b2201 B PDF

Petroleum Geology and Resources
of the North Caspian Basin,

Kazakhstan and Russia
By Gregory F. Ulmishek
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2201-B
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary
U.S. Geological Survey
Charles G. Groat, Director
Version 1.0,
2001
This publication is only available online at:

http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/pub/bulletins/b2201-b/
Manuscript approved for publication May 24, 2001

Published in the Central Region, Denver, Colorado
Graphics by Susan Walden and Gayle M. Dumonceaux
Photocomposition by Gayle M. Dumonceaux
Edited by L.M. Carter
Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication

is for descriptive purposes only and
does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government
Contents
Foreword .......................................................................................................................................
Abstract .........................................................................................................................................
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................
Province Overview .......................................................................................................................
Province Location and Boundaries ................................................................................
Tectono-Stratigraphic Development ..............................................................................
Present-Day Structure ......................................................................................................
Total Petroleum System....................................................................................................
North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System .................................................................
Overview..............................................................................................................................
Discovery History...............................................................................................................
Petroleum Occurrence......................................................................................................
Stratigraphy of Subsalt Upper Paleozoic Rocks...........................................................
North and West Basin Margin................................................................................
East-Southeast Basin Margin.................................................................................
South Basin Margin..................................................................................................
Source Rocks......................................................................................................................
Reservoir Rocks .................................................................................................................
Seal Rocks...........................................................................................................................
Traps ....................................................................................................................................
Assessment Units ..............................................................................................................
Assessment Unit 10160102, North and West Margin Subsalt
Barrier Reefs .............................................................................................................
Assessment Unit 10160101, North and West Margin Subsalt
Pinnacle Reefs ..........................................................................................................
Assessment Unit 10160103, East and Southeast Margin Subsalt.....................
Assessment Unit 10160104, South Margin Subsalt .............................................
Assessment Unit 10160105, Basin Center Subsalt ..............................................
Assessment Unit 10160106, Suprasalt...................................................................
References Cited .........................................................................................................................
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Figures
1. Map showing petroleum system and assessment units of
North Caspian basin ...................................................................................................... 3
2. Structural map of North Caspian basin...................................................................... 7
36. Cross sections:
3. Through north basin margin ................................................................................... 11
4. Through Karachaganak carbonate buildup ......................................................... 12
III
7.
8.
9.
10.
5. Through east basin margin ....................................................................................

6. Of Karaton-Tengiz zone ...........................................................................................
Sketch map showing areas of carbonate buildups of northern Caspian Sea ....
Cross section of Astrakhan arch.................................................................................
Events chart of North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System ......................
Tectonic map of northern part of east basin margin and adjacent
Ural foldbelt ....................................................................................................................
13
14
15
16
18
20
Table
1. North Caspian basin, province 1016 assessment results summary
allocated resources......................................................................................................
IV
Petroleum Geology and Resources

of the North Caspian Basin,
Kazakhstan and Russia
By Gregory F. Ulmishek
Foreword
This report was prepared as part of the World Energy
Project of the U.S. Geological Survey. In the project, the world
was divided into 8 regions and 937 geologic provinces. The
provinces have been ranked according to the discovered oil and
gas volumes within each (U.S. Geological Survey World Energy
Assessment Team, 2000). Then, 76 priority provinces (exclusive of the U.S. and chosen for their high ranking) and 26
boutique provinces (exclusive of the U.S. and chosen for their
anticipated petroleum richness or special regional economic
importance) were selected for appraisal of oil and gas resources.
The petroleum geology of these priority and boutique provinces
is described in this series of reports.
The purpose of this effort is to aid in assessing the quantities of oil, gas, and natural gas liquids that have the potential to
be added to reserves within the next 30 years. These volumes
either reside in undiscovered fields whose sizes exceed the
stated minimum-field-size cutoff value for the assessment unit
(variable, but must be at least 1 million barrels of oil equivalent)
or occur as reserve growth of fields already discovered.
The petroleum system constitutes the basic geologic unit of
the oil and gas assessment. The total petroleum system includes
all genetically related petroleum found in shows and accumulations (discovered and undiscovered) that has been generated by
a pod or by closely related pods of mature source rock. This
petroleum exists within a limited mappable geologic space,
together with the essential mappable geologic elements (source,
reservoir, and seal) that control the fundamental processes of
generation, expulsion, migration, entrapment, and preservation
of petroleum.
An assessment unit is a mappable part of a total petroleum
system in which discovered and undiscovered fields constitute a
single relatively homogeneous population such that the chosen
methodology of resource assessment based on estimation of the
number and sizes of undiscovered fields is applicable. A total
petroleum system might equate to a single assessment unit. If
necessary, a total petroleum system may be subdivided into two
or more assessment units such that each assessment unit is sufficiently homogeneous in terms of geology, exploration considerations, and risk to assess individually.
A numeric code identifies each region, province, total
petroleum system, and assessment unit; these codes are uniform
throughout the project and will identify the same item in any of
the publications. The code is as follows:
Region, single digit

3
Province, three digits to the right of region code
3162
Total petroleum system, two digits to the right of
province code
316205
Assessment unit, two digits to the right of petroleum
system code
31620504
The codes for the regions and provinces are listed in U.S. Geological Survey World Energy Assessment Team (2000).
Oil and gas reserves quoted in this report are derived
from Petroleum Exploration and Production database (Petroconsultants, 1996) and other area reports from Petroconsultants, Inc., unless otherwise noted.
A map, figure 1 of this report, shows boundaries of the
total petroleum system and assessment units; it was compiled
using geographic information system (GIS) software. Political
boundaries and cartographic representations were taken, with
permission, from Environmental Systems Research Institutes
ArcWorld 1:3 million digital coverage (1992), have no political
significance, and are displayed for general reference only. Oil
and gas field centerpoints, shown on this map, are reproduced,
with permission, from Petroconsultants, 1996.
Abstract
The North Caspian basin is a petroleum-rich but lightly
explored basin located in Kazakhstan and Russia. It occupies
the shallow northern portion of the Caspian Sea and a large
plain to the north of the sea between the Volga and Ural Rivers
and farther east to the Mugodzhary Highland, which is the
southern continuation of the Ural foldbelt. The basin is
bounded by the Paleozoic carbonate platform of the Volga-Ural
province to the north and west and by the Ural, South Emba,
and Karpinsky Hercynian foldbelts to the east and south. The
basin was originated by pre-Late Devonian rifting and subsequent spreading that opened the oceanic crust, but the precise
time of these tectonic events is not known.
The sedimentary succession of the basin is more than 20
km thick in the central areas. The drilled Upper Devonian to
Tertiary part of this succession includes a prominent thick Kungurian (uppermost Lower Permian) salt formation that separates
strata into the subsalt and suprasalt sequences and played an
important role in the formation of oil and gas fields. Shallowshelf carbonate formations that contain various reefs and alternate with clastic wedges compose the subsalt sequence on the
1
basin margins. Basinward, these rocks grade into deep-water

anoxic black shales and turbidites. The Kungurian salt formation is strongly deformed into domes and intervening depressions. The most active halokinesis occurred during Late
PermianTriassic time, but growth of salt domes continued later
and some of them are exposed on the present-day surface. The
suprasalt sequence is mostly composed of clastic rocks that are
several kilometers thick in depressions between salt domes.
A single total petroleum system is defined in the North Caspian basin. Discovered reserves are about 19.7 billion barrels of
oil and natural gas liquids and 157 trillion cubic feet of gas.
Much of the reserves are concentrated in the supergiant Tengiz,
Karachaganak, and Astrakhan fields. A recent new oil discovery
on the Kashagan structure offshore in the Caspian Sea is probably also of the supergiant status. Major oil and gas reserves are
located in carbonate reservoirs in reefs and structural traps of the
subsalt sequence. Substantially smaller reserves are located in
numerous fields in the suprasalt sequence. These suprasalt fields
are largely in shallow Jurassic and Cretaceous clastic reservoirs
in salt dome-related traps. Petroleum source rocks are poorly
identified by geochemical methods. However, geologic data
indicate that the principal source rocks are Upper Devonian to
Lower Permian deep-water black-shale facies stratigraphically
correlative to shallow-shelf carbonate platforms on the basin
margins. The main stage of hydrocarbon generation was probably in Late Permian and Triassic time, during deposition of thick
orogenic clastics. Generated hydrocarbons migrated laterally
into adjacent subsalt reservoirs and vertically, through depressions between Kungurian salt domes where the salt is thin or
absent, into suprasalt clastic reservoirs.
Six assessment units have been identified in the North Caspian basin. Four of them include Paleozoic subsalt rocks of the
basin margins, and a fifth unit, which encompasses the entire
total petroleum system area, includes the suprasalt sequence. All
five of these assessment units are underexplored and have significant potential for new discoveries. Most undiscovered petroleum resources are expected in Paleozoic subsalt carbonate
rocks. The assessment unit in subsalt rocks with the greatest
undiscovered potential occupies the south basin margin. Petroleum potential of suprasalt rocks is lower; however, discoveries
of many small to medium size fields are expected. The sixth
identified assessment unit embraces subsalt rocks of the central
basin areas. The top of subsalt rocks in these areas occurs at
depths ranging from 7 to 10 kilometers and has not been reached
by wells. Undiscovered resources of this unit did not receive
quantitative estimates.
Introduction
This report describes the regional and petroleum geology of
the North Caspian (in some publications Precaspian, Pricaspian,
or Peri-Caspian) basin in Kazakhstan and Russia. The location
and boundaries of the basin are shown in figure 1. Discovered
petroleum volumes in the basin are listed at 45.8 billion barrels
of oil equivalent (BBOE) in the Petroconsultants (1996) file, of
which 57 percent is gas. The basin is ranked 12th among 102
provinces designated for appraisal of undiscovered oil and gas
2
resources by the U.S. Geological Survey (U.S. Geological

