow velocity.
The high density polyethylene (HDPE) is good for the content temperature of up to 65oC,
Rilsan/nylon for up to 90oC and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) for up to 130oC. PVDF is better
for higher temperatures but it is stiffer than nylon (3% vs. 7% in allowable strain). Another key
component of the flexible pipe is the end fitting (Figure 6.3.0) which is designed to hold all
layers of flexible pipe at each end.
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(2) Class 1, Division 2: This Division is a Location Class 1 where the design factor of the pipe
is equal to or less than 0.72 and has been tested to 1.1 times the maximum operating
pressure. (See Table B for exceptions to design factor.)
(b) Location Class 2. A Location Class 2 is any 1-mile section that has more than 10 but fewer
than 46 buildings intended for human occupancy. A Location Class 2 is intended to reflect
areas where the degree of population is intermediate between Location Class 1 and Location
Class 3, such as fringe areas around cities and towns, industrial areas, ranch or country
estates, etc.
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(c) Location Class 3. A Location Class 3 is any 1-mile section that has 46 or more buildings
intended for human occupancy except when a Location Class 4 prevails.
A Location Class 3 is intended to reflect areas such as suburban housing developments,
shopping centers, residential areas, industrial areas, and other populated areas not meeting
Location Class 4 requirements. (d) Location Class 4. Location Class 4 includes areas where
multistory buildings are prevalent, where traffic is heavy or dense, and where there may be
numerous other utilities underground. Multistory means four or more floors above ground
including the first or ground floor. The depth of basements or number of basement floors is
immaterial.
It should be emphasized that Location Class (1, 2, 3, or 4) as described in the previous
paragraphs is defined as the general description of a geographic area having certain
characteristics as a basis for prescribing the types of design, construction, and methods of
testing to be used in those locations or in areas that are comparable. A numbered Location
Class, such as Location Class 1, refers only to the geography of that location or a similar area
and does not necessarily indicate that a design factor of 0.72 will suffice for all construction in
that particular location or area (e.g., in Location Class 2, all aerial crossings require a design
factor of 0.6;
Table B
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It indicates standard pipe size when followed by the specific size designation number without
a millimeter symbol. For example, DN 50 is the equivalent designation of NPS 2. Refer to
Table C below for NPS and DN pipe size equivalents.
Table C
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.
The following formula can be used to calculate a pipes inside diameter (ID):
ID = OD minus (2 WALL THICKNESS)
Before selecting pipe, careful consideration must be given to its material, temperature and
pressure allowances, corrosion resistance, and more. Buying and installing pipe that does not
meet the minimum requirements can be dangerous and deadly. Using pipe that far exceeds
what is required to do the job can result in tremendous cost overruns.
Table D
Pipeline classification
It is usual industry practice to classify the pipe in accordance with the pressure temperature
rating system used for classifying flanges. However, it is not essential that piping be classified
as Class 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500. The piping rating must be governed by the
pressure-temperature rating of the weakest pressure containing item in the piping. The
weakest item in a piping system may be a fitting made of weaker material or rated lower due
to design and other considerations.
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Table E lists the standard pipe class ratings based on ASME B16.5 along with corresponding
pression nominal (PN) rating designators. Pression nominal is the French equivalent of
pressure nominal.
In addition, the piping may be classified by class ratings covered by other ASME standards,
such as ASME B16.1, B16.3, B16.24, and B16.42. A piping system may be rated for a unique
set of pressures and temperatures not covered by any standard.
Pression nominal (PN) is the rating designator followed by a designation number, which
indicates the approximate pressure rating in bars. The bar is the unit of pressure, and 1 bar is
equal to 14.5 psi or 100 kilopascals (kPa).
Table E
Design Conditions
The pipeline shall be designed taking into consideration the operating conditions and
requirements over its entire projected life cycle including final abandonment, i.e. the maximum
planned throughput and turn-down, the characteristics of the fluids to be transported, the
pressure and temperature requirements, the mode of operations, the geographic location, and
the environmental conditions.
The design requirements of Pipeline Codes are intended to be adequate for public safety
under all conditions encountered in the gas industry. Conditions that may cause additional
stress in any part of a line or its appurtenances shall be provided for, using good engineering
practice. Examples of such conditions include long self-supported spans, unstable ground,
mechanical or sonic vibration, weight of special attachments, earthquake induced stresses,
stresses caused by temperature differences, and the soil and temperature conditions found in
the Arctic.
Temperature differences shall be taken as the difference between the lowest and highest
expected metal temperature during pressure test and/or operating services having due regard
to past recorded temperature data and the possible effects of lower or higher air and ground
temperature.
The quality of the gas to be transported in the pipeline, or by the pipeline system, shall be
considered when designing facilities.
Fluids to be transported by the pipeline are categorized according to the hazard potential by
the pipeline as given by the table below:
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Gases and liquids not specifically identified in the table above shall be classified in the
category containing substances most similar in the hazard potential to those quoted. If the
fluid category is not clear the most hazardous category shall be assumed.
Measures shall be taken to control or minimize adverse effects of the as properties or gas
composition when any of the following may be a concern:
(1) Gas composition. Uncontrolled or unexpected variations in heating value may result in
problems at the end users burner tip or process. Non-combustible compounds (e.g., nitrogen,
nitrogen compounds, carbon dioxide, etc.) may reduce the heating value and increase the
specific gravity of the gas stream. Carbon dioxide contributes to internal corrosion in the
presence of free water. Increased specific gravity of the gas stream may foretell the
condensing of heavy hydrocarbons at cooler Temperatures which may negatively affect
operations.
A change in specific gravity may affect pipeline and compressor capacity calculations. For
effects of heavy hydrocarbons on the design of pipe for Ductile Fracture Arrest,
(2) Hydrogen sulfide content. Hydrogen sulfide is highly toxic and contributes to corrosion in
the presence of water.
(3) Oxygen content. Oxygen contributes to corrosion problems in the presence of free water
at certain temperatures. Certain mixtures of oxygen and gas above the lower explosive limit
can create an explosive condition.
(4) Water vapor content and free liquids. Free water and hydrocarbons at certain
combinations of pressures and temperatures may produce hydrates, which are crystalline
solids that may cause partial or complete Pipeline blockages that may lead to a disruption of
pipeline operations.
Based on the characteristics of the gas stream (i.e., heating value, specific gravity,
temperature, free liquid, odorization, impurities, and other objectionable substances)
appropriate precautions shall be considered to address any problems that might adversely
affect the pipeline system or the end user.
The most significant factor contributing to the failure of a gas pipeline is damage to the line
caused by the activities of people along the route of the line. Damage will generally occur
during construction of other facilities associated with providing the services associated with
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human dwellings and commercial or industrial enterprises. These services, such as water, gas
and electrical supply, sewage systems, drainage lines and ditches, buried power and
communication cables, streets and roads, etc., become more prevalent and extensive, and
the possibility of damage to the pipeline becomes greater with larger concentrations of
buildings intended for human occupancy.
Pipeline systems shall be classified into location classes, as stated in the table below:
Pipeline shall be based on potential failure, safety class may vary for different phases and
location.
Determining the Location Class provides a method of assessing the degree of exposure of the
line to damage.
