TEXT

TYPES

Descriptions
Scaffolds
Examples

Text Type

This resource has been compiled for use by teachers, students and parents.
It has been written to align with the revised English K-6 Syllabus.
Jane Cavanagh, Country Areas Program (CAP)
Desktop Publishing: Cathy Young, Dubbo School of Distance Education

Acknowledgements:
English K-6 Syllabus, Board Studies, Sydney, March 1998
Literacy Across the Key Learning Areas, Years 7 and 8, NPDP, 1996
2

Text Type

Table of Contents
Scope and sequence of Text Types

English K-6 Syllabus

Summary of Text Types

7
9

Narrative

Recount

13

Description

17

Response

21

Information

25

Procedure

29

Explanation

33

Exposition

37

Discussion

41

Text Type

English K-6 Syllabus

Scope and Sequence of Text Types

For the purpose to this syllabus, texts are grouped and defined in particular categories. It is important
to note that any such classification is to some extent arbitrary and that there is always likely to be
overlap between ways of grouping and defining text types (see tables below).
Categories of Texts
Texts can be classified into the broad categories of literacy and factual texts. Both categories include
media texts, which can be either literacy or factual in orientation. They also include all forms of
electronic text.
Categories of Texts
LITERARY TEXTS

FACTUAL TEXTS

The categories if texts indicated above can further subdivided into different text types.
Text Types
ORAL AND WRITTEN
LITERARY TEXTS

FACTUAL TEXTS

Narrative
Literary recount
Observation
Literary description
Personal response
Review

Factual description
Information report
Procedure
Procedural recount
Factual recount
Explanation
Exposition
Discussion

This list is not exhaustive but indicates a range of text types that are crucial to students learning in
the primary school curriculum and to participating effectively in the wider community. It does not
include traditional story types such as myths and legends, as these may be either recounts or
narratives.
It is important to note that these text types are somewhat idealised for teaching purposes. In real life,
we often find mixed texts. A narrative, for example, might include a description of the setting; a
procedure for an investigation might conclude with an explanation of the scientific principle involved.
Text types and their structures should not be seen as straitjackets but as starting points. When
students understand that:

Different types of texts exist

Texts serve different purposes
Texts are typically structured in particular ways and
Texts have characteristic grammatical features,

Then students are in a better position to create and manipulate texts and combine elements in a
purposeful way.
It is not intended that all text types be taught fully and systematically in each stage. Teachers will
focus on those that are most relevant to the content of their program. It is probable; however, that
most of the text types will be encountered to some degree across the key learning areas.

Text Type
Scope and Sequence of Text Types English K-6 Syllabus (continued)
Literary texts
Literary texts include those spoken and written texts that explore and interpret human
experience, usually in such a way as to evoke in the reader or listener a reflective,
imaginative and/or emotional response.
There is a wide variety of literary texts, many of which may overlap, as in the case of
narrative poetry, drama and poetic use of language in prose.
Literary texts are an important part of the English program. The engagement of a student
with a literary text can be a powerful and evocative experience that shapes the students
imagination and thought. Reading quality literature can have a significant impact on how
students see and relate to the world around them.
While literary texts are commonly thought of in terms of books, they may also be
transmitted through other media such as magazines, film, radio, television and computers
and in different combinations of media.
Factual texts
Factual texts are those that present information, ideas or issues in such a way as to inform,
instruct, enlighten or persuade the reader or listener. Factual texts appear in all cultures.
Factual texts may be spoken or written and may include visual elements. In spoken texts
an important part of the meaning may derive from facial expression, from gesture or from
the use of technology. In written texts, meaning is also contained in visual elements such
as graphs, maps, photographs, grids, diagrams, drawings and labels.
Whether written or spoken, factual texts present their content from a particular perspective.
However, their perspective or point of view of the writer or speaker may not be overtly
stated. Factual texts may suppress the point of view in an attempt to appear objective.
Although factual texts may purport to present accurate, objective information, they are not
simply objective representations of reality. Rather, they are constructions of reality, created
by a writer or speaker.
Many of the written texts that students will encounter in their schooling, and indeed
throughout their lives, will be factual. Teachers need to ensure that students are equipped
with the skills and knowledge to create and interpret factual texts. Students need to learn
about the ways in which these texts construct and present information and knowledge
about a subject. Students should be encouraged to explore the ways in which the factual
texts they encounter are similar to and different from those described in the syllabus.
While factual texts are commonly associated with print, they may also be spoken. Types of
factual text such as procedure, discussion, exposition and recount may be in spoken
forms.
Factual texts are also commonly found in media forms. They are shaped by the particular
technology of the medium of transmission. The medium of transmission may at times
appear to lend authority to the information in the text. For instance, news is often
presented as if it were an accurate information report rather that a highly subjective
recount. On television, for example, the camera, in particular, determines the point of view
that an audience may have on the subject by such things as the type and angle of the shot.