Survey World Energy Assessment Team, 2000). The recent,
potentially supergiant oil discovery in the Kashagan prospect in
the northern Caspian Sea can substantially increase the amount
of the basins reserves.
A single total petroleum system (TPS), the North Caspian
Paleozoic TPS, was defined in the basin. The TPS encompasses
the entire North Caspian basin area and includes both subsalt
(Upper DevonianLower Permian) and suprasalt (Upper
PermianTertiary) stratigraphic sequences separated by the
Kungurian (uppermost Lower Permian) salt formation. Both
sequences were charged with hydrocarbons that were generated
from Paleozoic deep-water black-shale facies. These facies are
developed in the central basin areas and are stratigraphic equivalents of carbonate platform formations of the basin margins.
The peak of hydrocarbon generation probably occurred in Late
PermianTriassic time, contemporaneously with deposition of
thick orogenic clastics and after deposition of the Kungurian
salt seal. Major hydrocarbon reserves of the basin occur in subsalt carbonate reservoirs, largely in various carbonate buildups
(atolls, pinnacle and barrier reefs).
Despite almost 100 years of exploration history, the North
Caspian basin remains an exploration frontier. Six assessment
units (AU) were identified for resource appraisal; four include
subsalt rocks of the basin margins and the fifth includes suprasalt clastic rocks of the entire basin and TPS area. The sixth AU,
encompassing subsalt rocks of the basin central area, occurs at
depths exceeding 7 km and was not quantitatively assessed.
Definitions of the TPS and AU are given in the Foreword, and
the assessment technique and procedure are described in U.S.
Geological Survey World Energy Assessment Team (2000).
The results of the assessment are shown in table 1. The largest
portion of undiscovered petroleum resources is expected in
Paleozoic carbonate reservoirs of the south basin margin.
Province Overview
Province Location and Boundaries
The North Caspian Basin province (1016) occupies the
northern part of the Caspian Sea and a large plain to the north
(figs. 1, 2); it covers about 500,000 km2. The basin is bounded
to the east by the Ural foldbelt and the Mugodzhary zone, the
latter being a southern continuation of the Urals that is partially
buried beneath a thin section of Mesozoic rocks. Hercynian
deformation in the foldbelt began in Late Carboniferous time
after collision of the Russian (East European) craton with the
Kazakhstan continent. The Paleozoic South Emba high (fig. 2)
borders the basin to the southeast. The high is covered by flatlying Mesozoic sediments, and its geology is poorly understood.
The crest of the high is marked by large gravity and magnetic
anomalies and is probably composed of Lower and Middle(?)
Devonian volcanics (Kan and Tropp, 1996). Younger Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks form the northwestern flank. The high is
structurally expressed as an uplift of upper Paleozoic strata but
is underlain by a deep trough in the basement surface. Possibly,
Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia
50
50
45
Samara
Volga-Ural
No
Foldbelt
Donbas
Volgograd
Ba
ubsalt
W
es
tM
ar
gi
Volga R
i v er
est M
and W
an
rgin S
North
rth
eefs
rrier R
Su
bs
E
55
al
tP
in
na
Basin Center Subsalt
cle
Re
Russia
ef
North Caspian Basin
Russia
Kazakhstan
Astrakhan
45
+ Orenburg
Ural R
iver
45
+
Suprasalt
South Margin Subsalt

alt
ubs
Middle Caspian
Basin
ast
he
out
Ma
dS
t an
Eas
Caspian Sea
nS
rgi
ba
ba Rive r
Em
50
100 KILOMETERS
North Ustyurt Basin
d
go
ut
-S
ry
a
zh
m
hE
E
60
ay
Turg sion
res
Dep
Projection: Equidistant Conic.
Central meridian: 100.
Standard Parallel: 5830'
EXPLANATION
Geologic province name and boundary
ASSESSMENT DATA
Country boundary
Assessment units boundary and name
Gas field centerpoint
Total petroleum system boundary
Oil field centerpoint
Figure 1. Petroleum system and assessment units of North Caspian basin.
the Devonian volcanics formed an oceanic volcanic arc that was

accreted on the craton margin in pre-Late Devonian time. The
South Emba high plunges southwestward, and the gravity and
magnetic anomalies gradually diminish and disappear east of the
Caspian Sea.
The southwestern basin boundary is the Karpinsky foldbelt,
known in Russian literature as the Karpinsky Ridge (fig. 2). The
foldbelt is composed of deformed Carboniferous fine clastics,
which reach a thickness of 15 km as interpreted from seismic
data. The rocks were deposited in a postrift sag above the Devonian rift that extended northwest into the Donets coal basin of
Ukraine (Ulmishek and others, 1994). In middle Early Permian
(Artinskian) time, the Devonian rift basin was structurally
inverted, folded, and thrust onto the North Caspian basin margin
(Khain, 1977). The foldbelt extends into the Caspian Sea where
it becomes poorly defined.
The 1,500-km-long north and west margins of the basin
separate the North Caspian basin from the Volga-Ural petroleum
province. The boundary is defined by a sedimentary escarpment
in subsalt Paleozoic rocks. Across the escarpment, thick shallow-water carbonate rocks of the Volga-Ural province pass into
much thinner deep-water black-shale facies of the North Caspian basin. The top of the escarpment is formed by a Lower Permian barrier reef.
More than three-quarters of the North Caspian basin lies in
Kazakhstan; the remaining part is in Russia (fig. 1). The area has
a semiarid continental climate with hot summers and cold windy
winters. The northern Caspian Sea is characterized by shallow
Province Overview 3
44 Petroleum
Geology,
ResourcesNorth
Caspian
Basin,
Kazakhstan
andand
Russia
Petroleum
Geology,
ResourcesNorth
Caspian
Basin,
Kazakhstan
Russia
Table 1.
North Caspian Basin, province 1016 assessment results summary - allocated resources.
[MMBO, million barrels of oil. BCFG, billion cubic feet of gas. MMBNGL, million barrels of natural gas liquids. MFS, minimum field size assessed (MMBO or BCFG). Prob., probability (including both geologic and
accessibility probabilities) of at least one field equal to or greater than the MFS. Results shown are fully risked estimates. For gas fields, all liquids are included under the NGL (natural gas liquids) category. F95
represents a 95 percent chance of at least the amount tabulated. Other fractiles are defined similarly. Fractiles are additive under the assumption of perfect positive correlation. Shading indicates not applicable]
Code
and Field
Type
MFS Prob.
(0-1)
F95
Oil (MMBO)
F50
F5
Mean
F95
1016
Total: Assessed onshore portions of North Caspian Basin Province
Oil Fields
3,464
9,193
18,620
9,883
5,596
1.00
Gas Fields
14,132
Undiscovered Resources
Gas (BCFG)
F50
F5
Mean
NGL (MMBNGL)
F50
F5
F95
Mean
15,633
39,829
34,314
89,094
17,251
44,210
309
527
915
1,700
2,173
4,399
1,035
1,982
19,729
55,462
123,408
61,460
836
2,615
6,572
3,017
1016
Total: Assessed offshore portions of North Caspian Basin Province
Oil Fields
3,687
12,054
28,038
13,437
7,184
1.00
Gas Fields
7,531
23,981
25,755
58,790
69,000
27,337
30,254
399
179
1,409
633
3,691
1,755
1,640
755
14,715
49,737
127,790
57,591
579
2,042
5,446
2,395
1016
Grand Total: Assessed portions of North Caspian Basin Province
Oil Fields
7,151
21,247
46,658
23,320
12,781
1.00
Gas Fields
21,663
39,615
65,584
93,104
158,095
44,588
74,463
708
707
2,324
2,333
5,865
6,153
2,675
2,737
105,199
251,199
119,051
1,415
4,657
12,018
5,412
Total
Total
Total
1.00
1.00
1.00
3,464
3,687
7,151
9,193
12,054
21,247
18,620
28,038
46,658
9,883
13,437
23,320
34,444
Table 1Continued. North Caspian Basin, province 1016 assessment results summary - allocated resources.
Code
and Field
Type
101601
10160101
Oil Fields
Gas Fields
MFS Prob.
(0-1)
Oil Fields
Gas Fields
20
120
Oil Fields
Gas Fields
Total
1.00
1.00
F95
NGL (MMBNGL)
F50
F5
F95
604
1,464
2,630
1,522
1,106
8,130
2,856
24,744
5,666
56,119
3,052
27,493
61
395
166
1,328
362
3,478
183
1,554
604
1,464
2,630
1,522
9,236
27,599
61,784
30,544
456
1,494
3,840
1,737
10
60
1.00
1.00
327
607
1,040
637
466
1,685
901
3,153
1,620
5,424
956
3,315
25
24
53
47
105
85
57
50
327
607
1,040
637
2,152
4,053
7,043
4,271
49
100
189
107
East and Southeast Margin Subsalt Assessment Unit (100% of undiscovered oil fields and 100% of undiscovered gas fields allocated to ONSHORE province 1016)
10
60
1.00
1.00
826
2,076
3,958
2,196
1,616
741
4,194
1,995
8,520
4,760
4,515
2,267
89
36
246
99
543
240
271
113
826
2,076
3,958
2,196
2,357
6,189
13,280
6,781
125
344
783
385
666
353
296
152
1,020
448
10160104
South Margin Subsalt Assessment Unit (15.5% of undiscovered oil fields and 17% of undiscovered gas fields allocated to ONSHORE province 1016)
Oil Fields
20
654
2,149
5,014
2,397
1,294
4,327
10,614
4,933
72
254
1.00
Gas Fields 120
1,490
5,154
13,908
6,068
36
127
Total
Mean
North and West Margin Subsalt Barrier Reefs Assessment Unit (100% of undiscovered oil fields and 100% of undiscovered gas fields allocated to ONSHORE province 1016)
Total
10160103
Mean
Gas (BCFG)
F50
F5
Mean
Paleozoic North Caspian Total Petroleum System

