0

Project
Report
Solar Powered
Induction motor
drive
Delhi Technological
University

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Table of Contents
Abstract

1
3

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 System overview
1.3 Organization of the report

4
4
5
5

Chapter 2 -Survey of Literature & Formulation of problem

2.1 General
2.2 Solar cell
2.3 DC-DC converters
2.4 High Frequency transformer
2.5 Induction motor
2.6 Control methods
2.7 Modes of Operation
2.8 Key components of a drive system
2.9 Classical AC drives
2.10 Scalar control
2.11 Vector or Field oriented control
2.12 Water filtration system
2.13 Formulation of Problem
2.14 Team organization

7
7
7
10
14
15
16
17
17
18
19
21
25
27
27

Chapter 3- Maximum Power Point Tracking

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theory behind a few algorithms for MPPT
3.3 MPPT algorithms
3.4 Simulation Model in MATLAB
3.5 Performance analysis
3.6 Microcontroller used for MPPT
3.7 MPPT Test Results

28
28
28
29
35
37
38
39

Chapter 4- High Frequency Transformer

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Transformer Design
4.3 Core Type
4.4 Core Characteristics
4.5 Selection of Wire
4.6 Testing of transformer
4.7 Advantages of High Frequency transformer
4.8 Design Conclusion

40
40
41
44
44
45
46
50
50

Chapter 5- Power Electronics Converters

5.1 IGBT Driver
5.2 MOSFET Driver
5.3 Voltage Sensor
5.4 Current Sensor
5.5PCB Designs for DC-DC Converter
5.6 Three phase inverter PCB

51
51
54
55
57
59
60

Chapter 6- Vector Control of three phase Induction Motor

6.1 Control methods for Induction motor
6.2 Induction motor used
6.3 Simulationmodel for vector control
6.4 Graphical Simulation Results
6.5 Testing of motor
6.6dspic for vector control
6.7 Program and timing

61
61
61
63
66
67
68
69

Chapter 7- Conclusion
7.1 Educational Goals
7.2 Scope of the project
7.3 Scope for further research

72
72
72
72

References

74

ABSTRACT

The concept for an induction motor drive system supplied by a single photovoltaic panel for a
water treatment is presented. The system does not use any other power source. We use vector
control scheme for induction motor and nano filtration scheme for filtration. The induction
motor drives a pump that provides the required pressure for the membrane. The vector
control of induction motor maintains a constant pressure across the membrane, by adjusting
its speed in proportion to the intensity of sunlight. The output desalinated water from the
reverse osmosis module is stored in a tank for use in case of absence of sunlight. The use of
vector control drive is aimed at improving the operating efficiency. The reverse osmosis
systems presently in the market are very expensive and rely on regular supply of power.
These systems are not potable and cannot function in remote areas where power supply is an
issue. We aim to develop the desalination system that is driven by renewable energy and
works at high efficiency.

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction
Use of high performance induction motor drives provides a great energy saving in all
applications when speed variation is involved. In spite of efforts from researches teams
around the world to improve such systems, there still room for improvements. Certainly, this
is the main reason for us to this subject.

Water treatment powered from photovoltaic panels is not a novelty. Nevertheless, these
systems are designed on a conventional basis. On another words, despite using photovoltaic
generators, motor control is still based on availability of a stiff dc voltage. This is possible
due to use of batteries that ensure energy even when sunlight is unavailable. Design of a
photovoltaic powered motor drive system that does not use batteries requires creative
solutions to face the challenge to operate under power restrictions. For this system it is worth
noting that water storage replaces energy storage.

Use of power electronics and control knowledge to develop the proposed system is very
creative way to call attention to problems like: 900 million of people without safe drinking
water; 2.5 billion of people lack adequate sanitation; diarrhea kills 1.8 million of people.

We have designed our drive system for efficiency greater than 90 %. Such efficient drives
can be used in other industrial applications.

1.2 System Overview

Fig 1.1 Overview of the system

This is the basic diagram of our and it shows various components of the designed hardware.
We have divided the complete design into several parts- High frequency transformer, MPPT,
power electronics and motor control, programming and filtration.
In our model we are using a 280 W solar panel with output voltage 26.6V. The output of solar
panel is sent in the full bridge inverter from which it is connected to a high frequency
transformer (HFTF). The output of the HFTF is sent to the rectifier and the dc side of the
converter is connected to the vector control drive unit of the motor. The motor drives the
pump. The pump creates the requisite pressure across the filter membrane. The filtered water
is stored in a tank for utilization in case of absence of sunlight.
We have concentrated on the drive portion of this project. We aim to have over 90 %
efficiency in this segment.
1.3 Organization of the report
Firstly, in chapter 2 we have presented the theoretical background of our project. It has brief
descriptions of solar cell, high frequency transformer, DC-DC converters, induction motor

and control strategies. It also includes formulation of problem and organization of our team
into different departments.
In the following chapters, we discuss the components we use for our project.
In chapter 3, the maximum point tracking algorithm for the solar panel is presented. We
discuss the algorithms available and the one we have used for our purpose. A simulation
model and its graphs have been presented. Testing results are also included.
Chapter 4 covers the designing and testing of high frequency transformer. The high frequency
transformer has been indigenously developed. The design parameters and characteristics of
core are included. It is shown how high efficiency by appropriately selecting the components
of the high frequency transformer.
Chapter 5 deals with the power electronics converters. We are using the full bridge topology
for dc-dc converter and an IGBT bridge for the three phase inverter. We have developed the
voltage and current sensor. We tested their circuits on bread board and then designed PCBs
using the software Protel. Those designs and test results are presented.
In chapter 6 the control strategy for the induction motor is discussed. It covers advantages of
opting for vector control and how it helps us achieve our objective. It shows the testing set up
we used for the motor. The simulation model and results have been presented.
In last chapter, we have presented the educational goals we have achieved, the scope of our
project and the conclusion.

CHAPTER 2
PART 1
SURVEY OF LITERATURE
2.1 General
The present chapter covers some literature relating to the project which includes solar panel,
dc-dc converters, high frequency transformer, vector control techniques for induction motor
and filtration system. It compares them with other techniques and discusses its potential
applications.
2.2 Solar cell
A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state device that
converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect . Materials
presently used for photovoltaic solar cells include monocrystallinesilicon, polycrystalline
silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide/sulphide.
2.2.1 Theory of solar cell:
A solar cell is a special p-n junction which absorbs sunlight and converts light energy into
electric energy. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of n-type silicon into
direct contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n junctions of silicon solar cells are
not made in this way, but rather by diffusing an n-type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer
(or vice versa). When a photon hits a solar cell, the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if
the photon energy is higher than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole
pair and sometimes heat, depending on the band structure. There are two main modes for
charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
1. drift of carriers, driven by an electric field established across the device
2. diffusion of carriers due to their random thermal motion, until they are captured by
the electrical fields existing at the edges of the active region.

2.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Solar Cell:

Fig 2.1 Equivalent circuit model of a solar cell

To understand the electronic behaviour of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is
electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behaviour is
well known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode;
in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are
added to the model.
2.2.3 Characteristic Equation:

The I-V characteristic of a PV panel is given by:

I PV I SC I S exp(

qVPV
)
AKT

Where,
VPV= voltage across the PV module
IPV= output current of the module
ISC = short-circuit current
IS= dark saturation current
K = constant dependent on temperature and cell arrangement.
A = diode ideality factor
T = absolute temperature

The short-circuit current ISC of the PV panel is approximately equal to the light
generated current and the effect of illumination on ISC is significant. The short-circuit

current ISC increases with irradiation. But temperature has no effect on the short
circuit current.