Text Type

Summary of Text Types

Text Type
Narrative

Purpose

Structure

To entertain, create,
stimulate emotions, motivate,
guide, teach

Orientation
Complication/Evaluation
Resolution
Coda (optional)

Language features

Recount
-Literary
-Procedural
-Factual

To tell what happened

Literary recounts are
entertain

Description

To describe a particular
living, non-living or natural
phenomenon.

Response

Information
Report
Procedure

Explanation

Exposition

Discussion

to

To summarise and respond

personally to an artistic work.

To classify or describe
general
classes
of
phenomena
To achieve a goal/outcome
through a sequence of steps

To explain how or why

something occurs in scientific
and technical fields

To persuade by arguing one

side of the issue

To examine issues from

more than one perspective
and make recommendations
based on evidence.

Orientation
Series of events
Sequenced in time
(literary recounts)
Personal comments
reorientation
Introduction
Characteristics
features,
e.g. appearance qualities
Conclusion (optional)

Context of artistic work

Description of artistic work
Judgement

General
statement
or
classification
Description
Goal
Materials needed (optional)
Steps

Phenomenon identification
Explanation sequence
Concluding statement
(optional)

Thesis
Argument (1-n)
Reinforcement of Thesis

Opening statement
Arguments, for and against
Conclusion

Usually specific participants

Time words used to connect
events
Action words predominate in
complication and resolution
Noun groups important in
describing characters and
settings
Descriptive language
Past tense
Time words to connect events
Words which tell us where,
when, with whom, how
Particular nouns
Variety of adjectives
Use of similes, metaphors and
other types of figurative
language
Words
which
express
judgements
Descriptive language
Present tense
Persuasive language
Technical language
Simple present tense
Generalised terms
Verbs usually at the beginning
of each instruction
Words or groups of words
which tell us how, when,
where, with whom
Use of commands
Complex sentences
Technical language
Use of words such as
because, as a result, to
establish
cause/effect
sequence
Passive voice
Simple present tense
Words
that quality
e.g.
usually, probably
Words that link arguments e.g.
firstly, on the other hand
Evaluate language
Modals e.g. must, certainly
Words that link arguments
Varying degrees of modality
Use of adverbials of manner
e.g. deliberately

Text Type

Text Type

Narrative
What do narratives do?
Narratives are closely related to recounts. As we saw in the narrative snippet in Module 1, Narratives share
many of the same language features. One difference lies in the build up in a Narrative to some kind of
problematic climax which is then resolved.
Narratives also are characterised by comments that make judgements about the characters and events.
Narratives are central to the key learning area of English.

What do narratives look like?

Classic narratives have four crucial stages. Theses are:
Orientation:
The purpose of the orientation is to inform the reader about the WHO, WHAT, WHEN or WHERE of the
story.
Complication:
The complication is the backbone of the narrative. It is the stage of the story which provides the plot
device on which the action turns.
Evaluation:
The evaluation is the characters response to the events taking place in the story. Thoughts, feelings
are common in this stage.
Resolution:
The resolution is the stage of the narrative in which the problems of the complication are resolved.
The evaluation stage is often integrated into other stages of a narrative; most commonly the Complication
stage.

What are the language features of the narrative?