A pipeline designed, constructed, and operated in accordance with the requirements of
Location Class 1 is basically safe for pressure containment in any location; however,
additional measures are necessary to protect the integrity of the line in the presence of
activities that might cause damage.
For normal use the safety classes below apply:
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One of the measures required by ASME B31.8 Code is to lower the stress level in relation to
increased public activity. This activity is quantified by determining Location Class and relating
the design of the pipeline to the appropriate design factor.
(d) Early editions of this ASME B31.8 Code used the term population density index to
determine design, construction, testing, and operation requirements. They also used the term
Location Class in prescribing design pressure, type of construction, and maximum allowable
operating pressure. To simplify use of this Code, the term population density index was
eliminated. Construction Types A, B, C, and D were eliminated and replaced with the same
terminology used for designlocation class.
Calculating Pressure containment wall thickness using the Barlow equation
The design pressure for steel gas piping systems or the nominal wall thickness for a given
design pressure shall be determined by the following formula:
Where:
D= nominal outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
E= longitudinal joint factor obtained below from Table 841.115A of the ASME B31.8 code
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F = design factor stated in table B of the manual , obtained from ASME B31.8 code In setting
the values of the design factor, F, due consideration has been given and allowance has been
made for the various underthickness tolerances provided for in the pipe specifications listed
and approved for usage in this Code.
P= design pressure, psig (kPa) usually an allowable margin of 1.1 or 1.05 of the operating
pressure.
S= specified minimum yield strength, psi (MPa), stipulated in the specifications under which
the pipe was purchased from the manufacturer.
T = temperature derating factor obtained from Table 841.116A of the ASME B31.8 code
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Even though the definition of the pipeline Limit States is fairly objective in concept, design for
many operating loads would not want to push right to these limits since there is always some
associated uncertainty with the loads and load estimation procedures. Similarly, there is some
uncertainty associated with the values of the limit states themselves (e.g., tensile strain at
rupture). Thus, appropriate and acceptable factors of safety are required as in any code
development. The Load factors are one or greater; that is, the demand on the pipeline due to
the loading is increased to account for uncertainty in the loading and analysis. The Resistance
factors on the capacity are one or less; that is, the capacity of the pipeline to resist a loading is
decreased to account for uncertainty in failure predictions.
It is the selection of these applicable factors for strain as well as strain capacity that require
further consideration. The first question to ask is: What is the basis for selection? Theory
states that such factors can be selected to minimize to some acceptable level the combined
risk of failure for the operational pipeline for the design life; however, this merely centralizes
the problem to: What is acceptable risk? Thus, the problem involves not only a quantitative
evaluation of the probability for the Load to exceed the limit state value, but also development
of an acceptable target for this probability of exceedence. This is always a very difficult
concept to rationalize since the discussion of what is an acceptable reliability target
necessarily involves discussion of societal acceptance of risk from infrastructure projects. It is
likely best resolved, as has been proposed in the work conducted in support of Annex O, by
calibration against existing pipeline designs in each class location.
There are additional complications for direct use of a reliability-based approach to design,
including consideration of site-specific hazards, again related to acceptable reliability targets.
Even after an overall system reliability target is developed, how would that target be used in
any site-specific hazard investigation using a reliability-based approach?
Finally, and as a practical consideration, formal reliability approaches, although rapidly
becoming developed and accepted, are the domain of specialty consultants. For final design
and construction bid directions, field change design, and operational engineering, rule-based
project criteria are unavoidable to ensure project uniformity by a large and diverse user group.
Reliability-based design, at the current time, has neither broadly acceptable tools for pipeline
and construction engineers, nor a broad-based understanding of requirements. Thus, for the
foreseeable reliability-based approaches can be generally expected to be used to formulate
and calibrate allowable stress and/or strain-based limit state design criteria and codes, rather
than used as a direct project evaluation methodology for design. On the other hand, increased
use of reliability-based approaches, involving specialty consultants, should be expected to be
employed in operational considerations that involve judging acceptability of unique or evolving
route conditions not originally anticipated by design.
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Introduction to HT Pipelines
Pipeline design for high temperature may involve plastic strain in the hoop direction. The risk
of ratcheting failure has been considered for some designs. Ratcheting is a process whereby
cyclic and asymmetric loads are applied into the plastic range and the total plastic deformation
increases with each cycle until a failure limit is reached. Here, asymmetric means that the
maximum and minimum stresses in the cycle are not equal in magnitude but are of opposite
sign.
DNV 2000(1) requires that operating temperature and design pressure shall cause plastic
deformation only on the first cycle of operation.
Operation at high temperature relative to the original laying temperature may provide a
sufficient source of compressive force that a pipeline laid on the seabed can buckle like a bar
in compression. Such a global buckling mode may involve upward motion as in upheaval
buckling, downward motion at a free span or lateral motion.
The lateral buckling modes are easier to excite than vertical modes on a flat seabed.
Estimates of the axial and bending stresses induced within the buckles suggest that these can
be large enough to cause concern for local buckling within the larger global buckle.
Bucking resistance is a function of the material and pipe configuration, so that flowlines with
low diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios can be designed to avoid local buckling within such a
global buckle.
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For buried pipe or pipe with a weight covering, for example, dumped rock or concrete
mattresses, the direction of least constraint for buckling will be upward or downward in a
covered free span. Cyclic forces that induce buckling may allow a buried pipeline to move
upward through the covering layer. This has been dubbed upheaval creep.
Verification checks for HP/HT related upheaval buckling of onshore pipelines
When a pipeline is subjected to an axial load, the pipe will tend to move in the vertical plane or
along the trench side slope when the pipe is not covered.
This phenomenon is called upheaval buckling (offshore) or overbend instability (onshore). The
pipeline response might then be unacceptable in terms of vertical displacements (the pipe
protruding through the cover or moving out of the trench), excessive yielding of the pipe
material, or both. Upheaval buckling is hence a failure mode that has to be taken into account
for the design of trenched and buried pipelines operating at elevated temperatures.
A simplified calculation method is detailed below.
The additional symbols used are:
c = soil cover shear strength [kPa]
Do = pipe outside diameter over coatings [m]
f = uplift coefficient
H = soil cover from top of pipe to surface [m]
min = the smaller of the two values
Wins = installation submerged weight [kN/m]
Wsub = operating submerged weight [kN/m]
= soil submerged weight [kN/m3]
f = foundation imperfection height [m]
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Where:
rI is the additional uplift resistance per unit length;
is the submerged unit weight of the rock;
is the coefficient of friction between the rock and the upper surface of the geotextile;
I is the coefficient of friction between the seabed and the lower surface of the geotextile;
b is the breadth of the geotextile (measured transverse to the pipeline);
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H is the cover (measured from the top of the pipe, as described in (2.4));
D is the pipe outside diameter,
and the weight of the geotextile itself is neglected. This equation probably underestimates the
additional uplift resistance, because incipient movement of the geotextile increases the
horizontal compressive stress in the rock above the pipeline and therefore increases its
resistance to shear: this effect still has to be fully investigated.
This option has not been applied underwater to suppress upheaval, as far as is known, but
geotextiles have been used underwater. The geotextile has to retain a strength of 0.5 r' per
unit length over a long period in seawater, without significant extension in creep. There has
been much research on the long-term strength of geotextiles, mostly for civil engineering
applications with much longer design lives.