The open-circuit voltage, VOC of a PV panel increases linearly with a decrease in

temperature and vice versa. But irradiance has no effect on the open-circuit voltage.

2.2.4 PV Characteristics:

I-V characteristic:

Fig 2.2 I-V characteristic of a solar cell

This is a plot of I-V characteristics of a solar cell. It can be seen that the solar cell acts like
constant current source. However, there is a sharp drop in the current after a certain
magnitude of voltage and current sharply drops to zero at Voc.
P-V characteristic:

Fig 2.3 P-V characteristic of a solar cell

It can be seen that the power rises linearly with voltage. This happens until the power reaches
its optimum value and then there is a sharp drop in power which ultimately becomes zero at
Voc.

2.2.5 MPPT
In the use of solar panels, maximum power point tracking is the automatic adjustment of
electrical load to achieve the greatest possible power harvest, during moment to moment
variations of light level, shading, temperature, and photovoltaic module characteristics.PV
cells have a single operating point where the values of the current (I) and Voltage (V) of the
cell result in a maximum power output. These values correspond to a particular
load resistance, which is equal to V/I as specified by Ohm's Law. The power P is given
by P=V*I. A PV cell has an exponential relationship between current and voltage, and
the maximum power point (MPP) occurs at the knee of the curve where dP/dV=0. At this
point the characteristic resistance equals that of the load resistance.

Fig 2.4 I-V characteristic with load line

2.3 DC-DC Converters

Two of the most popular categories of voltage regulators are linear regulators and switchingmode power supplies. There are two basic linear regulator topologies: the series voltage
regulator and the shunt voltage regulator. The switching-mode voltage regulators are divided
into three categories: pulse-width modulated (PWM) dcdc converters, resonant dcdc
converters, and switched-capacitor (also called charge-pump) voltage regulators. [18]

10

In linear voltage regulators, transistors are operated in the active region as dependent current
sources with relatively high voltage drops at high currents, dissipating a large amount of
power and resulting in low efficiency. Linear regulators are heavy and large, but they exhibit
low noise level and are suitable for audio applications. In switching-mode converters,
transistors are operated as switches, which inherently dissipate much less power than
transistors operated as dependent current sources. The voltage drop across the transistors is
very low when they conduct high current and the transistors conduct a nearly zero current
when the voltage drop across them is high. Therefore, the conduction losses are low and the
efficiency of switching-mode converters is high, usually above 8090%. However, switching
losses reduce the efficiency at high frequencies.
Switching losses increase proportionally to switching frequency. Linear and switched
capacitor regulator circuits (except for large capacitors) can be fully integrated and are used
in low-power and low-voltage applications, usually below several watts and 50 V. PWM and
resonant regulators are used at high power and voltage levels. They are small in size, light in
weight, and have high conversion efficiency. Power converters are required to convert one
form of electric energy to another. A dcdc converter is a power supply that converts a dc
input voltage into a desired regulated dc output voltage. The dc input may be an unregulated
or regulated voltage. Often, the input of a dcdc converter is a battery or a rectified ac line
voltage. A voltage regulator should provide a constant voltage to the load, even if line
voltage, load current, and temperature vary. Unlike in linear voltage regulators, the output
voltage in PWM dcdc converters may be either lower or higher than the input voltage,

11

resulting in step-down or step-up converters. In a step-down converter, the output voltage is

lower than the input voltage. In a step-up converter, the output voltage is higher than the
input voltage. Some converters may act as both step-down and step-up converters. The output
voltage source may be of the same polarity (non inverting) or opposite polarity (inverting) to
that of the polarity of the input voltage. The dcdc converters may have common negative or
common positive input and output terminals. Converters may have a single output or multiple
outputs. In addition, there are fixed and adjustable output voltage power supplies. Fixed
output voltage supplies (e.g., 1.8 V) are used for power electronic circuits that require a
specific supply voltage. Power supplies with adjustable output voltage (e.g., from 0 to 30V)
are convenient for laboratory tests. In some applications, programmable power supplies with
digitally selected output voltages are required. Power supplies may be nonisolated or
isolated. Transformers can be used to obtain dc isolation between the input and output and
between the different outputs. Common requirements of most power supplies are: high
efficiency, high power density, high reliability, and low cost.

Switched-mode technology employs a wide variety of topologies. Fig shows a family of

single-ended PWM dcdc converters: the buck, boost, buck-boost, flyback, forward, Cuk
(boost-buck), SEPIC (single-ended primary input converter), and dual SEPIC [7] (also called
zeta or inverse SEPIC) converters.

12

Figure 2.5: Figure depicts the multiple-switch PWM dcdc converters: half-bridge, fullbridge, and push-pull converters.
Switched-mode converters use duty-cycle control of a switching element to block the flow of
energy from the input to the output and thus achieve voltage regulation. The advantages of
these converters include significant reduction of a transformer and energy storage
components. Since switched-mode converters can operate at high frequencies, a small
transformer with a ferrite core can be used. The reduced size is very important in many
applications, such as aerospace, computers, and wireless technologies. However, there is a
penalty paid due to the increased noise, which is present at both input and output of the
supply due to the switching action of semiconductor devices. In addition, the control circuit is
much more complicated than that used in linear regulators.

13

Figure 2.6: various topologies of dc-dc converters

2.4 High Frequency Transformer
Transformers are well known building blocks in electronics. The first transformer was
discovered in 1831 by Michael Faraday. Early minicomputers power supplies consisted of
50/60 Hz line frequency power transformer for high to low voltage transformation followed
by rectifiers and linear dissipative regulators. The line frequency power transformers were
always big and heavy. In addition, the inefficiency of the linear regulators required large heat
sinks for cooling, therefore adding more weight and size to the power supply.The dream of
High frequency switching mode power supplies became true in 1950s,when power
transistors and silicon controlled rectifiers were available [ref 32].These new semiconductor

14

switches enabled the development of multi KHz switching power converters which use
small power transformers(HFTF) compared with their50/60 Hz counter part. The operating
frequency of power transformers suddenly jumped from line frequency of 50/60 to few 100
KHz in a decade. In the last decade of 20th century, the term of the decade of power
electronics was introduced by famous researcher, BK Bose. He pointed out that the device
evolution has been so spectacular in the decade and the operating frequency of high
frequency power transformers has been driven to MHz level.
2.5 Induction Motors

More than half of the total electrical energy produced in developed countries is converted
into mechanical energy in electric motors, freeing the society from the tedious burden of
physical labour. Among many types of the motors, three-phase induction machines still enjoy
the same unparalleled popularity as they did a century ago. At least 90% of industrial drive
systems employ induction motors. Most of the motors are uncontrolled, but the share of
adjustable speed induction motor drives fed from power electronic converters is steadily
increasing, phasing out dc drives. It is estimated that more than 50 billion dollars could be
saved annually by replacing all "dumb" motors with controlled ones. However, control of
induction machines is a much more challenging task than control of dc motors. Two major
difficulties are the necessity of providing adjustable-frequency voltage (dc motors are
controlled by adjusting the magnitude of supply voltage) and the nonlinearity and complexity
of analytical model of the motor, aggrandized by parameter uncertainty.