North and West Margin Subsalt Pinnacle Reefs Assessment Unit (100% of undiscovered oil fields and 100% of undiscovered gas fields allocated to ONSHORE province 1016)
Total
10160102
F95
Oil (MMBO)
F50
F5
1.00
654
2,149
5,014
2,397
2,783
9,481
24,522
11,001
108
381
Province Overview 5
Table 1Continued. North Caspian Basin, province 1016 assessment results summary - allocated resources.
Code
and Field
Type
MFS Prob.
(0-1)
F95
Oil (MMBO)
F50
F5
Mean
Gas (BCFG)
F50
F5
Mean
F95
NGL (MMBNGL)
F50
F5
F95
South Margin Subsalt Assessment Unit (84.5% of undiscovered oil fields and 83% of undiscovered gas fields allocated to OFFSHORE province 1016)
10160104
Oil Fields
20
3,564
11,715
27,337
13,070
7,054
23,587
57,864
26,892
392
1,386
1.00
Gas Fields 120
7,273
25,164
67,902
29,628
175
621
Total
1.00
3,564
11,715
27,337
13,070
14,327
48,752
125,766
56,519
567
10160106
Suprasalt Assessment Unit (89.5% of undiscovered oil fields and 89% of undiscovered gas fields allocated to ONSHORE province 1016)
Oil Fields
3
1,054
2,897
5,977
3,130
1,115
3,357
7,894
3,796
62
1.00
Gas Fields
18
2,086
4,783
8,884
5,067
36
Total
1.00
1,054
2,897
5,977
3,130
3,201
8,140
16,779
8,863
98
10160106
Suprasalt Assessment Unit (10.5% of undiscovered oil fields and 11% of undiscovered gas fields allocated to OFFSHORE province 1016)
Oil Fields
3
124
340
701
367
131
394
926
445
7
1.00
Gas Fields
18
258
591
1,098
626
4
Total
1.00
124
340
701
367
389
985
2,024
1,072
12
Mean
3,633
1,725
1,614
741
2,007
5,358
2,354
196
99
498
242
227
113
295
740
341
23
12
58
30
27
14
35
88
41
55E
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LD | |
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|
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12
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100 KILOMETERS
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VOLGA - URAL
PROVINCE
50E
10
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NORTH USTYURT
BASIN
Province Overview
EXPLANATION
8
| | |
Contour line, km
Exposed Ural foldbelt
Fault
Lower Permian
carbonate escarpment
(basin boundary)
Tectonic suture
Hydrocarbon field
Figure 2. Structural map of North Caspian basin (modified from Solovyev, 1992). Contours are on top of basement. Hydrocarbon fields shown by red numbers; 1, Orenburg; 2,
Karachaganak; 3, Zhanazhol; 4, Tengiz; 5, Astrakhan; 6, Kenkiyak.
water; the water depth does not exceed 200 m and is less than 5
m in about 70 percent of the offshore area.
Tectono-Stratigraphic Development
The North Caspian basin is one of the deepest basins in the
world, containing sedimentary strata more than 20 km thick (fig.
2). Deep seismic sounding data indicate that oceanic or thinned
continental crust underlies the central basin areas (Kleshchev
and others, 1995). Most geologists believe that the basin originated as a rift, but the time of rifting is disputable. Two models
have been proposed with rifting time in the Riphean (Middle
Late Proterozoic, 1,650 to 650 million years (Ma) old), or alternatively in the Middle Devonian (Malushin, 1985; Zonenshain
and others, 1990; Volchegursky and others, 1995). However, I
argue here for the third possibility that seems more probable,
that is, that rifting took place in Early Ordovician time contemporaneously with rifting in the Urals that resulted in opening of
the Uralian ocean. A partially inverted Ordovician graben filled
with a 5-km-thick sequence of coarse to fine clastics is present
north of the northeast basin margin where it underlies the supergiant Orenburg gas field (fig. 2; Nazhmetdinov, 1991; Yakhimovich, 1996). Probably, original rifting and formation of
grabens occurred in both areas at the same time, but subsequent
spreading that started in the North Caspian graben resulted in
cessation of rifting and following compression and structural
inversion in the Orenburg graben. As a result of spreading in the
North Caspian basin, cratonic blocks that presently form a series
of arches along the south and east basin margins (AstrakhanAktyubinsk system of highs in fig. 2) moved away from the
Russian craton and opened the oceanic crust.
Tectonic development during Devonian, Carboniferous, and
much of Early Permian time (rocks older than Middle Devonian
have not been reached by drill) was characterized by continuous
subsidence of the basin and deposition of carbonate and clastic
formations on its margins. Basinward, these strata grade into
deep-water black shales and turbidites that presently occur at
great depths and are only locally penetrated by wells in areas
close to the basin margins. Hercynian deformation started in the
Late Carboniferous in the Ural foldbelt and in the Early Permian
(Sakmarian-Artinskian) in the Karpinsky foldbelt and South
Emba high. Thick Upper CarboniferousLower Permian orogenic molasse clastics are present on the east and south basin
margins. Continental collisions along the basin margins separated the North Caspian small deep-water oceanic basin from the
Tethys ocean. Consequently, the basin was filled by a Kungurian
(latest Early Permian) evaporite sequence, which is dominantly
composed of salt and has an estimated original depositional
thickness of 45 km (Komissarova, 1986; Volchegursky and
others, 1995).
Orogeny in the Urals, rapid subsidence of the basin, and
deposition of thick sedimentary sequences continued during
Late Permian and Triassic time. Sediments of this age were
mostly continental orogenic clastics, but some Upper Permian
(Kazanian Stage) carbonates and evaporites and Lower and Middle Triassic marine shales and marls are present in the western
areas. Active deformation of Kungurian salt began soon after its
8
deposition, and Upper PermianLower Triassic sediments are

several kilometers thick in depressions between salt domes.
Intense tectonic subsidence of the basin floor terminated by
Jurassic time. Various narrow (commonly one stage) stratigraphic intervals of the Jurassic through Tertiary section attain
large (to 3 km) thickness only locally, in depressions near
domes that experienced active growth during corresponding
time. Deformation of salt continues at present and some salt
domes are exposed on the surface.
Present-Day Structure
The basement surface of the North Caspian basin occurs at
depths reaching more than 20 km in the Central depression (fig.
2). The depression is about 450 km long from west to east. Two
narrow troughs extend from the depression to the southwest and
northeast (Sarpin and Novoalekseev troughs, respectively).
These troughs were probably deep straits that connected the
North Caspian oceanic basin with the Tethys and Uralian
oceans. The north and west basin margins are narrow and steep.
In contrast, the south margin is wide, being formed by a series
of structural arches in which the basement lies at depths of 78
km. From the crests of the arches, the basement dips both
toward the Central depression and toward the marginal troughs
in front of the Hercynian foldbelts.
At the top of subsalt rocks (seismically expressed in most
basin areas as principal reflector P1), the Central depression is a
gentle structure with a maximum depth of about 10 km. The
marginal troughs are absent and the top of subsalt rocks dips
away from the margins toward the basin center. Carbonate platforms and organic buildups are expressed as structural highs.
The regional structural pattern of Upper Permian and
younger strata is dominated by salt tectonics. More than 1,000
salt domes have been identified in the basin. In marginal areas,
the domes are arranged in salt ridges that are generally parallel
to the basin margins.
Total Petroleum System