Some contractors have found that they can place mattresses over a pipeline as cheaply as
dumping rock over it. This can be interpreted as another application of a geotextile, this time
heavy rather than light. The full weight of a mattress is only applied to the pipeline after a
considerable upward movement. A simple model treats the mattress as infinitely flexible,
inextensible and uniform in weight. The uplift resistance when upward movement begins is:
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For gas-filled pipe it can also be determined as a function of pipe diameter from the graphs
shown below.
Graph A1
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Graph A2
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Graph A3
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Having determined the ratio concrete thickness/pipe diameter, the graphs above enable the
submerged weight per metre coated pipe to be estimated
Calculation of the Required Submerged Weight
The symbols used in the calculations described below,
Active and Reactive Forces Working on Pipe
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This formula assumes a velocity profile with fully developed velocity at 1.5 m from the bottom.
The total velocity at pipe level is:
vtot = vwi + vst
To determine the wavelength as a function of the wave period or the formula below
Equilibrium Equation
If the pipe is in equilibrium:
The maximum of equation above gives the minimum required submerged weight for lateral
stability of the pipeline.
When the pipeline is laid on a slope with angle (), this maximum has to be increased to:
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Coefficients
Table below gives the coefficients recommended for use in the formulae of.
1) These values for CD and CL are in principle only valid for diameters below Dn 300(12in.) or
for velocities above 2 m/s. For larger diameters or lower velocities CD and CL vary with the
Keulegan-Carpenter number (KC = vtot T/Do) and may be considerably higher. In that case
the advice of specialists is required, although the above values can give a sensitivity check for
calculation purposes.
2) The recommended value for the friction is for general use. In specific cases it may be
required to determine the friction of the soil by friction tests, e.g. for liquefied clay soils (f) may
be considerably lower.
Required Concrete Thickness
The required thickness of the concrete coating can also be determined from
Graph A1, which is valid for the following conditions:
1. Pipeline is laid on a horizontal bottom
2. Pipeline is only filled with gas
3. Pipeline is continuously supported on the bottom
4. Friction factor against lateral sliding (f) is 1.0
5. The forces induced by the current are evaluated following Morison's equation using for the
different cases the coefficients from Table above and a wave period (T) of 10 s.
Pipeline Rail and Road Crossing
Wherever possible, installation of road crossings should be carried out by the uncased
method. On minor roads this can be achieved by open-cutting the road but on major trunk
roads or other heavily utilised roads the thrust bore technique is used. Normally the local
legislative authority will dictate which roads can be open-cut and which are to be thrust bored.
Extra wall thickness may be required in some cases to overcome additional external loading
problems and this should be identified at the design stage. Alternatively local legislative
authorities may stipulate the use of extra wall thickness pipe at certain road crossings.
Rail crossings generally have to be constructed by the bored technique and again the
uncased crossing method is preferred, however, it is very common for railway companies to
insist on the installation of cased crossings. Where such crossings are to be used, it is
essential to ensure that the pipeline is adequately supported on either side of the crossing
such that settlement of the carrier pipe and hence direct contact with the casing pipe is
avoided. An additional problem associated with cased crossings is the ineffectiveness of the
cathodic protection system to protect the carrier pipe inside the casing.
Recommendations on pipeline crossings of roads and railways are contained in API RP 1102.
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L = wheel load, N
w = pipe load, N/m
D = outside pipe diameter, m
t = pipe wall thickness, m
E = Young's modulus, Pa
p = Internal pressure, Pa
Cd = load coeff. (See Table G)
BD = width of trench at pipe top, m
H = depth of pipe top, m
Kb and Kz are coefficients defined by trench type (see Table F)
If = impact factor (see Table F)
s = soil weight, N.m-3
Table F
Table G
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Of the methods available for weighting or anchoring pipe to maintain the required depth, the
continuous concrete weight coat is the most reliable, albeit the most expensive, to install.
Before selecting a method for anchoring it is essential to conduct a thorough investigation
along the pipeline route of the soil type, strength and any other tests pertinent to anchor
design.
Pipeline Upheaval Buckling calculations
Upheaval buckling occurs in buried pipelines that operate at high temperatures and pressures.
The pipelines can be deformed to an unacceptable extent, and/or the buckle may move it into
a position in which it is exposed to other kinds of damage.
Assessment of whether or not there is a risk of upheaval is normally carried out as follows:
Determination of the total downward force required for the pipeline to stay in
position without upheaval
Calculation of the available downward force (sum of pipeline weight and uplift
resistance)
Comparison between the required downward force and the available downward
force
Ptotal P1 P2 P3 P4
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P3
Di2
4
1 2 pi pe
Where:
pi
pe
Poissons ratio
Di
internal diameter
The temperature component, P4, is calculated by the following formula (based on restrained
condition):
P4 EA Tm Ti
Where:
Tm
Ti
Youngs modulus
2
steel
Di2
Dsteel
Di
F Wsub qnc
Where
Wsub
qnc
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Deff H 1 f H D
eff
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uplift coefficient
Deff
For cohesive cover (eg. clay, silt and mud) the resistance force F is given by:
F Wsub qc
Where
qc
cDeff min 3, H
D
eff
4.76
EIWinst
hWinst
Wreq 1.16
Ptotal
h
EI
Ptotal
Where
Winst
Ptotal
EI
imperfection height
A comparison between the required and actual uplift resistance is expressed as a safety
factor, SF:
SF F
Wreq
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Hoop stress
The circumferential stress is calculated using the formula:
H Pi Pe
Where:
Pi
=
Pe
=
D
=
t
=
D
2t
internal pressure
external pressure
outside diameter of pipe
nominal wall thickness
Longitudinal stress
Longitudinal compressive stress, L is given by
A
2I
Where:
p
=
Peff
=
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pressure differential
effective axial force
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For Offshore application, the external hydrostatic pressure should be accounted for by using
P instead of P.
P
For the above example, the external pressure is zero at the platform, so there is no change in
WT calculation.
The above thin wall pipe formula assumes uniform hoop stress across the pipe wall and gives
a conservative result (high hoop stress). However, the hoop stress is not uniform and it is
maximum at inner surface and minimum at outer surface as shown in Figure below.
Therefore, a closed form solution of thick wall pipe (D/t<20) formula should be used if more
accurate hoop
stress is
required.
Where, a =
inner pipe wall radius = D i / 2
b = outer pipe wall radius = D o / 2
r = arbitrary pipe radius (at which the hoop stress to be estimated)
By replacing r = a, the maximum hoop stress at inner pipe wall can be expressed as;
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As a reference, the hoop stress formulas in other codes are listed below:
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There are several types of buckle arrestors available; slip-on ring type and integral type Some
contractors prefer thick wall pipe joint to buckle arrestor.
Buckle Arrestors
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The combined stress can be calculated using Von Mises formula as below, neglecting
torsional (tangential) stress:
The longitudinal stress comes from tension and bending loads due to installation, route
curvature, free span, thermal expansion, etc. As shown in the Figure below, the maximum
allowable Von Mises Stress curve gives less conservative results than the Tresca stress
curve. If the calculated Von Mises stress falls inside of the curve, the pipe is considered safe
in terms of combined resultant stress.