Induction motors employ a simple but clever scheme of electromechanical energy

conversion. In the squirrel-cage motors, which constitute a vast majority of induction
machines, the rotor is inaccessible. No moving contacts, such as the commutator and brushes
in dc machines or slip rings and brushes in ac synchronous motors and generators, are
needed. This arrangement greatly increases reliability of induction motors and eliminates the
danger of sparking, permitting squirrel-cage machines to be safely used in harsh
environments, even in an explosive atmosphere. An additional degree of ruggedness is
provided by the lack of wiring in the rotor, whose winding consists of uninsulated metal bars
forming the "squirrel cage" that gives the name to the motor. Such a robust rotor can run at
high speeds and withstand heavy mechanical and electrical overloads. In adjustable-speed
drives (ASDs), the low electric time constant speeds up the dynamic response to control

15

commands. Typically, induction motors have a significant torque reserve and a low
dependence of speed on the load torque.

2.6 Control Methods

Induction motors can be controlled in many ways. The simplest methods are based on
changing the structure of stator winding. Using the so-called wye-delta switch, the starting
current can easily be reduced. Another type of switch allows emulation of a gear change by
the already-mentioned pole changing, that is, changing the number of magnetic poles of the
stator. However, in modem ASDs, it is the stator voltage and currents that are subject to
control. These, in the steady state, are defined by their magnitude and frequency; and if these
are the parameters that are adjusted, the control technique belongs in the class of scalar
control methods. A rapid change in the magnitude or frequency may produce undesirable
transient effects, for example a disturbance of the normally constant motor torque. This,
fortunately, is not important in low-performance ASDs, such as those of pumps, fans, or
blowers. There, typically, the motor speed is open-loop controlled, with no speed sensor
required (although current sensors are usually employed in overcurrent protection circuits). In
high-performance drive systems, in which control variables include the torque developed in
the motor, vector control methods are necessary [1]. The concept of space vectors of motor
quantities will be explained later. Here, it is enough to say that a vector represents
instantaneous values of the corresponding three-phase variables. For instance, the vector of
stator current is obtained from the currents in all three phases of the stator and, conversely, all
three phase currents can be determined from the current vector. In vector control schemes,
space vectors of three-phase motor variables are manipulated according to the control
algorithm. Such an approach is primarily designed for maintaining continuity of the torque
control during transient states of the drive system. Needless to say, vector control systems are
more complex than those realizing the scalar control. Voltage and current sensors are always
used; and, for the highest level of performance of the ASD, speed and position sensors may
be necessary as well [2]. Today, practically all control systems for electric motors are based
on digital integrated circuits of some kind, such as microcomputers, microcontrollers, or
digital signal processors (DSPs).

16

2.7 Modes of operation

Fig 2.7 various modes of operation of Induction Motor

2.8 Key Components of a drive system

Fig 2.8 Components of a drive system

17

2.9 Classical AC Drives

AC motor control structures generally apply three 120 spatially displaced sinusoidal voltages
to the three stator phases. In most of the classic AC drives the generation of the three sine
waves is based on motor electromechanical characteristics and on an equivalent model for the
motor in its steady state. Furthermore, the control looks like three separate single phase
system controls rather than one control of a three phase system. Some major common
drawbacks are presented in this document.

The machine models and characteristics used are valid only in steady state. This
causes the control to allow high peak voltage and current transients. These damage
not only the drive dynamic performance but also the power conversion efficiency.
Additionally, the power components must be oversized to withstand the transient
electrical spikes.

Great difficulty in controlling the variables with sinusoidal references: PI regulators

can not perform a sinusoidal regulation without damaging the sinusoidal rfrence,
and hysteresis controllers introduce high bandwidth noise into the system that is hard
to filter out.

No three phase system imbalance management. No consideration of the phase

interactions.

Field Orientated control or vector control overcomes each of these drawbacks and thus
improves the overall effectiveness of the AC drive.

The induction motor, which is the most widely used motor type in the industry, has been
favored because of its good self-starting capability, simple and rugged structure, low cost
and reliablilty, etc. Along with variable frequency AC inverters, induction motors are used in
many adjustable speed applications.

18

Squirrel-cage AC induction motors are popular for their simple construction, low cost per
horsepower, low maintainence and are available in a wide range of power ratings. With
field-oriented vector control methods, AC induction motors can fully replace standard DC
motors, even in high-performance applications

2.10 Scalar Control

Scalar as the name suggests is due to, magnitude variation of control variables only, and
disregards coupling effect in the induction machine. For example, the voltage of machine can
be used to control the flux, and frequency or slip can be used to control the torque. However
in a induction machine flux and torque are also functions of frequency and voltage
respectively. Scalar controlled drives give somewhat inferior performance compared to
vector control but they are easy to implement. However their demand has diminished recently
because of superior performance by vector control drives, which is demanded in many
applications.[3]
The open loop Volts/Hz is by far the most popular method of speed control because of its
simplicity. For adjustable speed applications frequency control is natural. However, voltage is
required to be proportional to frequency so that flux remains constant. Thus, to maintain the
flux at a constant, typically rated level, the stator Thus, to maintain the flux at a constant,
typically rated level, the stator voltage should be adjusted in proportion to the supply
frequency. This is the simplest approach to the speed control of induction motors, referred to
as Constant Volts/Hertz(CVH) method. It can be seen that no feedback is inherently required,
although in most practical systems the stator current is measured, and provisions are made to
avoid overloads. For the low-speed operation, the voltage drop across the stator resistance
must be taken into account in maintaining constant flux, and the stator voltage must be
appropriately boosted. Conversely, at speeds exceeding that corresponding to the rated
frequency, the CVH condition cannot be satisfied because it would mean an overvoltage.
Therefore, the stator voltage is adjusted in accordance to the following rule:

19

Fig 2.9 Voltage versus frequency relation in CVH drives

whereVs,odenotes the rms value of the stator

voltage at zero frequency. Frequencies higher than the rated (base) frequency result in
reduction of the developed torque. This is caused by the reduced magnetizing current, that is,
a weakened magnetic field in the motor. Accordingly, the motor is said to operate in the field
weakeningmode. The region to the right from the rated frequency is often called the constant
powerarea, as distinguished from the constant torqueareato the left from the said frequency.
Indeed, with the torque decreasing when the motor speed increases the product of these two
variables remains constant. [4]

Fig 2.10
Highly accurate speed control is not possible, because the actual slip varies with the load of
the motor. The inherent machine coupling effect slows down the torque response.

20

2.11 Vector Control or Field Oriented Control

The Field Orientated Control (FOC) consists of controlling the stator currents represented by
a vector. This control is based on projections which transform a three phase time and speed
dependent system into a two co-ordinate (d and q co-ordinates) time invariant system. These
projections lead to a structure similar to that of a DC machine control. [5] Field orientated
controlled machines need two constants as input references: the torque component (aligned
with the q co-ordinate) and the flux component (aligned with d co-ordinate). As Field
Orientated Control is simply based on projections the control structure handles instantaneous
electrical quantities. This makes the control accurate in every working operation (steady state
and transient) and independent of the limited bandwidth mathematical model. The FOC thus
solves the classic scheme problems, in the following ways:

the ease of reaching constant reference (torque component and flux component of the
stator current)

the ease of applying direct torque control because in the (d,q) reference frame

Expression of the torque is:

Te = K *rd*Isq

(K = proportionality constant)

By maintaining the amplitude of the rotor flux (rd) at a fixed value we have a linear
relationship between torque and torque component (Isq). We can then control the torque by
controlling the torque component of stator current vector.