The narrative usually refers to specific characters and things, not to groups of things.
Time words are used to connect events, words or groups of words which refer to WHEN, e.g. at three
oclock; after; in the morning.
Action verbs predominate in complication and resolution as these stages contain the action of the narrative,
e.g. run; lope; scamper.
Noun groups are important in describing characters and settings.
Narratives frequently use long groups of words which describe a thing (usually a noun). The descriptive
information is usually contained in larger noun groups rather than in separate sentences, e.g. Two
sensuous, grey, furry Burnese cats are rather than There are two cats. They are grey. They are furry.
They are Burmese.
7

Text Type

Text Type

Narrative
Purpose:

To entertain, create, stimulate emotions,

motivate, guide or teach through story

Structure:

Orientation setting the scene

Complication/Evaluation problem and series of events
Resolution of the problem
Coda (or moral) optional

Language:

usually specific participants

time words used to connect events
action words predominate in complication and resolution
noun groups important in describing characters and
settings

Text Type

How to Write a Narrative

Orientation:

Key Words:

Complication/Evaluation:

Resolution:

Coda: (optional)

Text Type

Text Type

Narrative
Text Structure
Orientation gives a
setting for events
and introduces the
I the narrator.

Complication
includes evaluation,
e.g. I didnt mind
this

Resolution

Coda

The Fight

Language Features

It all happened when I was walking home

from school. Two kids from my class
decided to pick on me. They started
yelling stupid names like spazzo, pigface
etc. I didnt mind this. I also didnt mind
Kelly punching me in the shoulder. What I
did mind was the Kelly kept me occupied
while Matthew (better known as Roberts)
rode my bike around the cul de sac of the
street.
This was harmless. But, still riding, he
kicked off my bag and jumped off the
bike leaving it to fall. This made me sore.
I gave in to my temper. When Matthew
saw this he took off. So it was me and
David Kelly to battle it out. I chased him
around and around the street. When I
finally caught him I threw punches
galore.
Most of them missed. Kelly managed to
escape and run home. I think I was the
victor, but if I was, I dont think it was
worth it.

10

Use of word chains to

build topic information,
e.g. pick on, yelling,
punching, mind, didnt
mind, chased, threw
punches.
Use
of
complex
sentences, e.g. It all
happened when I was
walking home from
school.
Use of action verbs,
e.g. walking, punching
Use of saying verbs,
e.g. yelling
Use of thinking verbs,
e.g. mind
Use of complex verbal
group,
e.g.
started
yelling
Use of conjunctions to
build relations of time
and cause between
events, e.g. when, so
Use of past tense, e.g.
chased, caught
Use of saying and
thinking verbs to indicate
what characters are
thinking and feeling, an
important
aspect
of
narrative.

Text Type

Text Type

Recount
There are three types of recounts: Literary, Procedural and Factual.
What do recounts do?
Recounts are retelling of past events. They are usually written as a series of events
in the order in which they happen.
What do recounts look like?
Orientation:
The first stage tells us about who, what, where and when, to help the reader
place the events in time and place.
Sequence of Events:
This is the retelling of the events in sequence, which is organised in time.
Personal Comments:
These are found interspersed throughout literary recounts and may reflect
evaluations.
Reorientation:
This is only used in literary recounts to round off the sequence of events.
What are the language features of a recount?
Descriptive words are used to construct a description of the world in which the events
are taking place.
Typically, the past tense is used to relate the events.
These events are linked together using time reference, e.g. the next day, once,
afterwards.
11

Text Type

Text Type

Recount
Literary

Procedural

Factual

Purpose:
To reconstruct past events by retelling them in
the order in which they occurred.
Literary recount also has the purpose to
entertain.
Structure:

Orientation or Opening: Information about who, where and
when

Series of events in the order that they occurred
Literary:

Personal comments and/or evaluation remarks (interspersed
throughout the record)

A reorientation, which rounds off the sequence of events
Language Features:

descriptive language
past tense
time words to connect events
words which tell us where, when, with, who, how
12

Text Type

How to Write a Recount

LITERARY

PROCEDURAL

Orientation:

FACTUAL
Key Words:

Sequence of Events:

NB: Include personal comments for literary recounts

Reorientation: (literary only)

13

Text Type

Text Type

Recount
Text
Structure
Orientation
introduces
background
information
Statement of
significance
Record of
events