It should be noted that, for the same tensional and compressive stress at a positive hoop
stress, the pipe may not be safe for the compression (see point B in Figure below).
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Span Analysis
Over a rough seabed or on a seabed subject to scour, pipeline spanning can occur when
contact between the pipeline and seabed is lost over an appreciable distance.
In such circumstances it is normal code requirements that the line is investigated for:
Excessive yielding;
Fatigue;
Interference with human activities (fishing)
Due consideration to these requirements will result in the evaluation of an allowable free span
length. Should actual span lengths exceed the allowable length then correction is necessary
to reduce the span for some idealized situations. This can be a very expensive exercise and,
consequently, it is important that span evaluation is as accurate as possible. In many cases, a
multiple span analysis has to be conducted accounting for, real seabed and in-situ structural
behavior.
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The flow of wave and current around a pipeline span, or any cylindrical shape, will result in the
generation of sheet vortices in the wake (for turbulent flow). These vortices are shed
alternately from the top and bottom of the pipe resulting in an oscillatory force being exerted
on the span.
Unsupported pipeline span effect
If the frequency of shedding approaches the natural frequency of the pipeline span then
severe resonance can occur. This resonance can induce fatigue failure of the pipe and cause
the concrete coating to crack and possibly be lost.
Vortex formation
The evaluation of the potential of a span to undergo resonance is based on the comparison of
the shedding frequency and the natural frequency of the span. The calculation of shedding
frequency is achieved using traditional mechanics although some consideration must be given
to the effect of the closeness of the seabed. Simple models have, traditionally, been used to
calculate the natural frequency of the span, but recent theories have shown these to be
oversimplified and multiple span analyses needs to be conducted.
The determination of the acceptable maximum allowable free span is based on the following
criteria:
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The analysis of reduced velocities indicates that VIVs will not occur and that,
consequently, fatigue damage from these vibrations can be ruled out; and
Calculated maximum combined stresses stay within the limits for elastic
stresses.
The maximum allowable span is selected which the lower of the values is given by the two
criteria above.
DESIGN LOADS
Loads for calculating maximum stresses are based on:
Maximum operating pressure for the pipeline;
Maximum pipeline operating temperature;
Maximum fluid density;
Design currents and maximum waves associated with the relevant return
period.
Loads for calculating whether VIVs can occur are based on:
Pipeline operating pressure, temperature and fluid density predicted for the
location of the span under operating conditions;
Design currents and significant waves associated with the relevant return
period.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Cross flow vortex induced vibration
According to DNV 1981, cross-flow oscillations may occur if KS<16, and values of reduced
velocity, VR. The value of VR is dependent on Reynolds number, Re, which is expressed as:
Re
UD
Where:
U
D
=
=
=
flow velocity.
pipe outer diameter, including coating
kinematic viscosity of seawater
KS
Me
W
D
2M e
W D 2
where:
=
effective mass of pipeline
=
logarithmic coefficient of structural damping 0.126 (From DnV77)
=
density of seawater
=
pipe outer diameter (including coatings etc.)
fi
V
VR D
where:
V= flow velocity normal to the pipe
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For simplified analysis, the natural frequency of the span may be calculated as:
fi
K
L2
EI
Me
Rearranging gives:
K
L
fi
EI
Me
Where:
E
I
Me
K
0.5
=
=
=
=
STATIC ANALYSIS
Hoop stress
The circumferential stress, due to pressure only (hoop stress) is calculated from the following
formula:
h Pi Pe
Where:
Pi
=
Pe
=
D
=
t
=
D
2t
Bending stress
For calculating bending stresses in spans where the axial tension is zero, the maximum
bending moment is approximated by:
End Condition
Maximum Bending Moment, MS
Pinned-Pinned
WL2
Pinned-Fixed
Fixed-Fixed
8
WL2
10
WL2
12
The combined static stress due to both functional and environmental loads acting on a free
spanning pipeline is calculated as follows.
Under the functional plus environmental conditions, the submerged weight is combined with
wave and current induced drag, lift and inertia forces
W FL 2 FD FM 2
Where:
W
=
FD
=
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submerged weight
drag force due to wave and current conditions
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FL
FM
=
=
The coefficients for drag, lift and inertia should be obtained from.
For bending moment due to route curvature, the bending moment is approximated by:
MR
EI
R
Where
R
Route curvature
M B M S2 M R2
Maximum bending stress, B is given by:
MBD
2I
Longitudinal stress
In determining the effective axial stress, the pipe condition of either fully or partially restrained,
is taken into consideration, to account for the loads induced in the pipe due to thermal and
pipe-soil frictional forces.
Longitudinal (axial) compressive stress, L is given by:
L E. .T 1 2
H
2
P. .D 2 N RES
4A
A
f .W .L X
A
Where:
f
=
soil-pipe coefficient of friction
LX
=
distance from inlet/outlet
NRES =
Residual tension
A
=
Cross-sectional area of pipe
The total longitudinal stress is then calculated as:
L,TOT L B
Equivalent stress
The equivalent stress is given by the Von Mises equation:
EQ H2 L2 H L 3 2
Where:
t
=
shear stress, assumed to be zero.
The equivalent stress shall not exceed the allowable stress, all
EQ all
With:
all SMYS
Where:
=
SMYS =
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design factor
Specified Minimum Yield Stress
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Expansion Analysis
The expansion analysis determines the maximum pipeline expansion at the two termination
points and the maximum associated axial load in the pipeline. Both results have significant
implications in the design as:
Axial load will determine if the line may buckle during operation, and hence additional
analysis/restraint will be required;
End expansions dictate the expansion that the tie-in spools (or other) would have to
accommodate.
The degree of the expansion by the pipeline is a function of the operational parameters and
the restraint on the pipeline. The line will expand up to the anchor point, and past this point
the line does not expand (hence fully restrained). The distance between the pipeline end and
this length is determined based on the operational parameters and the pipeline restraints.
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expansion are balanced by the cumulative effects of the soil frictional force, the pipeline is
virtually anchored.
The methodology used in estimating the pipeline end expansion is based on the first principle
of stress-strain relationship. The stresses acting in the pipeline wall resulting from the
operating loads and friction resistance depend on whether the pipeline is unrestrained,
partially restrained or fully restrained.
The net longitudinal strain in the pipeline between the free end and the virtual anchor point is
given by the following formula.
E NET
E T f
where
NET
E
=
Pi Ai
A E
T
f
=
=
D
t
T
Ws
Ls
A
WLs
Ai
P D 2t Pe D
i
2t E
A E
Pi
Internal pressure
Pe
External pressure
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
For the restrained section of the pipeline, the stress-strain relation is given by:
LR
E NET T
=
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E T
as
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In the pipeline between free end and virtual anchored point, there is some restraint from soil
friction, although not sufficient to prevent total movement. The stress-strain relation within the
partially restrained section is given by:
LP
E E f
The virtual anchor length, which is the distance between the free end of the pipeline and the
virtual anchor point is given by:
=
Ls
2
T A E
Ws
=
for long pipelines
The end expansions at the hot and cold ends are calculated by integrating the net longitudinal
strain and is given by:
=
L AHOT
NET dL
L ACOLD
NET dL
where
LAHOT =
LACOLD =
M
=
Where:
3EI
L2
E
I
=
=
=
=
Youngs modulus
Moment of inertia for the pipe
Pipeline expansion
Lowest riser span length / length of expansion offset
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ii MD
2I
b
=
Where:
ii
=
Stress Intensification factor, per Fig 419.6.49(c),
ASME B31.4]
0.9
2
tR
=
=
=
=
Where:
t
R
r
Combining the above equations and solving for L gives the equation:
0.9
L2
tR
3ED
2 b
Design Loads
The design load cases to be considered in the analysis are presented in the Table below.