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TRANSFORMATION OF ABC TO AXIS

CLARKE TRANSFORATION:

Fig 2.11 Clarke Transformation

Assuming that the aaxis and the axis are in the same direction, the quadrature-phase stator
currents Is and Is are related to the actual 3-phase stator currents as follows:
Is = k* [Isa (1/2)*Isb (1/2)*Isc]
Is = k*0.866(IsbIsc)

Isa = Actual current of the motor Phase A [A]

isb= Actual current of the motor Phase B [A]
Isc = Actual current of the motor Phase C [A]
The constant k equals k = 2/3 for the non-power-invariant transformation. In this case, the
quantities isaand is are equal.
If its assumed that Isa+Isb+Isc = 0 the quadrature-phase components can be expressed
utilizing only two phases of the 3-phase system:
Is = Isa

22

Is = (1/3)*Isa + (2/3)*Isb
The inverse Clarke transformation goes from a 2-phase (, ) to a 3-phase Isa, Isb, Iscsystem.
For constant k = 2/3, it is calculated by the following equations:
Isa = Is
Isb = -(1/2)*Is + (2/3)*Is
Isc = -(1/2)*Is (3/2)*Is

PARK TRANSFORMATION ( TO dq AXIS)

The components Is and Is, calculated with a Clarke transformation, are attached to the
stator reference frame , . In vector control, all quantities must be expressed in the same
reference frame. The stator reference frame is not suitable for the control process. The space
vector Isis rotating at a rate equal to the angular frequency of the phase currents. The
components Is and Is depend on time and speed. These components can be transformed
from the stator reference frame to the d-q reference frame rotating at the same speed as the
angular frequency of the phase currents. The Isd and Isq components do not then depend on
time and speed. If the d-axis is aligned with the rotor flux, where (field) is the rotor flux
position. [6]

The components Isd and Isq of the current space vector in the d-q reference frame are
determined by the following equations:
Isd = Is*Cos f + Is*sin f
Isq = -Is*sin f + Is*cosf

Isd = flux producing component

Isq = torque producing component

23

Fig 2.12 Parke Transformation

rd = ( 2r + 2r)
Sin f = r/ rd
Cos f = r/ rd

Where,
f =rotor flux position
The inverse Park transformation from the d-q to the , coordinate system is found by the
following equations:
Is = Isd*Cos f - Isq*sin f
Is = Isd*sin f + Isq*cosf

1).Stator differential equation in d-q frame

Vsd =Rs*Isd + d/dt(sd) -Ws* sq

(1)

Vsq =Rs*Isq + + d/dt(sq) -Ws* sd

(2)

2).Rotor differntial equation in d-q frame

24

Vrd = 0 = Rr*Ird + d/dt(rd) -(Ws-W)* rq

(3)

Vrq= 0= Rr*Irq + d/dt(rq) +(Ws-W)* rd

(4)

Where,
sd = Ls*Isd + Lm*Ird

(5)

sq = Ls*Isq + Lm*Irq

(6)

rd = Lr*Ird + Lm*Isd

(7)

rq = Lr*Irq + Lm*Irq

(8)

Te = (3/2)*Pp(rd*isq- rq*isd)

(9)

For achieving independent torque control rotor flux in q direction should be zero.
rq = 0 , d/dt(rq) = 0
Hence, Te= (3/2)*Pp(rd*isq)

Ls = stator inductance
Lr= rotor inductance
Rs =stator resistance

2.12 Water Filtration System

We plan to use the reverse osmosis (RO) process for water purification. A constant pressure
is maintained across the RO membranes, using a pump which in turn is driven by the
induction motor. The Reverse Osmosis is a filtration process by which large molecules and
ions can be removed from water by applying pressure on water on one side of a selective
membrane. As a result, the impurities remain on the side of high pressure side of membrane
and water flows to the other side. In this process 70% of the water is removed as waste water
or reject water with their pressure heads being unutilized. But this unutilized head could be
harnessed using a simple technique. The RO system consists of two-stage pumping and
pressurizing system. The first stage is a simple feed pump which supplies raw water flow and
pressure for circulation and second stage, the Clark Pump. [7]
The Clark Pump is a unique pressure intensifier that uses two opposing cylinders and pistons
that share a single rod. Water pressure from the small feed pump is used by one of the
cylinders to make the other pressurize and circulate the saltwater through the reverse osmosis

25

membrane. Pressurization is achieved when the rod, as it is forced into a cylinder, displaces
water in the closed loop circuit. The pressure instantly builds to the point where the displaced
volume of water is forced out of the membrane as the fresh product. When a driving
cylinder's piston touches the base, the process is instantly reversed. Pressurization is almost
continuous.
The following figure shows the working of a clark pump

Fig 2.13 Working of a Clark Pump

The energy recovery system takes advantage of stored energy in the high pressure reject
water that is typically wasted. The pressurized reject water is re-circulated to the back side of
the piston to aid the next stroke. A double acting energy recovery system recovers energy
entrained in the brine stream to help or boost the high pressure pump in conjunction with the
feed water pressure pump in both cycles .

Fig 2.14 Filtration Process

26

2.13 Formulation of Problem

Our design is based on high efficiency for our drive. The following chart shows the features
we have incorporated to achieve high efficiency:

MPPT

Best utilization
of solar panel

High
Frequency
Transformer

High
Efficiency
IGBTs for
three ph.
inverter

Vector
Control of the
induction
motor

Amorphous
Core
Litz Wire

Low
conduction
losses

High dynamic
performance
Decoupled
control

Fig 2.15 Measures to achieve high efficiency

2.14 Team Organization

We have divided the project into the following sections
1. Photovoltaics- Maximum power point tracking
2. High Frequency Transformer
3. Power Electronics Converters
4. Vector Control
5. Control Programming

27

CHAPTER 3
MPPT
3.1 Introduction-Maximum Power Point Tracker:
MPPT is a power electronic device interconnecting a PV power source and a load. It presents
an optimal electrical load to the PV and produces a voltage suitable for the load.

3.2 Theory behind A Few Algorithms for MPPT

We can use many algorithms to perform MPPT. Some of the important factors to consider
when choosing a technique to perform MPPT are sensors used, ability of an algorithm to
detect multiple maxima, costs, and convergence speed. [8]
1) Sensors used:
For a large-scale application, the number of sensors we use can affect its complexity
and accuracy. Often, for more precise MPPT, you may need to use more sensors. The
number and type of sensors required depend largely on our MPPT technique.
2) Ability of an algorithm to detect multiple local maxima:
It is common for the irradiance levels at different points on a solar panels surface to
vary. This leads to multiple local maxima in one system. The efficiency and
complexity of an algorithm determine if the true maximum power point or a local
maximum power point is calculated. In the latter case, the maximum electrical power
is not extracted from the solar panel.
3) Cost:
The number of sensors as well as the type of hardware you use to monitor and control
the electrical tracking system affects the cost of implementing it. The type of
algorithm you use largely determines the resources required to set up this application.
4) Convergence speed:
For a high-performance MPPT system, the time taken to converge to the required
operating voltage or current should be low. Depending on how fast you need to do
this and your tracking system requirements, the system has to accordingly maintain
the load at the maximum power point.