The History of Electronic Communication

In the past people used different ways to communicate
over long distances, such as smoke signals, drums and
flags. Inventions such as the telephone, radio and
television made communication over greater distances
possible.
In 1837, Samuel Morse invented a system that transmitted
sound pulses through a wire. These sounds were sent and
received by an operator who knew the special Morse code.
This allowed communication over long distances.
On 10 March 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the
first telephone. A human voice was sent along a wire using
magnets and an electric current. He spoke to his friend
and fellow inventor, Thomas Watson, who was in another
room.
Guglielmo Marconi discovered a way of sending and
receiving radio waves at the turn of the century. In 1901 he
amazed the world by sending a radio message across the
Atlantic Ocean. Radio became a vital part of world
communication, especially for ships and planes.
In 1930s the first televisions were built. This was the first
time that sound and pictures were transmitted together.
Colour television was developed in the 1950s.
During this century many more forms of technology have
been invented that allow people to communicate over long
distances and even keep a record of that communication.
Fax machines send printed information anywhere in the
world. In the future, new technology will continue to make
long distance electronic communication even faster and
more efficient.

14

Language
Features
Use of word families
and chains to build
topic information, e.g.
smoke signals, drums,
telephone, radios
Use of adverbial
phrases telling when
to sequence events in
time, e.g. In 1837, on
10 March 1876; use of
these as beginning
focus (theme) of clause
Use of technical terms,
e.g. sound pulses
Use of action verbs, e.g.
invented, sent
Use of passive voice,
e.g. by an operator is
the doer of sent
Use of noun groups,
e.g. human voice
Use of passive voice
allows writer to omit
doer of action, e.g.
These sounds were sent
and received by an
operator.
Use of abstract words,
e.g. television,
communication,
information

Text Type

Text Type

Description
What do descriptions do?
Descriptions focus out attention on the characteristic features of a particular
thing. These texts are particularly important in English and Science.
While description can occur as stand alone texts, they are often part of a
longer text, such as the description of a character or setting in a story or
biography. Although they might not always be seen as distinct text type, it is felt
that the ability to describe someone or something in detail is an important skill
that can contribute to a number of text types.
What do descriptions look like?
Descriptions are usually organised to include:
An introduction:
This section is an introduction to the subject of the description.
Characteristic features:
These are the characteristic features of the subject, e.g. physical
appearance, qualities, habitual behaviour, significant attributes.
There may also be some optional evaluation interspersed though the text and
an optional concluding comment.
What are the language features of a description?
The language of description is characterised by noun groups used to provide
information. Use of thinking and feeling verbs to express the writers personal
view about the subject are also common. The use of similes, metaphors and
other types of figurative language can also be used, particularly in literary
descriptions.

15

Text Type

Text Type

Description
Purpose:
To describe a particular living, non-living or
natural phenomenon. Descriptions can stand
alone but are often part of other texts, e.g.
Information Reports.

Structure:

An introduction or classification

Characteristic features, e.g. physical appearance,
qualities, habitual behaviour, significant attributes

Concluding statement (optional)
Language Features:

Use of nouns, e.g. my teacher, the Opera House

Use of a variety of types of adjectives, e.g. opinion,
factual, numbering, classifying

Use of action verbs

Use of similes, metaphors and other types of figurative
language, particularly in literary descriptions

16

Text Type

How to Write a Description

Introduction/Classification: (What is it?)

Key Words:

Characteristics: (What does it look like?)

Characteristics: (e.g. What can it do?)

Characteristics: (e.g. What are its special features?)

Conclusion: (Optional)

17

Text Type

Text Type

Description
Text
Structure
Subject
Description
e.g.

Henry Ford and his Ford Motor Company

Henry Ford was a famous American engineer and car
manufacturer. He was born on a farm in Dearborn in
Michigan in 1863.

contextual
information

Why Henry Ford was famous

significance
in history

He was the first man to mass produce cars at a price which

people could afford. Although at first, like other car
companies, he made automobiles that only well-to-do people
could afford, he wanted to build a car that was cheap enough
for most families to own and in 1903 he succeeded.

Language
Features
Use of synonyms,
e.g. cars,
automobiles
Use of noun groups
which include
adjectival clauses,
e.g. automobiles that
only well-to-do
people could afford
Use of feeling verbs,
e.g. wanted

How Henry Ford set up his company

important
episode in life

Ford was very interested in horseless carriages. He decided

to build one himself. He began to experiment with engines
until his first car was made in 1893. Night after night he
would work on it like a madman. At last in 1896 the vehicle
was ready for a trial run. He then ran it around the block. It
went well. Finally, in 1903, the Ford Motor Company was
founded.
What made his company famous?
The employees were happy to work for him because he
reduced their hours from 9 to 8 per day and paid them $5 per
day, whereas the average company paid a skilled worker
$2.50.