Design Case and Loading
Phase
Pipeline condition
Hydrotesting pipeline under test
pressure, filled with test
medium
Operation
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operating condition
Design loads
submerged pipeline filled with
test medium
hydrodynamic loads
test pressure
submerged pipeline filled with
product
hydrodynamic loads
pipeline maximum operating
pressure and temperature
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=
Poissons Ratio for the pipeline material
Sp
Circumferential stress due to internal pressure
=
Longitudinal stress due to thermal loading, Slt, is given by:
Slt = -E (Tmx Tint)
where:
E
=
Youngs modulus for the pipe material
=
Thermal expansion coefficient
Tmx
=
Maximum temperature
Tin
=
Installation temperature
The resultant longitudinal stress, Sl, (excluding bending) is the algebraic sum of these two
longitudinal stresses, given as:
Sl = Sp -E (Tmx Tint)
Thermally induced longitudinal stress was calculated using the mean maximum ambient
temperature, 31oC, as the installation temperature.
Equivalent Stress for partially restrained Pipeline
The equivalent stress is calculated using the Von Mises yield criteria after the total
circumferential and longitudinal stresses acting on the wall of the pipeline are determined.
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ROUTE OPTIMIZATION
Introduction to pipeline Route Selection
Pipeline Route Selection technique
Route selection is a complex procedure, which can be governed by several variables. Clearly,
the shortest distance between the terminal points is likely to be the most economic from a
material standpoint, but possible overriding factors must be considered.
Typically the route selection will be affected by:
Onshore pipelines
Population and building densities for the establishment of location classes, location of
inhabited buildings, taking into account any future land development plans.
Topographical data, location of rivers, roads and railways, including type and density
of traffic.
Records of any existing special features which will need reinstatement after
construction is completed.
Soil investigation for foundation design (burial and/or supports design), subsidence
areas (e.g. due to mining activities).
Soil resistivity for cathodic protection design.
Environmental data (climatic, floods, earthquakes, landslides, currents at river
crossings, vegetation, fauna).
Offshore pipelines
Seabed topographical data, location of rock/coral outcrops.
Soil investigation for foundation and on-bottom stability design.
Fishing, shipping (and other sea users) activity data.
Environmental data (climatic, currents, waves, bathymetry, earthquakes, landslides).
Third party facilities and concession areas.
Proximity to occupied buildings (onshore pipelines) Compared to pipelines transporting
category A and B fluids, pipelines transporting category C and D fluids constitute potentially
higher hazards to people nearby. There are no provisions in ANSI/ASME B31.4/8 to cover
this, apart from the location classes defined earlier which only address population densities.
For the purpose of initial routing, Appendix 1provides guidance for establishing minimum
distances of pipelines from occupied buildings depending on the type of the fluid, the pipeline
diameter and its maximum operating pressure. Final routing should be established following
the pipeline safety assessment.
Proximity to other facilities
For fluid categories B, C and D, the separation requirements between the pipeline (including
pig traps) and other facilities within the plant fences or on the offshore platform should be in
accordance with EP 55000 Section 21. For the definition of area classifications around the
pipeline, refer to the Institute of Petroleum Model Code of Safe Practice Part 15.
Special routing considerations
In the derivation of the route, due consideration shall be given to the anticipated installation
technique. This is particularly relevant to offshore pipelines.
Onshore pipelines route right of way (ROW)
All pipelines shall have a permanent right of way with a width ranging from 4 m forDN150 and
below, to 10 m for DN600 and above. The pipeline route should be centered on the right of
way. The radius of curvature of the pipeline foundation along route should not be less than
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500xD, D being the pipeline diameter. Hot bends or field bends should be used when lower
values are necessary. When several pipelines are installed in the same trench, the separation
between 2adjacent pipelines shall be 0.3 m minimum. The minimum distance for pipelines
installed in a separate trench alongside an existing buried pipeline should range from2 m for
DN150 and below, to 5 m forDN900 and above.
The crossing of existing pipelines, cables, power lines, roads, railways and waterways should
be at an angle between 60 and 90degrees.
When installing a pipeline along power lines, the horizontal distance from any of the power
cables and posts should be at least 10 m for power lines at 110 kv and above, and 4 m for
power lines below110 kv.
Offshore pipelines routing
The radius of curvature of the pipeline along route should not be less than 2000xD, D being
the pipeline diameter. When lower values are necessary, a detailed analysis of the pipeline
lateral stability during laying should be carried out.
Pipelines close to offshore platforms should, as far as possible, be arranged in corridors to
facilitate the anchoring of vessels for support and future construction activities at the platform.
Straight lengths of pipe are normally necessary for start-up. Risers should be protected from
the marine activity around the platform and, except for category A fluids, located away from
the living quarters.
The crossing of existing pipelines and submarine cables should be at right angles.
When this imposes excessive additional route length, lower crossing angles may be used, but
not lower than 30 degrees.
The distance between parallel pipelines should not be less than 10 meters, or the value
compatible with the installation equipment whichever is higher.
Offshore route Optimization
Optimization of pipeline routing is usually not performed as the route probably has no
obstruction is in an accessible water depth and the seabed topography is flat: Hence a
straight-line between the two termination points would suffice. However, on seabed with
onerous terrain significant savings on fabrication and installation costs can be made if route
optimization is performed.
To perform a route optimization, reasonably accurate costs for the following activities are
required:
Supply of additional pipeline pipe/unit length;
Pre-sweeping a corridor/unit length, including cost of reduced lay rate due to a smaller
lay corridor;
Pre-lay free span correction supports (each), again including cost of reduced lay rate
due to smaller lay corridor;
Post lay free span correction supports (each);
Trenching, burying and rock dumping/unit length (for each).
Based on the derived costs, a total cost for each route can be derived.
It is worth noting that the optimization cannot be completed until all the pipeline design
parameters are finalized (for instance the number of free span correction supports will not be
known until the allowable free span has been determined)
The required minimum pipeline route curve radius (R s) should be determined to prevent
slippage of the curved pipeline on the sea floor while making a curve, in accordance with the
following formula [1]. If the pipeline-soil friction resistance is too small, the pipeline will springback to straight line. The formula also can be used to estimate the required minimum straight
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pipeline length (L s), before making a curve, to prevent slippage at initiation. If L s is too short,
the pipeline will slip while the curve is being made.
If the curvature angle (a) and the pipe rigidity (elastic stiffness = elastic modulus (E) x pipe
moment of inertia (I)) are considered to do a big role on the R s and L s estimates, the above
formula can be modified as follows:
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Once the field layout and pipeline route is determined by desktop study using an existing field
map, the pipeline route survey is contracted to obtain site-specific information including
bathymetry, seabed characteristics, soil properties, stratigraphy, geohazards, and
environmental data.