28

3.3 MPPT Algorithms

Following are the popular algorithms used for MPPT:
1) Perturb and Observe.
2) Incremental Conductance.
3) Load I or V Maximization

Perturb and Observe

The perturb and observe (P&O) algorithm is the most commonly used in practice because of
its ease of implementation.The concept behind the perturb and observe method is to modify
the operating voltage or current of the photovoltaic panel until you obtain maximum power
from it. For example, if increasing the voltage to a cell increases the power output of a cell,
the system increases the operating voltage until the power output begins to decrease. Once
this happens, the voltage is decreased to get back to the maximum power output value. This
process continues until the maximum power point is reached. Thus, the power output value
oscillates around a maximum power value until it stabilizes. Perturb and observe is the most
commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation. [9]

29

Fig 3.1 Flowchart of Perturb and Observe

Fig 3.2 Operation of perturb and observe

30

The advantages of this algorithm, as stated before, are simplicity and ease of implementation.
One of the major drawbacks of the perturb and observe method is that the power obtained
does not reach the maximum value. Instead, it oscillates around the maximum power point

Fig 3.3 Erratic behaviour of P&O during rapidly changing irradiance

in steady state operation. Another limitation is that as the amount of sunlight decreases, the
PV curve flattens out. This makes it difficult for the MPPT to discern the location of the
MPP, owing to the small change in power with respect to the perturbation of the voltage.
Also, this algorithm can track in the wrong direction under rapidly varying irradiance levels.
[10]

Incremental Conductance
Incremental conductance is a technique that takes advantage of the fact that the slope of the
power-voltage curve is zero at the maximum power point. The slope of the power-voltage
curve is positive at the left of the MPP and negative at the right of the MPP.
dP/dV=0 at MPP
dP/dV>0 left of MPP
dP/dV<0 right of MPP
As Power (P) = IV,
dP/dV = d(IV)/dV = I + VdI/dV
Thus,

31

You can find the MPP by comparing the instantaneous conductance (I/V) to the incremental
conductance (

I/

V). Once you have the MPP, the solar module maintains this power

point unless a change in

I occurs. This usually happens when there is a change in the MPP

and in the ambient conditions. If this happens, the algorithm modifies the operating voltage
until you reach the new MPP.

Fig 3.4 Flowchart of incremental conductance

32

Fig 3.5 Operation of incremental conductance

This technique has an advantage over the perturb and observe method because it can
determine when you reach the MPP without having to oscillate around this value. It can also
perform MPPT under rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance conditions with higher
accuracy than the perturb and observe method. The disadvantage of this method is that it
takes longer to compute the MPP and it slows down the sampling frequency of the operating
voltage and current.

LOAD I OR V MAXIMISATION
When a photovoltaic module is connected to a power converter, maximizing the power of the
solar module maximizes the output power at the load of the converter. This also implies that
increasing the output power of the DC-to-DC converter or load should increase the power
generated by the solar module.
Most loads are similar to a voltage source, a current source, a resistor, or a combination of
these. For a voltage source load, you should maximize the load current to generate the
maximum output power. Similarly, for a current source load, you can increase the load
voltage to generate more power. The operating point of the system occurs at the intersection
of the electrical characteristics of the solar panel and that of the load. Following figure shows
the maximum power point for a resistive load.[11]

33

Fig 3.6 I-V Curve Showing Maximum Power Point at Specific Resistive Load

PARASTIC CAPACITANCE
The parasitic capacitance method is a refinement of the incremental conductance method that
takes into account the parasitic capacitances of the solar cells in the PV array. Parasitic
capacitance uses the switching ripple of the MPPT to perturb the array. To account for the
parasitic capacitance, the average ripple in the array power and voltage, generated by the
switching frequency, are measured using a series of filters and multipliers and then used to
calculate the array conductance. The incremental conductance algorithm is then used to
determine the direction to move the operating point of the MPPT. One disadvantage of this
algorithm is that the parasitic capacitance in each module is very small, and will only come
into play in large PV arrays where several module strings are connected in parallel. Also, the
DC-DC converter has a sizable input capacitor used filter out small ripple in the array power.
This capacitor may mask the overall effects of the parasitic capacitance of the PV array. [12]

34

3.4 Simulation model in MATLAB

Fig 3.7 Solar Panel model

Fig 3.8 Boost Converter Model

35

The power is controlled by controlling the output voltage of the converter which is controlled
by controlling the duty cycle of the incoming gate pulse. The power initially rises until
reaches a maximum power point and then oscillates about it. As seen from the graph above,
any change in irradiance, changes the maximum power point, hence, the duty cycle changes
accordingly. Following is the simulation model:

Fig 3.9 Maximum Power Point Tracking System

36

3.5 Performance Evaluation

Fig 3.10 Input: Irradiance in W/m2

Fig 3.11 Output: Power in Watts

37

3.6 Microcontroller used for MPPT:

DSPIC 33F is the microcontroller used, it is a Digital Signal Processor an MCU.
3.6.1Process of Programming
1. First of all a Matlab control system is designed for the task to be done.
2. After running the model the state variables of the model are decided and the coefficients
for each are found out.
3. Then this matlab simulation is made compatible for DSPIC by using Sim2lab.
4. Finally this program using MPLAB is burned into the DSPIC using ICD 3.
3.6.2 Application in project:1) Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
DSPIC used is programmed with the MPPT model shown before and thus does the
calculation for the gating of the MOSFET half bridge for the tracking of maximum power
point.
Input the analog signal from current and voltage sensor is taken. This is then processed by
its A/D converter which in turn is converter into power.
Processing- this power calculated is then compared with the reference power.
Output gating pulses for half bridge inverter

38

3.6 MPPT TEST RESULTS

Hardware model of Boost converter tested with MPPT was tested. The algorithm followed
was a simple Perturb and Observe Method. The recorded values are listed below:
Sno.
TIME
Vpv(V)
Vout(V)
IL(A)
Pout(W)
Efficiency
1
11:00
15
25
0.6712
16.78
83.33
2
11:10
15
26
0.6832
17.763
86.67
3
11:20
15.2
26
0.6788
17.649
85.53
4
11:30
15.6
26.7
0.6889
18.394
85.58
5
11:40
16
27
0.7231
19.524
84.38
6
11:50
16.8
27.1
0.7343
19.9
80.65
7
12:00
17
27.8
0.8912
24.775
81.76
8
12:10
17.3
27.9
0.8923
24.895
80.64
9
12:20
17.3
28
0.8965
25.102
80.92
10
12:30
18
29
0.9001
26.103
80.56
11
12:40
18.1
29
0.9034
26.199
80.11
12
12:50
18
29.1
0.9102
26.487
80.83
13
01:00
18.5
31
0.9532
29.549
83.78
14
01:10
18.6
31.2
0.9634
30.058
83.87
15
01:20
18.5
31.4
0.9705
30.474
84.86
16
01:30
18.6
31.2
0.9423
29.4
83.87
17
01:40
18.5
31.1
0.9305
28.939
84.05
18
01:50
18
31
0.9252
28.681
86.11
19
02:00
18
30.8
0.9144
28.164
85.56
20
02:10
17.9
30.5
0.9004
27.462
85.2
21
02:20
17.6
30
0.8987
26.961
85.23
22
02:30
17.6
29.8
0.8744
26.057
84.66
23
02:40
17.5
29
0.8643
25.065
82.86
24
02:50
16.8
28.7
0.8543
24.518
85.42
25
03:10
16.8
28
0.7734
21.655
83.33
26
03:20
16
27
0.7586
20.482
84.38
27
03:30
16
27.2
0.7542
20.514
85
28
03:40
14.9
26
0.6213
16.514
87.25
29
03:50
15
26
0.6165
16.029
86.67
30
03:00
15.1
25.3
0.6054
15.317
83.77
31
04:10
14.8
25.1
0.5812
14.588
84.8
32
04:20
14
24
0.5787
13.889
85.71
33
04:30
14
23
0.5213
11.99
82.14
34
04:40
13
22
0.5008
11.018
84.62
35
04:50
13
22
0.4261
9.374
84.62
36
05:00
13
21.8
0.4237
9.237
83.85
Values of PV voltage, Output voltage, Output current and Efficiency recorded from
11:00 AM and 5:00 PM