Description
and
significance
of company

The thing that made his company famous was his mass
production line. Instead of having each person build the
entire motor car, he had one person doing their own small
job.
Because this saved a lot of time and money, Ford could offer
more cars to the American public at a lower price than
anyone before him.
In the past, other companies that did not have mass
production lines wasted more time and money and produced
cars one by one.

18

Use of relating verbs,

e.g. Ford was very
interested
Use of thinking verbs,
e.g. decided
Use of variety of
adverbs, e.g. time: in
1896 purpose: for a
trial run place: round
the block manner:
well
Use of sentences
that contain two or
more clauses
combined in complex
ways, e.g. The
employees were very
happy to work for him
because he reduced
their hours from 9 to
8 per day and paid
them

Text Type

Text Type

Response
What do responses do?
Responses are used to respond to an artistic work in either the written, visual
or aural form. They are texts written about texts and are important in English
and Creative Arts as they allow individual responses to be made.
What do responses look like?
In order to achieve this purpose, responses can be structured in the following
way:
Context of Artist Work:
This section of the text provides the context for the work. Details such as
the name of the text, who wrote/painted it and when, and brief synopsis
can be included in this section.
Description of Artistic Work:
This section describes in detail key features or significant events in the
text.
Judgement:
This section provides a personal response to the text and can include
some recommendation about the text, e.g. written text suitable for
adolescent readers.
What are the language features of response?
In the context stage the language response is characterised by verbs that
relate actions while the Judgement stage uses words that express feelings
about texts. Language is often abstract, e.g. the analysis; the interpretation;
and it is very descriptive. They are usually written in the present tense as they
relate individual responses to a text.

19

Text Type

Text Type

Response
Purpose:
To summarise and respond personally to an
artistic work/text.

Structure:

Context a section on the features and background
of the work

Description a section which describes features or
key events in the work

Judgement

a
personal
response
and
recommendation

Language Features:

words which express judgements

descriptive language
present tense
persuasive language

20

Text Type

How to Write a Response

Context:

Key Words:

Description:

Judgement:

21

Text Type

Text Type

Information Report
What do information reports do?
Information reports are essentially descriptions that classify and describe things in general and
specific terms. They are particularly important in subject such as Science, TAS and Geography,
which classify and describe the physical world and subjects such as Creative Arts and History.
What do information reports look like?
In order to achieve this purpose information reports are frequently structured in the following way:
General statement or classification:
This section of the text can do several things. It can classify the thing being described, locate it
in time and space and/or preview the rest of the description to follow:
Description:
This section of the text sets out the description in the report. Typically, it will consist of
paragraphs each of which deal with a different aspect of the description.
Each paragraph usually contains a sentence which previews the information in the rest of the
paragraph. This sentence can be called a topic sentence or paragraph preview.
Sometimes there is a sentence which has a function of previewing a section of text which may
include a number of paragraphs. The sentence which previews a section of text is known as a
section preview.
What are the language features of an information report?
The language of information reports often reflects the technicality of the subject being discussed,
e.g. meteorology, terms such as average rainfall or cold front would be the technical terms used
rather the how much it rains or the bit where it gets cold.
They are often written in the present tense, giving the idea of timeless truth, e.g. drought occur
rather the there was a drought last year.
Terms are generalised, that is, they refer to general things, e.g. droughts rather than that drought
last year and evaluate, e.g. layer of wood rather than layer of beautiful wood.
In subjects such as English and Creative Arts, the features of information reports can be used for
writing that describes particular characters and settings from novels in English and elements of
particular artworks or musical pieces in Creative Arts. Information reports in the Humanities may
make use of evaluation language, e.g. Picasso is viewed as on of the great modernist painters of
the 20th century.

22

Text Type

Text Type

Information Report
Purpose:
To classify and/or describe general classes
of phenomena.

Structure:

Opening general statement that defines or classifies
your topic

Description: A series of sequenced paragraphs
explaining facts about the topic (with or without
headings), e.g. features, behaviour or types
Language Features:

technical language

simple present tense

generalised terms

23

Text Type

How to Write an Information Report

Report
General Statement:

Key Words:

Description:
Classification What is it?