Bathymetry (hydrographic) survey using echo sounders provides water depths (sea bottom
profile) over the pipeline route. The new technology of 3-D bathymetry map shows the sea
bottom configuration more clearly than the 2-D bathymetry map (see Figure below).
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Bunkering
Sabotage
Explosion / Fire
Environmental impacts
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Note: future next phases of a field development shall be anticipated in the pipeline positioning
within the ROW.
Alignment sheet specifications
A set of single overview of the whole route shall be produced on the most suitable scale,
which shall serve as a key plan for all the alignment sheets.
All alignment sheets shall be sequentially numbered.
Each alignment sheets shall have a legend box on the right hand side. The contents of the
legend box shall include, but not be limited to the following, and shall be displayed in the order
as given:
Title of the Project
Geodetic datum
Spheroid
Chart name
Contour interval
Survey vessel name (for near shore and river crossing surveys)
A miniature chart overview with the bordering charts shown
Issue number
Symbols as used on the charts/profiles
Projection
Chart datum (CD) / MSL
Chart/profile (vertical and horizontal)
Survey Contractors name
Date of survey
Kilometric scale, subdivided into tenths.
The pipeline alignment sheets shall be plotted at the vertical and horizontal scales, and shall
consist of four (4) main horizontal strips as follows:
First strip: General location and topographical chart
Site topography with reference contours for the whole aerial part of the route
The theoretical pipeline route (centreline) with fix numbers, Turning Points (TP), Kilometre
points (KP), and all necessary information
Location of types of forests (nipa-nipa, high trees, primary forest, mangroves, etc.) and
agricultural areas (mainly paddy fields)
Location of protected areas such as natural parks
Location of rivers and channels, river bank features as creeks
Location of roads and tracks
Location of aerial or buried electrical high-tension lines and networks, telephone lines, aerial
antennas, etc.
Location of prohibited areas such as military zones (camps, etc.)
Location of petroleum facilities
Location of aqua-agriculture areas such fish ponds, fish traps, shrimp ponds, etc.
Location of special features such as religious buildings, etc.
Density of construction along the proposed route of the pipeline (village)
Location of construction in progress
Near shore and river crossing
The corrected soundings over the whole surveyed corridor
Bathymetric contours with a 0.1 m internal contouring at the horizontal and vertical scales
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An annotation for all slopes beyond ten per cent. The direction of slope shall be clearly
indicated. This information shall be made available to enable route development, if necessary
Geology and seabed features (e.g. sand waves, pipes and cables in/out of service and
planned objects or any obstruction if any, trawling tracks, etc.).
In addition, the following information shall be plotted:
Geotechnical borehole location
CPT locations
Current meter, tide gauge and wave recorders locations
Resistivity measurements locations.
Second strip: route profile
The second strip shall show the vertical profile along centreline of the route. In addition to the
altimetry and the bathymetry the following shall be displayed:
The nature of the soils with a shallow geological description and main geotechnical results
The slopes, with indication of the slope values in percentage
Turning Points (TP), Kilometre Points (KP), and all necessary information.
Third strip: Survey results
Main survey results shall be presented approximately below the measurement location
situated on the chart and the profile. These main results shall include:
Metocean data (tides, bottom and surface currents, Hs/Hmax)
Geotechnical data (main parameter values or curves and lithological description)
Soil resistivity values.
The selection of the final route shall consider all associated risks, primarily safety and
environmental risks, accessibility for inspection and repairs. Risks associated with the
pipeline, in terms of the safety of people, damage to the environment, and loss of income
should be fully analysed.
The key objectives and principal criteria for a Pipeline project success are prioritised as
follows:
Provide suitable pipeline route following existing pipeline ROWs, adopting minimum land
take for required new routes and very minimal land take for New ROW acquisition.
Comply with National and industry safety and HSE standards.
Comply with National and industry technical and operational standards.
Minimize the impact on environmental, social and health matters.
Minimize community affairs and community disruption before; during and after construction
trying not to disturb existing populated and industrial areas if by-passing is economically
and technically viable.
Complete on time.
Minimize disruption to ongoing operations and eliminate shut downs to existing Pipelines.
Protect Company reputation.
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When geotechnical data are available in some areas along the pipeline, if better soils can be
reached, possibility to trench deeper is given.
Burying method
Burying method shall be selected on the basis of the soil conditions, the water depth, the
environmental conditions (current, wave), the pipe diameters and its characteristics, the
burying depths, and the geographical and topographical conditions.
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The configuration of the pipeline during trenching operations shall permit acceptable free-span
lengths (see stability calculations).
Towing- bottom tow, near bottom tow, mid depth tow and surface tow.
S-Lay
J-Lay
Reel-Lay
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S-lay configuration
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J-lay configuration
Typical S-lay tensioner and stinger, and J-lay configuration are shown in Figure above. There
are multiple welding stations in S-lay, depending on pipe size and pipe WT. Therefore, it is
important to control the time spending at each station. If one station spends 10 minutes while
the others spend 5 minutes, the pipe lay rate is reduced by 50%. For example, if each station
takes 7 minutes to connect one pipe joint (40 ft), the lay rate would be 1.6 miles per day as
below: (24 x 60 min/day) / (7 min/40 ft) = 8,230 ft/day = 1.6 miles/day The J-lay has only one
welding station but can weld multiple pipe joints such as triple to hex joints (120 ft to 240 ft).
Pipe strain or curvature variance during reel-lay is presented in Figure 14.1.5. The pipe strain
is near zero when the pipe departs the stinger. The pipe is reeled on a spool at due to pipe
strain and tension limit during reeling. The combined strain during reeling process will reach
approximately 3% to 4% (note: yield is 0.5% and ultimate tensile is 5%). The reeled pipe WT
needs to be thick enough to avoid wrinkle.
Deep water S-lay vessel and reeling vessel
Pipeline Installation analysis
Analysis Pipe structural integrity should be checked for during installation operation, including
initiation, normal lay, and termination. Also, abandonment & recovery (A&R), single point lift
(SPL), and davit lift analysis should be performed for contingency occasions. To determine
whether the designed pipe can be installed by any installation vessel currently available in the
industry, at least the normal installation analysis should be etc. should be checked in pipeline
installability evaluation. Several programs available for pipeline installation analysis are:
Offpipe, Orcaflex, Flexcom, etc. The pipe stress limit during installation is not specified in any
industry codes or standards. However, industry uses 72% SMYS at sagbend and 85% SMYS
at overbend. At sagbend, the pipe is hard to control, like at stinger, so more stringent stress
limit (lower stress limit) is applied. For the dynamic analysis, higher stress limits are used
since more severe environment and vessel motion are considered. If strain criteria are used, a
0.15% and 0.20% strain can be used at sagbend and overbend, respectively. Figure 14.3.1
shows one example of pipe stress analysis results.
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Figure below illustrates A&R procedures. For abandonment, the A&R cable from a winch
on the vessel is attached to the pipe pull- head. While moving the vessel, the A&R cable is
lowered to the sea floor. Recovery follows the reversed order of the abandonment procedures.