39

CHAPTER 4
HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER
4.1 Introduction
We are using a single phase high frequency transformer in our design. It is called as high
frequency transformer because it does not work at usual 50 Hz frequency but on higher
frequencies in the range of KHz.
We are using a full bridge inverter after the solar panel whose output goes into a high
frequency transformer .The Transformer step up the voltage level from a primary voltage V p =
13.3V to a voltage level required at the secondary side V s= 650 V at a frequency of 67
KHz.[13]

Fig 4.1 High frequency transformer

Transformer made by us showing primary side with thick and secondary with thin
wire. Single phase high frequency transformer rating: 123.5 W

40

4.2 Transformer design:

Power rating =123.05 W
Voltage at input side 13.3 V
Current at input side=12 A
Frequency =67 kHz
Duty cycle=0.46
Efficiency=96.1%
Primary voltage=13.3 V
Secondary or output ( step up) voltage =650 V
Primary current of transformer (rms) =7.05 A
Secondary current of transformer(rms) =0.245A
No of turns in primary =11
No of turns in secondary=636
Flux density=0.0461 Tesla
Current density used =660 A/cm2
area of primary conductor(1 conductor)=0.0106 cm2
area of secondary conductor(1 conductor)= 1.939 x 10 -4 cm2

41

Core Dimensions:

Fig 4.2 Layout of High frequency transformer

Dimensions in cm : a= 1.1+0.08 , b = 1.3, c =3.0 ,

d = 2.0+0.05 ,e =3.5+0.1,

f= 3.5

+0.1
Surface area of core=115.9 cm 2
Litz Wire Specification:
We are using litz wire to reduce our losses as it is a high frequency transformer
Required size of litz wire 36 AWG
36 AWG=area of single conductor 0.01266 mm2
No of strands in 1primary conductor ( litz wire)= 340(42 AWG)
No of strands in 1 secondary conductor ( litz wire) =2(36AWG)

42

Litz Wire Calculations:

Pcore loss=2.9 W
Pcopper loss=2.0 W
Now taking a factor of 0.3 for taking into account the insulation covering over litz wire
Hence
Effective area of primary conductor(1 conductor)=

0.0106
0.3

=0.035 cm2

Effective dia(primary conductor)=0.212 cm

Effective area of secondary conductor(1 conductor) =

1.939 x 10 4
0.3

= 6.46 x 10-4
Effective dia(secondary conductor)=0.0289 cm
Primary side has 1 layer having total 11 turns
secondary side has 8 layers:
1st layer to 7th layer=90 turns
8th layer=6 turns
Total turns on secondary side=636 turns

3 cm

43

Window length is shown in the above figure and it is 3cm. Hence we have shown that our
windings are able to fit inside the core very easily

4.3 Core Type

Core Make: Hitachi metglas core, AMCC 8

These cores are manufactured with iron based amorphous alloy 2605SA1.
We are using amorphous cores that have benefits over ordinary Si Fe, MPP and Ferrite
cores. It has High permeability, low coercivity, component efficiency is increased and size is
reduced. It has Lower losses, lowering temperature rise, good temperature stability, long time
work under -50-130 .
Dimensions: Surface area of core=115.9 cm 2 .

4.4 Core Characteristics:

DC hysteresis loop of alloy 2605SA1

44

Fig 4.3 Core loss VS flux density curve at 25

Fig 4.4

Temperature Rise Limit: In consumer or industrial applications, a transformer temperature

rise of 40-50C may be acceptable, resulting in a maximum internal temperature of100C.
However, in our transformer the temperature rise is much lesser, it is about 20C and this
reduce losses for better power supply efficiency.

4.5 Selection of Wire:

We are using litz wire for primary and secondary windings so that skin effect and
proximity losses are reduced to greater extents to get higher efficiency.

45

Winding losses also rise with frequency, especially at low input voltage. To maintain
a reasonable Rac/Rdc, we are using litz wire with more strands of finer wire, thus
raising Rdc because increased insulation and voids reduce the copper area.

Size used: 36 AWG for secondary & 42AWG for primary winding.
36AWZ nominal cross section used =0.01266 mm2
42 AWG nominal cross section used =0.003166 mm2
4.6 Testing of transformer
Testing of high frequency transformer is done by generating a high frequency sinusoidal
signal through an analog function generator which is connected to the primary side of the
transformer and the secondary of the transformer is connected to CRO through a connecter,
for observation of the output waveform with varying magnitude and frequency of the input
signal voltage.
Input sinusoidal signal generated through function generator

Fig 4.5 Function generator displaying a voltage of 10.9 V

46

Output waveform in CRO

Fig 4.6 CRO for the output waveform observation.

Fig 4.7Showing the transformer connections at Primary and secondary terminals.

47

Fig 4.8 Complete setup of the testing equipments, showing function generator & CRO
connected to the transformer .
Test Results:
1. Sine wave input
Input is a sine wave of frequency of 67 KHz and different magnitudes of voltage signals
which are generated from a function generator and then the output side or the secondary side
of the transformer is connected to Cathode ray Oscilloscope( CRO) through which the output
waveform is observed.
Input voltage(mV)

Output voltage(V)

Frequency

127

6.2

67.1KHz

165

7.8

67.6 KHz

191

9.4

67 KHz

206

10.1

67.4 KHz

222

10.9

67.8 KHz

226

11.2

67.3 KHz

270

13

67 KHz

The above table shows the testing results of the transformer at a frequency of 67 KHz .

Output waveform:

48

Fig4.9 Output waveform for a sinusoidal input in a CRO

2. Square wave input:
The output of a square wave input is a triangular waveform.

Fig 4.10 A triangular waveform as output corresponding to the square wave input.
The results obtained are linear and scaled to a required factor. Hence the high frequency
transformer designed is tested successful

49

4.7 Advantages of High Frequency Transformer:

1. Less Hysteresis Loss

2. Less Eddy Current Loss because of small thickness

4.8 Design Conclusion:

The high frequency transformer has been made using amorphous core which is different from
normal ferrite cores as it has high permeability, low coercivity and reduced eddy current and
hysteresis loss, thus our transformer design offers a very high efficiency to the system. The
HFTF has a very small temperature rise of about 20C and this ensures further loss reduction
and increased efficiency. The HFTF has been made and tested successfully and the test
results obtained were linear and scaled to required ratio. Thus it is going to integrate with the
complete system by providing appropriate characteristics.

50

CHAPTER 5
POWER ELECTRONICS CONVERTERS

We are using the most modern drivers for our full bridge inverter and also for the three phase
inverters. These are very new to the market. We studied them and designed circuits for them.
After testing them successfully on bread board we are now finally packing the whole circuit
in a box after placing them on a printed circuit board.