Oil and gas fields of the North Caspian basin have been
discovered in both subsalt (pre-Kungurian) and suprasalt
sequences. In the subsalt sequence, large oil and gas reserves
occur in Upper Devonian through Lower Permian carbonate
and clastic reservoirs in structural traps and reefs. All basin
margins where subsalt rocks can be reached by drilling are productive, demonstrating a prolific hydrocarbon system. In the
Upper Permian to Tertiary suprasalt clastic sequence, production has been established over the entire basin area. Most
hydrocarbons in this sequence are found in Jurassic and Cretaceous reservoirs in traps associated with salt domes. However,
despite the large area, the considerable thickness of the sedimentary column, and the wide stratigraphic range of productivity, only one TPS is presently identified in the basin. The
designation of a single petroleum system stems from the geologic model in which a pod of upper Paleozoic source rocks is
present throughout the entire central area of the North Caspian
basin. Hydrocarbons generated from this pod have migrated

into both subsalt and suprasalt reservoirs.
North Caspian Paleozoic Total

Petroleum System
Overview
The North Caspian Paleozoic TPS (101601) encompasses
the entire North Caspian basin (fig. 1). It is probable that some
oil and gas fields discovered in adjacent areas of the Volga-Ural
petroleum province and on the North Buzachi arch in the western North Ustyurt basin were formed by hydrocarbons that
migrated laterally updip from the North Caspian basin. However, no geochemical data exist to support or reject this hypothesis. Thus, the TPS area may extend onto slopes of the VolgaUral platform to the north and the North Buzachi arch to the
south (fig. 2).
According to Petroconsultants (1996), discovered reserves
of oil, condensate, and gas of the system are 45.8 billion barrels of oil equivalent (BBOE) of which 57 percent is gas. Most
hydrocarbons are in subsalt carbonate rocks in three supergiant
fields (Tengiz, Karachaganak, and Astrakhan), each with
reserves exceeding 5 BBOE. Another potentially supergiant
discovery was recently made offshore in the Kashagan prospect about 100 km offshore of the Tengiz field (fig. 7). Most
fields producing from the suprasalt sequence have been found
in the southeast quarter of the basin. Hydrocarbons in both
subsalt and suprasalt sequences were generated from upper
Paleozoic deep-water basinal facies that were deposited in
central basin areas and are stratigraphically correlative with
marginal carbonate platforms.
Discovery History
Oil shows in shallow suprasalt rocks were recorded in wells
drilled in the late 19th century. The first commercial discovery
was made in the South Emba area (southeastern part of the
basin) in 1911. By 1970 more than one hundred fields had been
discovered in the suprasalt sequence, primarily in Jurassic and
Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs. The majority of these fields
are located in the South and North Emba regions (areas south
and north of Emba River, fig. 1). The new exploration stage
began in the 1970s following discovery in 1967 of the first subsalt oil and gas condensate accumulation in a Lower Permian
reef near the northern basin border. Exploration was most successful in the late 1970s and early 1980s when all of the major
fields were found. In recent years, a significant amount of seismic surveys have been conducted offshore, and a well drilled in
2000 on the huge Kashagan prospect tested oil in 2000. The
northern Caspian Sea is environmentally very sensitive because
of shallow depths and the high content of sulfur in oil and gas.
Moreover, the area is the main feeding ground for sturgeon fish
that produce the famous Russian caviar.
Petroleum Occurrence
Oil and gas fields have been found over the entire North
Caspian basin, but the main petroleum reserves are concentrated
on the margins. In subsalt rocks, a chain of relatively small oil
and gas condensate fields occurs in the Lower Permian barrier
reef reservoirs along the north and west basin boundaries. A few
fields near these boundaries are in the Middle Carboniferous
barrier reef. The supergiant Karachaganak gas condensate and
oil field in an Upper DevonianCarboniferous atoll and overlying Lower Permian pinnacle reef is also located on the north
margin (fig. 2). On the east-southeast margin, several oil and
gas fields, among which the Zhanazhol oil field is largest, have
been discovered in carbonate reservoirs in structural traps and
reefs. Several accumulations in Lower Carboniferous and
Lower Permian clastic reservoirs found on the east-southeast
margin are small. Two supergiant discoveries, Tengiz oil and
Astrakhan gas fields, have been made in Upper DevonianMiddle Carboniferous carbonates along the south basin margin. The
Tengiz field produces from a carbonate buildup and the Astrakhan field from a structural trap on the crest of the Astrakhan
regional arch (fig. 2). The Kashagan discovery well located offshore in the Caspian Sea tested oil from a carbonate buildup
similar to that of Tengiz, but areally the buildup is almost three
times larger than Tengiz. Except for several oil accumulations
near the east basin boundary, all subsalt reservoirs are highly
overpressured with reservoir pressure commonly 1.82.1 times
greater than hydrostatic pressure (Belonin and Slavin, 1998).
In suprasalt clastic rocks, most fields and the dominant
reserves are concentrated in the southeastern part of the basin, in
the old producing South Emba and North Emba regions (south
and north of the Emba River in fig. 1). The most productive
horizons are Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks in salt dome-related
traps at depths less than 1,000 m. During the last two decades,
deeper production has been established in several fields in these
regions, and some small gas and oil fields have been found in
lightly explored suprasalt rocks farther to the west and north.
Oils in subsalt carbonate reservoirs are of low to medium
gravity (3846API) and sulfurous; gas-oil ratios are high.
Associated gas commonly contains a large proportion of hydrogen sulfide (18 percent in the Tengiz field). Oil in several small
pools discovered in subsalt clastic reservoirs along the eastsoutheast basin margin is sweet. Subsalt gas is sulfurous: hydrogen sulfide content ranges from 3.2 percent in the Karachaganak
field to about 20 percent in the Astrakhan field. Gas in the
Astrakhan field also contains nearly 20 percent carbon dioxide.
Many gas accumulations have a high condensate content. Most
oils in suprasalt fields are medium and heavy, and are biodegraded to various degree. In the group composition, naphthenes
and aromatics dominate over alkanes (Maksimov and Botneva,
1981). Gas-oil ratio is commonly low and the sulfur content
varies from 0.2 to nearly 2 percent. A few gas pools in Tertiary
strata contain dry methane, possibly of biogenic origin.
Stratigraphy of Subsalt Upper Paleozoic Rocks

The oldest rocks that have been drilled in the North
Caspian basin are of Early and Middle Devonian age. Lower
North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System 9
Eifelian shallow-shelf carbonates overlain by upper Eifelian

Givetian deep-water organic-rich calcareous black shales were
penetrated in the Karachaganak field on the north basin margin
(Konyukhova, 1998). Undivided Lower DevonianEifelian and
Givetian shallow-shelf carbonate rocks were also encountered in
several wells on the east basin margin at depths of 56 km
(Akhmetshina and others, 1993). Distribution of pre-Upper
Devonian rocks and paleogeographic conditions of their deposition in the North Caspian basin are virtually unknown. The
stratigraphy of younger, upper Paleozoic (Upper Devonian
Lower Permian) subsalt rocks is known much better; this
stratigraphy is complex and varies significantly on different
basin margins.
North and West Basin Margin

The narrow north and west margin is characterized by the
presence of three thick carbonate formations in the Upper DevonianLower Permian interval. These formations are separated
by lower-middle Visean and lower Moscovian (Verey Horizon)
clastic sections (fig. 3). Each carbonate formation forms a barrier
reef trend and grades basinward into thin deep-water black-shale
facies (Grachevsky and others, 1976). The clastic formations
form clinoforms (clastic wedges) on the paleoslope (fig. 3). Both
basinward progradation of the formations and backstepping of
younger barrier reefs toward the outer shelves are known in different parts of the margin. Only a few local carbonate buildups
(atolls, pinnacles) have been discovered basinward from the barrier reefs, one of which contains the giant Karachaganak field
(fig. 4). Several carbonate banks with possible pinnacle development are inferred at depths of 67 km along the margin, but
only two such banks have been penetrated by several wells.
Therefore, the extent as well as the presence of some of the
banks remains speculative (Solovyev and others, 1992;
Mikhalkova and others, 1990).
East-Southeast Basin Margin

The main carbonate section of the east-southeast basin margin is of late ViseanLate Carboniferous (in places as young as
Early Permian) age. The section is separated into two parts,
informally called KT-I (upper) and KT-II (lower) in Russian
literature (KT stands for carbonate formation in Russian), by a
shale interval in the middle Moscovian (Podol Horizon). Basinward, both carbonate formations grade into organic-rich black
shales (radioactive shale beds of local nomenclature). The lower
formation extends farther west and north compared to the upper
one. Barrier reefs are present along basinal edges of both formations, but they are not as well developed as on the north and west
margin (fig. 5).
The carbonate section of the east-southeast margin is
underlain by the graywacke clastic Izembet (Zilair) Formation of
Late DevonianEarly Carboniferous (Famennian-Visean) age
(Bakirov and others, 1991). Seismic data indicate that from the
crests of basement arches of the Astrakhan-Aktyubinsk system
10
toward the Urals and toward the South Emba high (fig. 2), the
formation thickens from about 500 m to as much as 7,500 m
(Dalyan and Akhmetshina, 1998). Clastic material was derived
from the Mugodzhary microcontinent and Silurian volcanic arc
(both presently incorporated into the Ural foldbelt), which were
accreted to the craton in Middle DevonianFrasnian time (Zonenshain and others, 1990; Arabadzhi and others, 1993). Fine
clastic material dominates the lower part of the Izembet Formation, which also contains some detrital carbonates; these rocks
were probably deposited in a deep-water basin. Upward in the
section, clastic material coarsens, and beds of conglomerates
and thin coal seams appear. Apparently, clastic sediments from
the Mugodzhary provenance did not reach the north half of the
east basin margin. There, rocks correlative to the Izembet Formation are thin deep-water black shales overlying Frasnian
limestones (Dalyan and Bulekbaev, 1993). Several wells have
reached the bottom of the graywacke formation; they penetrated
Lower Devonian and Frasnian carbonates (Akhmetshina and
others, 1993). However, because of the great burial depths the
distribution of Devonian carbonate rocks remains poorly known
(Kan, 1996; Dalyan, 1996).
The MiddleUpper Carboniferous carbonate formation is
overlain by a thick section of Lower Permian orogenic clastics
that form fans descending from the Urals and the South Emba
high (Bakirov and others, 1980; Sapozhnikov and others, 1986).
Along the Urals, the clastic rocks are deformed into several
lines of long, narrow anticlines probably associated with thrusts.
South Basin Margin