Single point lift (SPL) is similar to the A&R operation except no-use of stinger. The SPL cable
from a crane or davit on the vessel is free hanged vertically, at side of the vessel. Multiple
davits can be used to minimize the pipe stress during lifting and lowering the pipeline.
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Construction Hydrotesting
All new pipelines shall be tested after construction and burial (if applicable) to prove the
strength and leak tightness, by means of a hydrostatic pressure test. Only water from
approved sources should be used. Corrosion inhibitors, when required, should be selected on
the basis of lowest environmental sensitivity.
Prior to testing, the pipeline shall be gauged, either by a gauge plate pig or an instrumented
caliper pig, to ensure that no dents or buckles are left in the line.
Notwithstanding the ANSI/ASME requirements, the strength test pressure should be set to
give at least a hoop stress level of 90% of the specified minimum yield stress, based on the
minimum wall thickness. The pipeline sections with higher wall thicknesses and/or steel
grades (e.g. risers, crossings), should be tested separately, prior to incorporation in the
pipeline. The strength test pressure should be maintained for a duration of 4 hours minimum.
Pressure fluctuations caused by thermal variations should be prevented by adding/removing
suitable quantities of water from the pipeline.
Following the strength test, a leak tightness test shall be carried out on pipeline sections which
cannot be inspected for leaks during the strength test. The leak tightness test pressure should
be set initially at 80% of the strength test pressure, and allowed to fluctuate with temperature
changes (i.e. there is no adding/removing of water from the pipeline). The leak tightness test
pressure should be maintained for duration of 24 hours minimum. There should be no leak,
based on the correlation of pipeline pressure fluctuations and temperature changes.
A combined strength/leak tightness test may be performed at strength test pressure and
without addition or removal of water if it can be ensured that the pipeline stresses will not
exceed 100% SMYS at any location (accounting for pressure fluctuations caused by
temperature variations).
Tie-in welds, i.e. welds which are not subject to the hydrostatic pressure test, shall be
subjected to additional non-destructive testing (e.g. ultrasonic inspection).
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Cathodic Protection
Pipe lines may be cathodically protected in either earth or water. To determine if cathodic
protection may be used to prevent corrosion of steel pipe lines, we must first learn how to
measure the resistivity of these environments.
Soil resistivity
The resistivity of soil is usually measured by the four-pin method with the Vibroground (see
Figure below), possibly the easiest instrument to use. It is possible to attach a set of pins and
leads which will minimize the time to get soil resistivities, and a complete survey may be done
in a relatively short time.
Vibroground
The newest example of the soil resistance meter is also shown in another figure below and
has been available since 1981. Its advantage is that there are no moving parts and no
vibrators to change. Although called a four-pin soil resistance meter, it is also excellent for
measuring water samples in a soilbox.
Soilbox
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Potential survey
Although there are several reference electrodes (half cells) available for potential difference
measurements, only the copper/copper sulphate electrode is used for most of the readings the
corrosion engineer will take on land. Also, for precision, the potentiometer, particularly in the
form of a combination instrument, is preferable to the low-resistance voltmeters. The
placement of the reference electrode is best made on the surface of the earth directly over the
buried pipe line. Sometimes, the soil should be moistened, although preferably nothing should
be done to affect the environment. For contact with the pipe line, it is advisable to have test
stations installed at regular intervals along all major pipe lines. This will eliminate the problems
of direct metal contact with the pipe itself, which will be necessary if the permanent leads are
not available. Although the "leap-frog" system may be useful when there is a distance
between test stations, it would be advantageous to have a reel of wire available to extend the
measurements along the pipeline, particularly in regions near the midpoints between rectifiers.
Modern methods of pipe-to-soil measurement use recording voltmeters, which may be used to
complete a series of pipe-to-soil potentials along a pipe line in a very short time.
Line current
As has already been shown, if test stations along the pipelines have been installed, it is very
easy to construct a test section for line current measurement. Although the lengths may vary
for these sections, it is advisable to have them at least 100 ft long for 8-inch schedule 40 pipe
and as much as 400 ft for 30-inch OD pipe. Again, the meter can be used, since values as
low as one millivolt may have to be measured. Also, the test section may be used to measure
the coating resistance once the conductance of the pipe itself has been calibrated.
Ground bed design and installation
Once the rectifiers have been sized, the ground beds should be designed. Several anodes are
available:
1. Scrap steel.
2. High-silicon iron anodes, called "Duriron" and "Durichlor."
3. Graphite.
4. Special anodes (used mainly for seawater application).
Various arrangements are also available: horizontal, vertical, vertical in parallel and deep
anodes. The calculations for these have been described.
The basic formulas, plus others, have been included to show a typical installation design.
Cathodic protection systems have thus been designed using magnesium and zinc anodes to
give cathodic protection to certain pipe lines when the economic considerations warrant it.
Magnesium anodes are usually the first choice, but, since zinc anodes cost less and are more
efficient, they may be used to advantage in certain long-term situations.
It is seen that the major problem causing stray-current electrolysis in the past was directcurrent leakage from electric streetcars and trains. However, a present cause is direct current
from a foreign un-bonded pipeline under cathodic protection. All the techniques we have
learned to measure electrical current, including the recording meter, may be needed to
determine the problem and its source. Insulating flanges and negative bus bonding are often
used to minimize the damage caused by electrolysis.
Interference problems are always a possibility whenever a cathodic protection system will be
installed. This system will affect:
1. Foreign lines. These include protected lines and those with their own protective systems.
These interference problems are usually solved by resistance bonds.
2. Insulating flanges. To prevent the current necessary for protecting a line from being drained
off on such piping systems as tankage lines, well casings, and unused pipe lines, it is
sometimes necessary to install insulating flanges or Dresser couplings. Corrosion will occur
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on the buried piping near these flanges unless bonds are placed around the flanges and
adjusted to balance corrosion forces.
3. Railroad tracks and road casings. Any metallic system in the vicinity of the protected pipe
line may cause problems. Each of these will be shown by accurate measurement and must be
solved as it occurs.
Once the cathodic protection system is installed on a pipe line, it must be kept in operable
condition at all times. Certain routines are necessary to be sure that the rectifiers are running
and that the anode bed leads have not been severed. A minimum inspection system has been
shown to maintain adequate performance. This is even more important when a sacrificial
anode system is used, since there is no rectifier to show inadequate performance. Since pipeto-soil potential measurements must be run at regular intervals along a pipe line, it is some
advantage to have a potential monitor station, usually a voltmeter with a zinc anode, installed
at certain critical points on a pipe line. However, a yearly complete
Cathodic protection measurement determining line currents, potentials, and coating
conductivities should be run.
The best way to assure a good coating system is by adequate inspection at the time the pipe
line is constructed.
The holiday detector is an efficient instrument to find cracks in the coating, but it does not
determine the bonding of the coating to the pipe surface. This must be done by careful visual
inspection. After the pipe is buried, several methods of determining coating conductivity are
available, and it has been shown that this characteristic can be used in the design of a
cathodic protection system. The instrument often used in looking for coating faults is the
Pearson holiday detector, which requires two people to make the measurements. After this
inspection, the pipe may be excavated and the coating repaired.