5.1 IGBT driver- HPCL316J

Fig 5.1 HPCL316J IGBT driver

We have chosen HPCL 316 J for driving the IGBTs. The HCPL-316J (Avago Technologies)
is a highly integrated power control device that incorporates all the necessary components for
a complete, isolated IGBT gate drive circuit with fault protection and feedback into one SO16 package. TTL input logic levels allow direct interface with a microcontroller, and an
optically isolated power output stage drives IGBTs with power ratings of up to 150 A and
1200 V. A high speed internal optical link minimizes the propagation delays between the
microcontroller and the IGBT while allowing the two systems to operate at very large
common mode voltage differences that are common in industrial motor drives and other
power switching applications. An output IC provides local protection for the IGBT to prevent
damage during overcurrents, and a second optical link provides a fully isolated fault status
feedback signal for the microcontroller. A built in watchdog circuit monitors the power
stage supply voltage to prevent IGBT caused by insufficient gate drive voltages.

51

This integrated IGBT gate driver is designed to increase the performance and reliability of a
motor drive without the cost, size, and complexity of a discrete design. Two light emitting
diodes and two integrated circuits housed in the same SO-16 package provide the input
control circuitry, the output power stage, and two optical channels. The input Buffer IC is
designed on a bipolar process, while the output Detector IC is designed manufactured on a
high voltage BiCMOS/Power DMOS process. [14]
The forward optical signal path, as indicated by LED1, transmits the gate control signal. The
return optical signal path, as indicated by LED2, transmits the fault status feedback signal.
Both optical channels are completely controlled by the input and output ICs respectively,
making the internal isolation boundary transparent to the microcontroller. Under normal
operation, the input gate control signal directly controls the IGBT gate through the isolated
output detector IC. LED2 remains off and a fault latch in the input buffer IC is disabled.
When an IGBT fault is detected, the output detector IC immediately begins a soft shutdown
sequence, reducing the IGBT current to zero in a controlled manner to avoid potential IGBT
damage from inductive overvoltages. Simultaneously, this fault status is transmitted back to
the input buffer IC via LED2, where the fault latch disables the gate control input and the
active low fault output alerts the microcontroller. During power-up, the Under Voltage
Lockout (UVLO) feature prevents the application of insufficient gate voltage to the IGBT, by
forcing the HCPL-316Js output low. Once the output is in the high state, the DESAT (VCE)
detection feature of the HCPL-316J provides IGBT protection. Thus, UVLO and DESAT
work in conjunction to provide constant IGBT protection.

Fig 5.2

52

Following is the application circuit of HPCL 316J.

Fig 5.3

PCB design of IGBT driver

Fig 5.4
The design is made using the software- PROTEL. The PCB is designed in two layers. The red
track is on top layer and the blue one is on bottom. The yellow lines demarcate the
components and also the boundary of the PCB layer.

53

Auxiliary supply from solar panel

We are drawing all auxiliary power from solar panel. Therefore we have taken tapping on the
secondary side of the high frequency transformer to supply all the drivers, microcontrollers,
etc. Rectifiers for auxiliary supply are made on a separate pcb, which is designed as shown:

Fig 5.5 PCB design of rectifiers for auxiliary supply

5.2 MOSFET DRIVER LM5045
For driving MOSFETs we are using the LM5045- full bridge MOSFET driver (PWM
Controller)
The LM5045 PWM controller contains all of the features necessary to implement Full-Bridge
topology power converters using either current mode or voltage mode control. This device is
intended to operate on the primary side of an isolated dc-dc converter with input voltage up to
100V. This highly integrated controller-driver provides dual 2A high and low side gate
drivers for the four external bridge MOSFETs plus control signals for the secondary side
synchronous rectifier MOSFETs. External resistors program the leading and trailing edge
dead-time between the main and synchronous rectifier control signals. Intelligent start-up of
the synchronous rectifiers allows monotonic turn-on of the power converter even with prebias load conditions. Additional features include cycle-by-cycle current limiting, hiccup
mode restart, programmable soft-start, synchronous rectifier soft-start and a 2 MHz capable
oscillator with synchronization capability and thermal shutdown. [15]

54

Fig 5.6
5.3 Voltage Sensor using AD 204
We need voltage sensors for the maximum power point tracking and vector control
algorithms. We have developed voltage sensor using analog devices AD 204-general purpose
isolation amplifier. [16]

Fig 5.7 Voltage Sensor circuit using AD204

55

Test for linearity

Input (V)

Output (V)

0.65

10

1.28

15

1.92

20

2.55

2.5

3.19

(Using R1=6.7 k, R2=1k)

Fig 5.8 The AD204 needs a clock driver, which we have made by using SG3525 PWM IC.

56

Fig 5.9 15 V 25 kHz clock signal synthesised for voltage sensor using PWM IC SG 3525

Fig 5.10 Test circuit for voltage measurement using AD204

5.4 Current Sensor
Current sensors have been developed using AD8219 IC- zero drift unidirectional current
shunt monitor. We require one current sensor for maximum power point tracking algorithm
and two for the vector control algorithm. AD8219 is a high voltage, high resolution current
shunt amplifier. It performs unidirectional current across a shunt resistor. It provides
excellent common mode rejection from 4 V to 80 V.
It senses the current across a precision resistance.

57

Fig 5.11 The AD8219 is configured as a difference amplifier

The AD8219 is configured as a difference amplifier. The transfer function is
OUT = (R4/R1) (V1 V2)
Resistors R4 and R1 are matched to within 0.01% and have values of 1.5 M and 25 k,
respectively, meaning an input to output total gain of 60 V/V for the AD8219, while the
difference at V1 and V2 is the voltage across the shunt resistor or VIN. Therefore, the inputto-output transfer function for the AD8219 is: OUT = (60) (VIN)
Test results of AD8219
S.No.

Voltage

Load

Precision

Current (mA)

Output (V)

0.057

0.39

Resistance
1

10

20

0.115

0.79

30

0.172

1.19

25 k

2.4

58

Fig 5.12 PCB for current sensor using AD8219

5.5

DC-DC Converter PCB

This PCB is designed for DC-DC converter; with primary side MOSFETS, high frequency
transformer and diode rectifier. The output is given to the three phase inverter bridge. We are
using 2 MOSFETs in each arm, in parallel to lower the on state resistance. These MOSFETs
get their gate signals form LM5045.

5.6 Three Phase Inverter PCB

This is the PCB we designed for three phase inverter using IGBTs mounted on a heat sink.
We are using Fairchild IGBTs. These IGBTs are gated by HCPL 316J.

Fig 5.13 Three Phase Inverter PCB

59

We have successfully tested the circuits for voltage and current sensor on bread board and
designed PCBs for these. We selected suitable MOSFET and IGBT drivers and made PCB
for these too.

60

CHAPTER 6
Vector control of three phase Induction Motor
6.1 Control method for Induction motor
The scalar and vector control of induction motor are widely adopted in the industry.
Scalar control of ac drives produces good steady state performance but poor dynamic
response. This manifests itself in the deviation of air gap flux linkages from their set values.
This variation occurs in both magnitude and phase.
Vector control (or field oriented control) offers more precise control of ac motors compared
to scalar control. They are therefore used in high performance drives where oscillations in air
gap flux linkages are intolerable, e.g. robotic actuators, centrifuges, servos, etc.
Since the source of power in our case is solar panel, and it varies, we need very good
dynamic performance. Therefore, we opted for vector control

6.2 Induction motor used

We are using a similar motor of power rating 120 watt (0.16HP), 4pole. We performed
blocked rotor, no load test and retardation test on our motor to find its various parameters
which are required for the simulation using matlab. The name plate parameters of motor are
as follows:
Motor Parameters:
Frame :63

Amps : 0.41

Prot : IP 55

Eff % : 54

KW : 0.12

Conn : STAR

Freq : 50 Hz+/-5%

Ins : F

Rating :

Amb : 50 C

SI

PF : 0.75
Encl :TEFC

61

Volts : 415V +/-10%

RPM :1330

TEST 1
No Load Test :
Volts
:

Amps.
415

Watts
0.35

80

TEST 2
Locked Rotor Test :
Amps.
Volts : 110

Watts
0.25

36

At 50Hz
Winding
Resistance :

108 ohm per phase at 30oC

Results:
Stator resistance: 108 ohms/ phase
Rotor resistance: 84 ohms/ phase
Stator inductance: 0.26H/ phase
Rotor inductance: 0.26H/ phase
Mutual inductance: 1.8H/phase
Inertia constant: 0.0014 kgm2

62

6.3 Simulation model for vector control

Here is the final simulation model we have tested. The graphical results are shown after the
model.