Pre-Permian clastic rocks have not been encountered in
wells on the carbonate platforms of the south basin margin;
however, indirect evidence suggests that they may be present in
the Middle Devonian of the Astrakhan arch (N.V. Lopatin, oral
commun., 1999). A few meters of clastic rocks recently penetrated at the bottom of a deep well at a depth of almost 6 km
may lie at the top of the Middle Devonian (Orlov and Voronin,
1999). The Karaton-Tengiz zone in the eastern part of the south
basin margin is composed of Upper Devonian through Bashkirian (Middle Carboniferous) carbonates that form large atolls
many hundreds of meters high (figs. 6, 7). Outside the atolls,
the carbonate rocks grade into a deep-water basinal facies. The
tops of atolls are unconformably overlain by thin Lower Permian (mainly Artinskian) anoxic black shale that was deposited
on submerged uplifts below the depth of organic carbonate sedimentation. The shale thickens rapidly on slopes of the atolls.
The zone extends into the Caspian Sea, where several carbonate
buildups have been mapped by seismic surveys (Murzagaliev,
1995; Kerimov and others, 1990). The Kashagan prospect,
located in the western part of Shaburbali platform (fig. 7), is one
of these buildups; it was recently drilled and shows potential for
being a supergiant discovery.
The Astrakhan platform west of the Caspian Sea is also
composed of Upper Devonian to Bashkirian carbonate rocks.
However, unlike in the Karaton-Tengiz zone, the platform is
actually a flat carbonate bank slightly deformed into a gentle
regional arch above the basement high (fig. 8). The giant
S
VOLGA-URAL PROVINCE
NORTH CASPIAN BASIN
Upper PermianMesozoic
Kungurian
1000
Moscovian-Artinskian
2000
Lower Moscovian
Upper Visean-Bashkirian
Lower-middle Visean
3000
Upper DevonianTournaisian
Middle Devonianlower Frasnian
4000 meters
0
4 KILOMETERS
EXPLANATION
Clastics
Platform carbonates
Black-shale facies
Salt
Figure 3. Cross section through north basin margin (modified from Grachevsky, 1974). The section is located in westernmost portion of northern margin.
Reef
12
SW
Karachaganak Field
Aksay
NE
Kardailov
P1
C3
D3C1
P1
C1vs
C2
EXPLANATION
Kungurian evaporites
5
km b.s.l.
Shelf carbonates
D3C1t
Reef carbonates
0
10 KILOMETERS
Black-shale facies
Upper Permian clastics
Figure 4. Cross section through Karachaganak carbonate buildup (modified from Golov and others, 1983). D3, Upper Devonian; C1, C2, and C3, Lower, Middle, and Upper Carboniferous;
P1, Lower Permian (Asselian-Artinskian); C1t, Tournaisian; C1vs, ViseanSerpukhovian.
Kenkiyak
Field
Mortuk
Kumzhargan
K
J
C1
C1v3C2m1
P2
P2
P1K
2
Alibekmola
D1
P2
D3C1t
P2
D12
P1K
3
C2m2C3
P1C3
C1v3C2m1
C2m2pd
D12
D1C
D3C1t
6
C1v12
EXPLANATION
km
Mesozoic clastics and
carbonates
Upper Permian clastics
Salt
Clastic rocks
Oil pool
Basinal carbonates
and shales
Shelf and reef carbonates
Ultrabasic rocks
Fault
Figure 5. Cross section through east basin margin (modified from Solovyev and others, 1990). Suprasalt oil fields are not shown. Subscripts 1, 2, and 3 denote lower, middle, and upper subunits. D, Devonian; C, Carboniferous; P, Permian; t, Tournaisian; v, Visean; m, Moscovian; pd, Podol Horizon; P1k, Kungurian; , Triassic; J, Jurassic; K,
Cretaceous.
14
N
0
S
Guryev Arch
Karaton
Tengiz
Yuzhnaya
K+
P2++J
4
D3P1
D3C2
D3CP1
D2
km
EXPLANATION
Reef carbonates
Suprasalt clastics and

carbonates
Shallow-shelf and
lagoonal carbonates
Kungurian evaporites
Shallow-water clastics
32 KILOMETERS
Off-reef deep-water
carbonates and clastics
Fault
Figure 6. Cross section of Karaton-Tengiz zone (modified from Lisovsky and others, 1992). D2 and D3, Middle and Upper Devonian; C2, Middle Carboniferous; P1 and P2, Lower
and Upper Permian; , Triassic; K, Cretaceous; , Cenozoic.
Atyrau
Za
vo
A N
P I
S
A
A
E
C
S
ro
u
han
lzh
ak
Astr
gh
mb
ay
Kerogly
Primorsk
At
yr
Z ha
Shaburbali
au
W
es
Tengiz
t
K ar
EXPLANATION
aton
Trough
Carbonate platform
Local carbonate buildup
Figure 7. Carbonate buildups of northern Caspian Sea (modified from Murzagaliev, 1995). Scale approximate.
50
100 KILOMETERS
North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System

15
Volga River
16
SW
Dolgozhdan
South Astrakhan
NE
Astrakhan Field
3.0
P2
P1
4.0
P2
P2
P1
Zavolzh
P2
C2+C3
C1+C2
IP
5.0
IP
D3+C1
IP
6.0
II P'
II P'
D2+D3
II P
7.0
PR3+PZ1
8.0
II P
+
+
+
9.0
10.0
11.0
+ AR +
+ F
EXPLANATION
Carbonates
Astrakhan gas field
Clastics
Pre-Middle Devonian rocks
Black-shale facies
Evaporites
+ +
Basement
Fault
km, b.s.l.
Figure 8. Cross section of Astrakhan arch (modified from Brodsky and others, 1994). The arch constitutes westernmost segment of Astrakhan-Aktyubinsk system of highs shown in figure
2. Scale is not available. Total length of section is about 60 km. AR, Archean; PR, Proterozoic; PZ, Paleozoic; D, Devonian; C, Carboniferous; P, Permian. Subscripts 1, 2, and 3 denote lower,
middle, and upper subunits. Symbols B, I P, II P, II P, and F are referred to seismic reflectors.
Astrakhan gas field is located on the crest of the arch. Barrier

reefs are developed along edges of the carbonate platform. The
top of the platform is unconformably overlain by thin Lower
Permian deep-water shales. Seismic data suggest the presence
of a similar platform in the western area of the Caspian shelf
(fig. 7).
South and west of the Astrakhan carbonate platform, the
south basin margin is formed by a thrust belt north of the Hercynian Karpinsky foldbelt (fig. 2). In this thrust belt, known as
the Karakul-Smushkov zone of deformation, Lower Carboniferous to Bashkirian carbonates are the oldest rocks penetrated by
drilling. The carbonates underlie the Middle Carboniferous
Lower Permian clastic section that thickens to the north and is
truncated by a pre-Jurassic unconformity to the south. The
upper part of the section is composed of Artinskian orogenic
clastic rocks as much as 1,000 m thick.
Throughout most of the basin, the DevonianLower Permian sequence is overlain by the Kungurian (uppermost Lower
Permian) evaporite sequence, which is primarily composed of
salt but includes some clastic and anhydrite beds. The evaporites
are absent only in an extreme marginal zone adjacent to the Urals
and along the south basin boundary where they are truncated by
pre-Late Permian or pre-Jurassic unconformities (fig. 6).
Source Rocks
Paleogeographic conditions of sedimentation and facies
architecture indicate that the principal petroleum source rocks in
the North Caspian basin are basinal black-shale facies contemporaneous with upper Paleozoic carbonate platform deposits on
the basin margins (fig. 9). Because of great depths, the small
number of wells drilled into basinal facies, and the paucity of
cores, the geochemical characteristics of the source rocks are
poorly documented. Only limited analytical data are available
from published sources. Lower Permian basinal facies of the
west basin margin are characterized by total organic carbon
(TOC) content ranging from 1.3 to 3.2 percent and hydrogen
index (HI) of about 300 to 400 mg HC/g TOC (Punanova and
others, 1996). Lower Permian black shale on flanks of the
Karachaganak reef has TOC measurements as high as 10 percent
(Maksimov and Ilyinskaya, 1989). In Middle Carboniferous
basinal black shales on the east basin margin, TOC reaches 7.8
percent (Dalyan, 1996). In the Biikzhal deep well located basinward from the southeast margin, Middle Carboniferous black
shale at a depth of more than 5.5 km has TOC of 6.1 percent
(Arabadzhi and others, 1993). Although data are few, high TOC
and silica contents in basinal shales of all margins and characteristically high X-ray readings on gamma logs are typical of the
deep-water anoxic black-shale facies. This facies contains type
II kerogen and is the principal oil source rock in Paleozoic (and
many Mesozoic) basins of the world (Ulmishek and Klemme,
1990).
Russian geologists believe that the Upper DevonianLower
Carboniferous Izembet (Zilair) Formation of the east and southeast margins of the North Caspian basin contains significant
petroleum source rocks (Arabadzhi and others, 1993; Tverdova
and others, 1992). This coarsening-upward clastic section,
especially its lower part, was partially deposited under relatively