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A description of the key operating parameters (specification of the transported fluid, ranges
of pressure, temperature and flow, design life, corrosion management including materials
design philosophy, expected corrosion rates and inhibition requirements,
Design environmental conditions).
The inspection and condition monitoring requirements of all parts of the pipeline (route
surveys, external and internal corrosion surveys, valves and instrument checks, cathodic
protection).
Requirements for special operations such as start-up and shut-down, conditioning for
prolonged shut-down, liquid hold-up control which may be required prior to pigging.
Pigging requirements (type of pigs, frequency) for the foreseeable operating conditions,
explaining the purpose, e.g. cleaning, corrosion control, liquid holdup control, including
criteria for adjustment.
Identification of the risks associated with the pipeline and the means taken to minimise them.
Line leak/break detection and contingency plan, including roles and responsibilities of
personnel, list of emergency equipment and contingency materials, and repair procedures of
all parts of the pipeline.
The pipeline documentation should be structured in a manner such that all parties involved
with the operation, maintenance and inspection of the pipeline system have ready access to
all data required to control pipeline integrity.
Repair and Remediation
The objective of this module is to describe the main pipeline repair techniques. The
applicability of each of the techniques Listed below for the repair of defects will be discussed.
grind repairs
local weld repairs
Clockspring and WrapMaster
welded sleeves
epoxy sleeves
Petrosleeve
o grind repairs
This application is normally preferred for repairing pipe with irregular edges and surfaces
minor with defects such as protrusions or dents resultant from manufacturers. Repairs are
easily done with grinding plates, and are very common during pipeline construction phase.
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Clock Spring can be used to permanently repair external blunt metal loss defects.
The Clock Spring pipe repair system is a high-strength corrosion resistant e-glass and resin
composite sleeve, a high performance adhesive and a high-strength filler material.
The composite sleeves are uniquely shaped and sized to wrap around pipe diameters of 4
inches up to 56 inches. The individual layers are bonded together and to the pipe to fully
restore serviceability.
Clock Spring repairs are fast, economical, safe and easy. Since not cutting or welding is
required, there is not risk to the pipeline or the environmental, no release of greenhouse
gases or waste disposal issues.
Pipe Supports provide effective protection at support or hanger locations and can be applied
quickly and easily- requiring no special tools or training. The composite sleeve form a wear
surface to protect the pipe from wear and corrosion.
Contour is the latest advanced composite repair technique from the Clock Spring Company. It
is ideal for the repair of elbows, tees, reducers, nozzles and other pipe components. The
flexible repair technique allows materials to be tailored on-site to enable repair of complex
geometrical shapes commonly found in pipe systems.
The Contour system provides a highly durable repair with excellent chemical resistance.
Based on high-performance, non-woven glass fiber fabrics and epoxy resin, Contour can
provide protection from external corrosion, replacement of strength for damaged pipes and
can seal leaking defects.
o Welded sleeves
Welded Steel Half Sole Repair Sleeves are designed to avoid a costly shut down. Existing
lines can be cased without thru-put loss, because it is not necessary to shut down the carrier
line to perform the required repair. A full scope of sizes, ASTM grades of steel plate (structural
and pressure vessel quality), wall thickness and longitudinal edge options are available. Half
Sole Repair Sleeves, also called split casing or half wrap, are custom-fabricated to your
specifications, to assure a precision
Weld sleeves on damaged pipeline.
Half Sole are manufactured so that when two (2) halves of the sleeve are placed on the pipe,
their total circumference shall equal the circumference of the pipe minus a gap between the
longitudinal edges on either side of 1/16" (-1/16"+1/32") for welding.
Each Half Sole is fabricated to match the outside diameter (O.D.) of standard nominal line
pipe (bare) with tolerances of:
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Wall Thickness
Tolerance
(+0"-1/8")
(+0"-1/4")
5/16" plate
(+0"-1/8")
5/16" plate
(+0"-3/16)
3/8" plate
(+1/8"-0")
3/8" plate
(+1/16"-1/16")
3/8" plate
(+0"-1/4")
1/2" plate
(+1/16"-1/16")
1/2" plate
(+1/8"-1/8")
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After the gap is visually checked for dimensional tolerances and any final adjustment made,
the longitudinal seam shall be tack welded. The tack weld should tie-in both Half Sole edges
and the backing strip material (caution is necessary not to burn through the backing strip to
the carrier pipe). A welding machine setting should be made before starting the tacking
process.
o Epoxy sleeves
An epoxy sleeve repair system developed by British Gas has been used extensively for
permanent repairs of gas, crude oil, and product pipelines. It can be installed without the loss
of product and does not require system shutdown. Static and fatigue behaviors of the epoxy
sleeve repair have been thoroughly evaluated and proven by numerical studies, extensive fullscale testing, and system applications for more than ten years.
Epoxy sleeve repair, high strength repair with resin injected steel sleeves.
Petrosleeve
The PETROSLEEVE repairs defects such as Seam or Pipe Body Cracking, Corrosion, Dents,
Mechanical Defects, SCC (Stress Corrosion Cracking), and Arc Burns. Although the failure
mechanism varies for each defect type, the following is a good outline description of various
defects and how the installation of a PETROSLEEVE permanently removes the failure
mechanism of the defect.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE provides mechanical support to the localized thinned
section. It is this support that prevents bulging for all pressures, including during high pressure
testing.
Corrosion.
These defects are caused by either third-party damage or non-acceptable workmanship, and
may include stress concentrators such as cracking. Failure occurs by the pipe material
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containing the defect flexing because of internal pressure variances, which in turn causes
cracking. When the crack extensions become critical, rupture occurs.
Gouges, Groove or Arc Burns:
These defects are caused by either third-party damage or non-acceptable workmanship, and
may include stress concentrators such as cracking. Failure occurs by the pipe material
containing the defect flexing because of internal pressure variances, which in turn causes
cracking. When the crack extensions become critical, rupture occurs.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE eliminates flexing in the pipe material and the stress
state in the material surrounding the defect is put into compression, eliminating fatigue, crack
extension, and rupture.
Dents
Dent defects are caused by either third party damage or non-acceptable workmanship. As in
the gouge, groove or arc burn cases, failure occurs by the pipe material containing the defect
flexing because of internal pressure variances, which in turn causes cracking. When the crack
extensions become critical, rupture occurs.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE eliminates flexing in the pipe material and places the
pipe material into compression, eliminating fatigue, crack extension, and rupture.
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Pipe cracks
Pipe Body Cracking is caused by various means, including chemical action (Stress Corrosion
Cracking). Failure occurs when crack becomes unstable.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE permanently reduces the stress state in the material
surrounding the defect, removing the possibility for crack extension.
Weld defects
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE permanently reduces the stress state in the material
surrounding the defect, as well as providing support to the weld.
The PETROSLEEVE provides permanent mechanical support to the weld area and reduces
the strain induced in the weld by the external forces.
Weld defects
A grind defect is caused by mechanically removing metal from the surface of the pipe
material, resulting in localized thinning of the pipe wall. In addition, stress concentrators could
be present on the metal surface. Failure occurs first by bulging (yielding) at the grinding area,
followed by rupture of the steel membrane. Additionally, the presence of stress concentrators
could act as initiation points for rupture at lower strain levels.
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