Fig 6.1 Simulation model for motor control

The vector control drive block shown in the above block diagram is shown on the following
page

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Fig 6.2 vector control drive block

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Following parameters are used for simulation of vector control:

Power rating= 120;
V (Line to Line)= 380;
Frequency=50;
Stator resistance=108;
Stator inductance=0.26;
Rotor resistance=84;
Rotor inductance=0.26;
Mutual inductance=1.8;
Inertia constant=0.0014;
Pole pair=2;
Torque Limit=6;
Flux reference=0.2552;
Sampling time=0.78125e-4;
Integral constant (Ki) =0.99862;
Proportional constant (Kp) =0.989995;
Hysteresis bandwith=0.0081;
Current (quadrature axis) limit =7;
Graphs obtained on simulating vector control
1). stator currents(Ia ,Ib , Ic)
2). Rotor speed(Wm)
3). Electromagnetic torque(Nm)

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6.4 Graphical simulation results

Fig 6.3 Graphs for vector control

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6.5 Testing of Motor

We have tested the motor using a braking load provided with the pulley belt arrangement as
shown in the image. There are two pulleys with one coupled to shaft and other to the structure
so that its height can be varied.

Figure 6.4: Testing set up for motor

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Fig 6.5: Circuit for generation of gating pulses

6.6 DSPIC programming for vector control
dsPIC33f Digital Signal Controller
IC USED: dspic33fj256gp710a (Microchip)
FEATURES USED
Analog to Digital converters (2 samples processed at once. Using 10 bit A/D mode
with 2.2Msps or sample rate of 0.45us)
Interrupts
PWM generator
Timers and counters (to keep track of interrupts for reference and debugging purpose)
Digital I/O
Dspic 33f is used as A/D interrupt. Its usage can be said to be divided in two modules:Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)

Inputs: - Current input from solar cell (Is) & Voltage input from solar cell(Vs).
(All inputs are analog).

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Output: - Gating pulse for Mosfetbridge.

Vector control
Inputs: - Current input from all 3 phases (Ia,Ib,Ic),Angular speed input from tacho
generator(w).(All inputs are analog).

Output: -Gating pulse for main VSI IGBT Bridge.

We have decided to use the ICs two A/D converter channels one for each module mentioned.
Initially all the inputs are sampled at the beginning of system.
Then for module 1 there are two inputs so these are multiplexed for getting input values for
the MPPT algorithm. After this the processing of this module 1 is done and output is
generated.
At the same time the module 2 channel which has three inputs, are multiplexed for getting
input values for vector control algorithm. After this the processing of module 2 is done and
output is generated.
This iteration is repeated infinitely for the process.
6.7 Program and Timing
A/D converter takes 0.45us for sampling one input which is noted by a timer. Then an
interrupt is triggered and the next multiplexed signal is sampled. After sampling and
converting all the signals in the digital domain processing is done. And the loop starts again.
Input signal A/D converter time = 0.45us * 3
As these are multiplexed signals
Total = 1.35us
Approx total processing time = 60us
Total time for the whole processes taken = 78.125us
Frequency of operation = 12.8 KHz

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Burning programs on dspic using ICD 3 buner

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Fig 6.6 Programming Flowchart

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CHAPTER 7
Conclusion
7.1 Educational Goals
This project gives us the opportunity to gain knowledge and practical experience in the
controlling of induction motor using a vector control drive and understanding one of its
applications. The vector control drive is relatively modern and its study is crucial for an
electrical engineering student. We also get to explore another way of using solar energy and
the methods to utilize it better. We believe that this project can bring about a significant
change in our country. In India, millions of people do not have access to drinking water and
in rural areas people have to walk miles to get drinking water. The solar energy opens up a
new dimension and can be tapped to provide clean water to many people. We feel that by
working in this project, we are doing our bit of helping the people and also the environment.
7.2 Scope of the project
The World Bank estimates 21% of communicable diseases in India are water related. Of
these diseases, diarrhoea alone killed over 700,000 Indians in 1999 (estimated) over 1,600
deaths each day. In India many villages do not have reliable electric supply. These villages
lack potable water supply. Sunlight is available in abundance at many places and can be used
to provide potable water to such villages. The system we develop which consists of the solar
panel and the filtration system is portable and can be mounted in regions which receive ample
sunlight. The system requires little maintenance.
Such a system can also be used in remote areas, where there it can be used in cases of long
electricity supply failures. The manufacturers of bottled water can use similar system on a
large scale for their purpose, thus utilizing this environment friendly technology.
7.3 Scope for further research
1. Use of alternative converter topologies like the matrix converter which offers single step
conversion, having fewer losses but not much in practice due to complex switching
patterns.[17]
2. Use of such control for high dynamic performance in other applications, like irrigation
pumps.

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3. Development of alternative filtering techniques. A lot of research is being done in the field
of nano-filtration.
4. Solar cells with better efficiency are a subject of research. [18]

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REFERENCES
1.) B.K.Bose (Ed.).Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives, IEEE Press 1996
2. )Boldea, I., and Nasar, S. A., Vector Control of AC Drives, CRC Press,Boca Raton,
Florida, 1992.
3.) Boldea, I., and Nasar, S. A., ElectricDrives, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Rorida, 1999.
4.) Bose, B. K., Power Electronics and AC Drives, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1986.
5.) Bose, B. K. (editor). Microcomputer Control of Power Electronics and Drives, IEEE
Press, New York, 1987.
6.)Bose, B. K. (editor). Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives, IEEE Press, New
York, 1996.
7)
8) Advancedalgorithm for MPPT control of photovoltaic systems,
C. Liu, B. Wu and R. Cheung
9) Solar Power Maximum Power Point Tracker, ThanhPhu Nguyen, 2001
10) Comparative Study of Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms Using an
Experimental, Programmable, Maximum Power Point Tracking Test Bed; D. P. Hohm, M. E.
Ropp
11) Won C-Y, Kim D-H, Kim S-C, Kim W-S, Kim H-S. New maximum power point tracker
of photovoltaic arrays usingfuzzy controller. Proceedings of the 1994 25th Annual IEEE
Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1994
12) Brambilla A, et al. New approach to photovoltaic arrays maximum power point tracking.
Proceedings of the 30th IEEEPower Electronics Conference, 1998
13) Design and development of high frequency high power transformer for renewable energy
applications, AR Abdul Razak, S Taib, I daut
14) HCPL 316 Igbt driver, Aavago Technologie
15) LM5045 MOSFET driver, National Semiconductors
16) Voltage sensor using AD204, Analog Devices
17) P. D. Ziogas, S. I. Khan, and M. Rashid, Some improved forced commutated

cycloconverter structures, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. vol.Ia-21, July/August 1985, pp.
12421253.
18) Pulse width modulated DC- DC Power Converters, Marian K. Kazimierczuk

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