deep water conditions. Measured TOC content varies from 0.1
to 7.8 percent and averages 0.75 percent (Tverdova and others,
1992). Organic matter is of mixed terrestrial and marine
sapropelic origin. On the Van Krevelen diagram, most samples
are located near the boundary between kerogen types II and III.
Measured HI varies from less than 100 to 450 mg HC/g rock.
These data indicate that organic-rich units of the Izembet Formation could have generated gas and probably some oil. Thick
Lower Permian orogenic clastics of the east and south basin
margins contain only terrestrial organic matter and could have
generated some gas (Arabadzhi and others, 1993).
The presence of source rocks in the suprasalt sequence has
long been disputed, and some investigators believe that oil pools
in salt dome-related traps were generated from these strata (Botneva, 1987; Botneva and others, 1990). Although some source
rocks of inferior quality may be present among Triassic strata
(see fig. 9), these rocks could have reached maturity only in
some deepest depressions between salt domes and thus are of
only local significance. Recent geologic and geochemical data
show that suprasalt oils were generated from subsalt source
rocks and migrated upward from depressions between domes
where the salt has been completely or almost completely withdrawn (Kuanyshev and Shayagdamov, 1992; Sobolev, 1993,
Murzagaliev, 1994; Groshev and others, 1993).
Vitrinite reflectance and geochemical data indicate that in
most fields and prospects drilled along margins of the North
Caspian basin, the top of subsalt rocks occurs in the oil window
or in the upper part of the gas window (Volkova, 1992). The
geothermal gradient in the basin is relatively low apparently
because of the cooling effect of the thick Kungurian salt
sequence. The south basin margin is hotter; at the top of subsalt
rocks at depths of 44.2 km the temperature is 100120C
compared to about 80C at comparable depths on the north margin. Standard maturation modeling is difficult to apply because
of differences in thermal conductivity of evaporite and clastic/
carbonate rocks. Geothermal gradients in salt domes and adjacent depressions are different, and the modeling is further complicated by uncertainties in timing of salt dome formation. The
difference in measured temperature at similar depths at the top
of subsalt rocks under a salt dome 3.5 km thick and in an adjacent depression (in Karatobe field of the east basin margin) was
18C (Navrotsky and others, 1982). This difference may reach
60C under the largest salt domes of the basin. Qualitatively, it
can be stated that maturation in deep parts of the basin started
before deposition of the salt. Most oil generated at this stage
probably was lost because of the absence of a regional seal
(local seals among mostly carbonate rocks are uncommon and
easily breached). This loss of early-generated hydrocarbons is
demonstrated by heavy, paleo-biodegraded oils found in a number of fields at depths reaching 5.5 km (Botneva and others,
1990; Tikhomolova and others, 1989).
The principal stage of hydrocarbon generation and formation of fields, especially in marginal, shallower areas of the
basin, probably was in Late PermianTriassic time when the
Kungurian salt seal was in place and thick orogenic molasse
clastics were deposited (Borovikov, 1996; fig. 9). Significant
hydrocarbon generation in later times could have occurred only
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
24
Neogene Plio Mio
Pal
L
M
L
M
Olig
Paleogene
Eoc
65
Cretaceous
144
Jurassic
206
Triassic
248
Permian
290
L
M
E
L
E
L
M
L
Pennsylvanian
E M
323
Mississippian
363
Devonian
408
439
Silurian
Ordovician
510
Cambrian
570
Precambrian
Petroleum
System Events
ROCK UNIT
?
?
SOURCE ROCK
RESERVOIR ROCK
SEAL ROCK
OVERBURDEN ROCK
?
Compression
Reef growth
Salt dome growth
TRAP FORMATION
?
600
18
Geologic
Time Scale
GENERATION
MIGRATION-ACCUMULATION
PRESERVATION
Figure 9. Events chart of North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System. Queries indicate uncertainties in extent or identification.
locally in depressions adjacent to growing salt domes. Deposition of thick Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments in these depressions resulted in additional heating of subsalt source rocks.
Triassic source rocks considered as speculative could also have
reached maturity in the deepest depressions and generated some
hydrocarbons.
Reservoir Rocks
In the subsalt sequence, carbonate reservoirs are of better
quality than clastic reservoirs. Reservoir properties of carbonate
rocks strongly depend on diagenetic changes, primarily on
leaching. Vuggy porosity related to leaching is better developed
in reef reservoirs, especially in reef-core carbonates. For
example, porosities averaging 1014 percent are characteristic
of reefal vuggy, porous limestones and dolomites in the
Karachaganak field (fig. 4), whereas porosity of adjacent inner
lagoonal facies is lower, commonly 610 percent or less
(Shershukov, 1986). Porosity of Upper DevonianMiddle
Carboniferous carbonate reservoir rocks in the Tengiz field (fig.
6) varies from a few percent to 20 percent and averages 6 percent over this extensive atoll. Most of the porosity in this field is
related to vugs, whereas the primary pore space does not exceed
23 percent (Maryenko and others, 1985). Porosity exceeding
10 percent is characteristic of a ring-shape zone of the atolls
reef core (Pavlov, 1993). Porosity of carbonates deposited on
slopes and in the central lagoon is significantly lower. Permeability of carbonates of the Tengiz atoll and other reefs is mainly
controlled by fracturing and, in laboratory measurements, was
observed to vary widely from a few to hundreds of millidarcies.
In the Astrakhan field, Bashkirian detrital and oolitic limestones
were deposited on a shallow bank. Porosity of the limestones
averages 6 percent and is about equally divided between primary
and diagenetic porosity (Mitalev and others, 1987). Measured
permeability in samples is low, commonly only 12 mD. However, fracturing is intensive, and most wells yield 510 million
cubic feet (MMCF) of gas per day.
Several small oil discoveries have been made in sandstones
of the upper part of the Upper DevonianLower Carboniferous
Izembet Formation on the east and southeast basin margins.
Daily oil flows from most tested wells were low considering
great depths and overpressures, and did not exceed several tens
of barrels with the exception of one well that tested nearly 2,000
barrels per day. Porosity of most sandstone and gravelstone
samples ranges from 10 to 20 percent; permeability is variable,
in some samples reaching hundreds of millidarcies (Dalyan and
Akhmetshina, 1998). The sandstones are poorly sorted, have
variable but locally high content of carbonate cement, and are
commonly laterally discontinuous; consequently, reservoir beds
of the Izembet Formation, though locally exhibiting high porosity and permeability, are largely of moderate to poor quality
(Proshlyakov and others, 1987). Preservation of porosity in
dirty graywacke sandstones at great depths is probably related
to high overpressure that may be twice that of hydrostatic pressure at the same depth (Dalyan and Akhmetshina, 1998).
Lower Permian (and in places also Upper Carboniferous)
orogenic molasse clastics of the east and south margins of the
North Caspian basin are characterized by variable, but generally

poor, reservoir properties. Exploration of this clastic play, conducted in the 1950s and 1960s, was in compressional anticlines located within the Aktyubinsk trough on the east basin
margin (fig. 10) and farther south in the Ostansuk trough. In
both troughs, the orogenic molasse sequence is as much as 5 km
thick. Sandstones in the more eastern anticlinal trends that were
drilled are tight, probably because of deep burial and subsequent
tectonic stress and unloading. The same causes resulted in poor
reservoir properties of orogenic sandstones in compressional
thrust-related anticlines of the Karakul-Smushkov zone in the
western part of the south margin (fig. 2).
Reservoir properties of Lower Permian sandstones outside
the zones of compressional anticlines are somewhat more favorable. Several oil accumulations have been discovered in these
rocks; in the largest accumulation (Kenkiyak field), at depths of
44.5 km, porosity varies from 5 to 11 percent and permeability
does not exceed 50 mD. The main reservoir problem is the discontinuous character of sandstone beds, which probably
resulted from the rapid progradational deposition of the orogenic clastic sequence (Kunin and others, 1984, 1987). Highly
variable original yields of wells that range from less than 40 to
greater than 2,000 barrels/day resulted from these geologic conditions (Solovyev, 1992).
Reservoir properties of Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstones
that occur at shallow depths above salt domes are excellent;
porosity ranges from 25 to 35 percent, and permeability is high,
commonly several hundred millidarcies. Reservoir properties
deteriorate somewhat in the more deeply buried Triassic and
Upper Permian strata, but in a few fields where these rocks are
productive, porosity remains higher than 20 percent and permeability varies from 30 to 500 mD (for example, Kenkiyak field;
fig. 5).
Seal Rocks
The Lower Permian Kungurian evaporite sequence is the
principal regional seal for subsalt reservoirs of the North Caspian basin (fig. 9, seal rock); it covers the entire basin area
except for a narrow zone along the east and south margins where
salt either was not deposited or was truncated by pre-Jurassic
erosion. Kungurian salt is deformed into numerous domes alternating with depressions, in which the deposits are thin or absent
due to lateral flowage (for example, see figs. 5 and 6). Where the
otherwise impermeable seal is absent, hydrocarbons were
afforded avenues to migrate from subsalt source rocks vertically
into suprasalt reservoirs. Some high-amplitude carbonate buildups likely are water bearing because hydrocarbons have leaked
into suprasalt rocks (for example, Karaton buildup on the Primorsk carbonate platform, figs. 6 and 7). Nevertheless, the salt
formation divides the sedimentary succession into two welldefined hydrodynamic systems. Ubiquitous overpressure and
significantly higher salinity of formation waters characterize the
subsalt system (Pomarnatsky and Gusarova, 1991), whereas
pressure is hydrostatic and salt content in formational water is
lower in the suprasalt system. Various local and semiregional
shale seals that directly overlie hydrocarbon pools in subsalt
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Ural foredeep
Well
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Figure 10. Tectonic map of northern part of east basin margin and adjacent Ural foldbelt (modified from Kan, 1996).
20
Zone
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Boundaries of Visean-Bashkirian (a),

Moscovian-Upper Carboniferous (b),
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Boundary of structural zones
Outcrop of deformed
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reservoirs probably would not be effective without the Kungurian salt. Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous marine shale beds
seal hydrocarbon pools in suprasalt rocks. Both subsalt and
suprasalt hydrodynamic systems constitute a single total petroleum system (TPS) because they were charged by hydrocarbons
from the same subsalt source rocks; however, the upper system
was designated as a separate assessment unit within the TPS.
Traps
As discussed previously, carbonate reefs are the most
important traps in subsalt rocks. Various morphological types
of reefs are present, but atolls and pinnacle reefs contain the
largest hydrocarbon accumulations. Pools in barrier reefs are
much smaller because the maximum height of the oil/gas
column is defined by the back-reef slope and does not exceed
150200 m. Several subsalt fields on the east basin margin are
in structural anticlinal traps (Zhanazhol and adjacent fields, fig.
2). These traps are related to Hercynian compression from the
Urals and were formed during Permian-Triassic time approximately contemporaneous with peak hydrocarbon generation
(fig. 9). Only the giant Astrakhan gas field is apparently controlled by basement-related uplift in the crestal portion of a
regional arch (fig. 8).
All hydrocarbon pools in subsalt clastic rocks (most of
them noncommercial) have been discovered on anticlinal prospects. However, the discontinuous character of clastic reservoir
rocks in both Lower Carboniferous and Lower Permian sections
and large variability in flows from adjacent wells suggest that
hydrodynamic connection between the wells is poor or absent
and that many of these pools are actually in stratigraphic traps.
In the suprasalt section, all productive traps are related to
salt tectonics and are morphologically variable. Among them,
anticlinal uplifts with a salt core and traps sealed updip by faults
and by walls of salt domes are the most common types. In
recent years more modern seismic equipment has improved the
ability to map the structure of suprasalt rocks in depressions
between salt domes, resulting in new types of structures being
mapped in Upper Permian rocks (Dalyan, 1998)such as
arches in depressions and semi-arches against slopes of salt
domes. These structures are expressed only in Upper Permian
rocks but are absent in both younger and older strata. Formation
of the traps is related to non-uniform withdrawal of salt into
adjacent domes.
Assessment Units
Six assessment units (AU) have been identified in the North
Caspian Paleozoic TPS (fig. 1). Four AUs (10160101,
10160102, 10160103, and 10160104) embrace subsalt rocks on
the basin margins, and their external boundaries coincide with
the basin boundaries. The basinward boundaries of these AUs
are drawn along the 7-km structural contour line on top of subsalt rocks and thus were determined more by economic considerations than by geologic conditions. However, each AU is
defined in a way that includes carbonate platforms with reefs
and their basinward slopes. The fifth AU (10160106) includes
suprasalt rocks that cover the entire total petroleum system area.
Assessment results for undiscovered conventional oil and gas for
these five assessment units are shown in table 1, and supporting
statistical data on the assessment can be found in U.S. Geological Survey World Energy Assessment Team (2000). The sixth
AU (10160105), which includes Paleozoic subsalt rocks that
occur at depths greater than 7 km in the central basin area, is
considered unconventional and has not received quantitative
assessment.
Assessment Unit 10160102, North and West Margin

Subsalt Barrier Reefs
This AU includes barrier reef prospects of the north and
west basin margin (figs. 1, 3). Most fields in the unit are in the
Lower Permian barrier reef, although two or three fields have
been discovered in Bashkirian carbonates of the LowerMiddle
Carboniferous (upper ViseanBashkirian) reef trend. All fields
are small because of limited trap volume, and future discoveries
are expected to also be of small size (table 1). The Lower Permian reef is extensively explored, but little drilling has penetrated the Carboniferous and, especially, the Upper Devonian
barrier reefs that extend for many hundreds of kilometers. All of
these pre-Permian prospects are at depths of 45 km and greater.
Petroleum potential of the unit is relatively low. Gas with
medium to high condensate content will probably dominate in
resources (table 1).
Assessment Unit 10160101, North and West Margin

Subsalt Pinnacle Reefs
The AU covers the same area as AU 10160102, but includes
prospects other than barrier reefs. Only one field has been discovered in the unit, but that one was the giant Karachaganak gas
condensate and oil field (fig. 4). The field is in an Upper Devonian to Middle Carboniferous atoll that is unconformably overlain by a Lower Permian pinnacle reef. The height of the
hydrocarbon column is about 1,600 m, perhaps one of the thickest in the world. Atolls and pinnacles surrounded by Lower Permian basinal facies are expected to be the dominant trap type for
future discoveries. The presence of structural traps in some
areas is also possible, and Bashkirian carbonates are the principal exploration targets in these traps. Most likely areas for new
field discoveries are in the vicinity of the Karachaganak field, in
the Karasal monocline in the southwest corner of the basin, and
in suspected Carboniferous (and possibly Upper Devonian) carbonate banks basinward from the Lower Permian barrier reef
(mainly along the west basin margin). The main deterrent to
exploration within this AU is the great depths to exploration targetsdeeper than 5 km and in many areas deeper than 6 km.
Exploration risk at great depths is aggravated by poor seismic
resolution in the salt dome environment. Gas condensate will
probably be the dominant hydrocarbon resource, although some
light oil discoveries are probable, especially on the Karasal
monocline. Estimates of undiscovered resources for the AU are
shown in table 1.
North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System
21
Assessment Unit 10160103, East and Southeast

Margin Subsalt
This AU includes subsalt rocks of the east and southeast
basin margin (fig. 1). The AU encompasses Devonian and (or)
Carboniferous carbonate platforms, the deep Aktyubinsk and
Ostansuk troughs that are filled with Lower Permian molasse
clastics, and basement arches of the Astrakhan-Aktyubinsk system located west of the carbonate platforms. The main fields in
the AU are in Middle Carboniferous carbonate reservoirs in
structural traps, and a few are probably in reefs (fig. 5). Several tens of known structural traps are reportedly undrilled
(Dalyan, 1996). Small oil accumulations (including some
paleo-biodegraded oils) occur in Lower Carboniferous and
Lower Permian clastic rocks in which the trap types are poorly
understood. Reefs are not well developed in this AU, possibly
because the area was on a leeward side relative to dominating
wind direction. The best potential for both oil and gas is in the
Lower to Middle Carboniferous carbonate platform north of the
main discovered fields (Zhanazhol field area, fig. 2). This
includes the Temir carbonate platform (fig. 10), where only a
few wells have been drilled. Drilling depths to the top of the
carbonate platform range from about 4 km in the south to more
than 7 km in the north. On the slope of the South Emba high
(southeast basin margin), the carbonate platform is narrow. A
portion of this platform and the overlying Kungurian salt seal
are truncated by the pre-Jurassic unconformity. Potential for
new field discoveries in this area is low. Locations of Devonian (including Lower Devonian) carbonate platforms along the
entire east-southeast margin are poorly understood. They may
extend westward from edges of the Middle Carboniferous platforms and cover crests of the basement arches. Drilling depths
to the Devonian prospective reservoirs will range from about 5
to 7 km.
Potential of the Lower Carboniferous Izembet Formation is
uncertain because few data are available. Reservoir rocks preserve porosity to depths of 6 km (Biikzhal field), but sandstones
are lenticular (Proshlyakov and others, 1987). However, this
largely stratigraphic play covers the entire assessment unit area,
and significant discoveries are possible. Drilling depths range
from about 4 to 7 km. Sweet oil will constitute the major portion
of resources.
Lower Permian orogenic molasse clastics in anticlines
toward the east side of the Aktyubinsk trough (fig. 10) were
drilled in the 1960s. The Kungurian evaporite seal is absent in
this area, and the clastic rocks crop out on the surface. All wells
had significant gas shows, but reservoir rocks were tight. These
low permeable clastics likely contain an unconventional continuous (basin center) gas accumulation (not assessed in this report).
A similar accumulation was recently identified in correlative
orogenic clastics in more northern areas of the Ural foredeep, in
the Timan-Pechora basin (Law and Spencer, 1998). In the more
western anticlinal trends of the Aktyubinsk trough, reservoir
properties probably improve because of decreased tectonic stress
(Zholtaev, 1990), and the Kungurian evaporite seal is present.
Conventional gas fields may be found there and may be large,
because individual anticlinal traps have large sizes. Petroleum
potential of Lower Permian clastics in prospects other than these
22
large traps, including traps in the Ostansuk trough immediately

south of the area shown in figure 10, is not high because of poor
reservoir properties of sandstones (exemplified by subsalt pools
of the Kenkiyak field). However, many smaller pools may be
found in structural traps as well as in stratigraphic traps in progradational clinoforms. Stratigraphic traps may also be present
in turbidites on slopes of the deep-water basin west of the
Carboniferous carbonate platforms (figs. 5, 10).
Assessment Unit 10160104, South Margin Subsalt

This AU, occupying the southern basin margin, was estimated to have the highest amount of undiscovered resources in
the North Caspian Paleozoic TPS (table 1). The AU includes the
Karaton-Tengiz zone of carbonate buildups east of the Caspian
Sea (fig. 6), the Astrakhan carbonate platform west of the sea
(fig. 8), and the entire offshore area of the basin (fig. 7). It also
contains the giant Tengiz oil and Astrakhan gas fieldsthe two
largest discoveries in the basin (exclusive of the recent
Kashagan discovery, whose size, although great, is yet to be estimated). In the east part of the northern Caspian shelf, seismic
surveys identified three carbonate buildups morphologically
similar to the Tengiz atoll (Murzagaliev, 1995; this report, fig.
7); the Kashagan discovery is in one of these buildups. A carbonate platform similar to the Astrakhan platform extends offshore from the west coast of the sea. During the last 2 years, a
consortium of Western oil companies has conducted new
seismic surveys offshore, but the results of these surveys were
unavailable for this study. Therefore, the present resource
assessment (made before the Kashagan discovery) relied heavily
upon the data presented in Murzagaliev (1995). Although the
assessment was made before the Kashagan discovery, the potential for giant field discoveries in the AU was recognized.
The principal uncertainty in assessment of the Tengiz-type
carbonate buildups offshore is the integrity of the Kungurian
evaporite seal. The Tengiz atoll and the satellite Korolev pinnacle are properly sealed and productive. The Karaton and Tazhigali reefs of the Primorsk carbonate buildup north of Tengiz (fig.
7) contain only small pools of residual heavy oil. Apparently,
oil leaked upward through areas where salt is thin or absent,
which is indicated by the presence of oil fields in suprasalt
Mesozoic rocks at both Karaton and Tazhigali. Exploration risk
is significant in this area because existing data do not allow evaluation of which offshore structures are properly sealed; however, where sufficient seals occur, the resulting field could be
large. Smaller pinnacles on the carbonate pedestals are also
likely, but because of the smaller areas involved, the sealing risk
for these prospects is lower. Light gassy sour oil is more probable, but gas with a high condensate content is also possible, as
reflected in the assessment (table 1).
The carbonate platform in the western part of the Caspian
shelf strongly resembles the Astrakhan platform (fig. 7). However, seismic data do not indicate the presence of salt domes
(Murzagaliev, 1995). If the salt is present, but thinner and undeformed, the sealing conditions could be excellent and the hydrocarbon potential is high. If the evaporite seal is absent, on the
other hand, large accumulations are unlikely. Reefs along the
perimeter of the platform and structural traps on the platform are

the main prospects. Sour gas with a high to moderate amount of
condensate is the likely hydrocarbon type, but pools of light oil
and oil legs in gas pools may also be present.
To the north, carbonates of the Astrakhan and KaratonTengiz massifs grade into basinal black-shale facies. Recently
two or three wells penetrated into subsalt strata on top of the
Guryev arch (central segment of the Astrakhan-Aktyubinsk
system of highs) where Lower Permian (?) clastics devoid of
reservoir rocks were encountered (B.M. Kuandykov, oral commun., 2000); additional information on these wells is not available. No other deep wells have been drilled in this entire area.
Paleogeographic reconstructions suggest that source rocks may
be present in the Upper DevonianCarboniferous interval, but
this interval probably does not contain reservoir rocks. Composition of older rocks is unknown. The petroleum potential of the
AUs areas north of the carbonate platforms and buildups
between Astrakhan and Primorsk (fig. 7) is therefore uncertain,
but probably is low, especially for conventional accumulations.
Drilling depths to the top of the subsalt sequence are mainly in
the range from 6 to 7 km.
The petroleum potential of the Karakul-Smushkov zone of
thrust-related anticlines extending along the south basin boundary west of the Caspian Sea (fig. 2) is low. The southwestern
part of the zone is devoid of a salt seal. In the northeastern part,
the salt is underlain by tight Middle CarboniferousLower Permian clastic rocks. Below the clastics are subthrust autochthonous Bashkirian carbonates in which gas was tested in several
wells. However, the gas contains high carbon dioxide contents,
ranging from 25 to almost 100 percent, and the accumulations
are noncommercial.
Assessment Unit 10160105, Basin Center Subsalt

This AU includes subsalt rocks of the central basin areas.
Depths to the top of the AU everywhere exceed 7 km and reach
as much as 10 km. No wells have been drilled to these depths,
and the composition of the subsalt section may only be inferred
from regional paleogeographic reconstructions. Petroleum
potential of the AU was not quantitatively assessed in this study
as no explored analogs are present worldwide and almost no
experience of exploration at these depths exists. Based on data
from the basin margins, however, it is probable that the Upper
DevonianLower Permian sequence of the AU consists of alternating strata of organic-rich black shales (potential source
rocks) and turbidites (potential reservoirs). Black shales are correlative to carbonate platforms on the margins, and turbidites are
stratigraphic equivalents of clastic wedges. Ages of these rock
types vary in different parts of the basin. Underlying Silurian
Middle Devonian rocks probably are lithologically similar. Synrift coarse clastics of Ordovician(?) age occur at extreme depths
of more than 1215 km. All the rocks are sealed by Kungurian
salt and are probably highly overpressured. Whether clastic
turbidite rocks can preserve porosity and permeability at these
conditions and be capable of producing hydrocarbons is unclear.
Possibly, unconventional oil and (or) gas accumulations of
continuous type can be present. Exploration is obviously
uneconomic at present, but large amounts of generated hydrocarbons, a part of which could have been preserved below the
salt seal, provide impetus for future investigation.
Assessment Unit 10160106, Suprasalt

This AU geographically covers the area of the entire North
Caspian Paleozoic TPS and stratigraphically includes suprasalt
rocks. Although drilling for oil within this AU started at the
beginning of the 20th century, exploration is still in the immature stage. Until recently, the resolution of seismic surveys was
inadequate to define prospects in depressions between salt
domes and near steep salt walls. Virtually all field discoveries
are shallow; only a few were made at depths exceeding 1 km.
Suprasalt rocks in depressions reaching thicknesses of 67 km
and probably greater represent a significant exploration opportunity. Recent seismic exploration has revealed new types of traps
in Upper PermianTriassic rocks in the depressions and below
salt overhangs (Dalyan, 1998; Groshev and others, 1993). These
traps have received almost no exploration.
The great majority of discoveries have been made in the
eastern-southeastern part of the basin (North Emba and South
Emba regions) where oil fields dominate. Only a few fields,
many of them gas, have been found in the rest of the assessment
unit. The causes for concentration of fields in east and southeast
areas of the basin are not clear. Probably, for some yet unknown
reasons migration of hydrocarbons from subsalt sources into
Jurassic and Cretaceous reservoirs was more facile in these
areas. However, the relative abundance of discovered fields in
the east and southeast areas compared to the rest of the AU may
at least partly stem from the fact that far less exploration has
been conducted outside the North and South Emba regions.
Tertiary sediments (especially thick upper Pliocene shales and
sands), which are much more widespread in the western and
central areas of the AU, may inhibit surface seeps that for many
years were used in the North and South Emba regions to define
exploration targets. Potential resources of the AU are significant, considering the presence of more than 1,000 salt domes in
the basin (table 1). Discovery of giant fields similar to those in
subsalt rocks has a low probability, but many medium-size fields
may yet be found.
References Cited
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Bakirov, K.Kh., Chimbulatov, M.A., and Yakovlev, A.V., 1980, Regularities
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Petroleum Geology and Resources

of the North Caspian Basin,

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2201-B

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Department of the Interior

This publication is only available online at:

Manuscript approved for publication May 24, 2001

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication

5. Through east basin margin ....................................................................................

Petroleum Geology and Resources

Region, single digit

basin margins. Basinward, these rocks grade into deep-water

resources by the U.S. Geological Survey (U.S. Geological

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

Basin Center Subsalt

North Caspian Basin

South Margin Subsalt

North Ustyurt Basin

Assessment units boundary and name

Gas field centerpoint

Total petroleum system boundary

Oil field centerpoint

Figure 1. Petroleum system and assessment units of North Caspian basin.

the Devonian volcanics formed an oceanic volcanic arc that was

Paleozoic North Caspian Total Petroleum System

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

Exposed Ural foldbelt

deposition, and Upper PermianLower Triassic sediments are

Total Petroleum System

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

basin. Hydrocarbons generated from this pod have migrated

North Caspian Paleozoic Total

Stratigraphy of Subsalt Upper Paleozoic Rocks

Eifelian shallow-shelf carbonates overlain by upper Eifelian

North and West Basin Margin

East-Southeast Basin Margin

South Basin Margin

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

NORTH CASPIAN BASIN

North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System 11

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System 13

Suprasalt clastics and

North Caspian Paleozoic Total Petroleum System

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

Astrakhan gas field

Pre-Middle Devonian rocks

Astrakhan gas field is located on the crest of the arch. Barrier

especially its lower part, was partially deposited under relatively

Neogene Plio Mio

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

North Caspian basin are characterized by variable, but generally

Petroleum Geology, ResourcesNorth Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan and Russia

Boundaries of Visean-Bashkirian (a),

Frontal (a) and other major (b) faults

Boundary of structural zones

Assessment Unit 10160102, North and West Margin

Assessment Unit 10160101, North and West Margin

Assessment Unit 10160103, East and Southeast