Description What does it look like?






Description What can it do?






Description What are its special features?






24

Text Type

Text Type

Information Report
Text
Structure
General
statement
identifies and
classifies the
subject of the
information
report

Language
Features

Paris Report
The city of Paris is the capital of France. It is very old
and built either side of the river Seine. Paris is named
after a Celtic tribe called Parisii who lived on an island in
the river. Paris is famous for its museums, galleries and
is a leader of fashion in the world.
At the centre of the city if an island called Ile de la cite,
crowned by the cathedral of Notre Dame. Many nobles
were imprisoned on the islands Palais de Justice during
the French Revolution.

Description:
Key places
identified
according to
locations;
historical
background
given.

The oldest bridge in Paris is called Pont Neuf (new

bridge) although it is over 400 hundred years old!
The River Seine divides Paris into a right bank and left
bank. Much of the city was rebuilt to a new plan in the
1800s.
On the hill behind the Louvre is the white church of
Sacre Coeur and the artists quarter of the Monmartre.
On the left bank are the older, narrower streets of the
student or Latin quarter and the Sorbonne University.
Further down the river is the Eiffel Tower on Champs de
Mars.
The Louvre was once a royal palace. Since the
revolution it has been a museum. A huge glass prism
stands in one courtyard. The Mona Lisa is a famous
painting in the Louvre. People says she has a
mysterious smile
Another famous landmark is the Arc de Triomphe, which
was built to celebrate Napoleons victories. Twelve
avenues lead from it in a star shape.

25

Use of word families

to build topic
information e.g.
Paris, France, Seine
Use of present tense
Use of relating verbs
to identify, e.g. The
city of Paris is the
capital of France,
and to relate
descriptions to the
subject, e.g. it is very
old
Use of noun groups
to build descriptions,
e.g. the oldest bridge
in Paris
Uses the subject the
city of Paris and
places the city as the
beginning focus of
the clause, e.g. the
oldest bridge in
Paris, the river
Seine, the Louvre.
This pattern of
choice of theme
plays a part in the
successful
organisation of the
text.

Text Type

Information Report
Written by

_______________________________________

Introduction

Sequence of statements presenting information

Concluding statement

26

Text Type

Text Type

Procedure
What do procedures do?
Procedures give us instructions about how to do or make something.
Procedures are important in subjects like Design and Technology, PD/H/PE,
Visual and Performing Arts and Science.
What do procedures look like?
Goal:
This first stage states the aim of what we are trying to make or do.
Materials:
This is an optional stage where materials or equipment needed to achieve
the goal are listed.
Steps:
This is followed by the steps in the order in which they have to be
performed.
What are the language features of a procedure?
The language of procedures can be technical. They often begin with a
command, e.g. collect and place. There are also words or phrases that specify
how, where, e.g. carefully; after 5 minutes. The layout is an important
characteristic of many procedures. By placing each step on a new line, the
writer points to the order in which the steps are to be performed. These are
often numbered so it becomes unnecessary to use time words, e.g. next,
then; after that.

27

Text Type

Text Type

Procedure
Purpose:
To tell how to do something,
instructions, directions or rules.

e.g.

Structure:

Goal or opening statement of what you are going to
do

A list of the materials or ingredients you are going to
use in the order you are going to use them (optional)

The time ordered steps you are going to use to
make your item
Language Features:

verbs usually at the beginning of each instruction

words or groups of words which tell us how, when,
where, with, whom

use of commands

28

Text Type

How to Write a Procedure

Goal:

Materials:

Key Words:

Steps:

29

Text Type

Text Type

Procedure
Text
Structure

Language
Features

How to Catch a Wave

Goal

Heres some advice for kids who are just

learning how to surf.

Materials

Use a light, small fibreglass board with a

legrope and a wetsuit if it is cold.

Steps
in chronological
order
all necessary
steps included

Find a safe, uncrowded spot on the beach.

The water should not be too choppy so that
you will get a clean ride.
Dont go out too far if you havent surfed
before.
Wait until you see a small wave then lie on
your surfboard. When the wave is close start
paddling furiously.
If you are more experienced, you could try
kneeling on the board once you are on the
wave.
The most important thing is to keep your
balance or else you will end up falling off the
board!

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Use of detailed noun

groups (including
adjective phrases) to
provide compact
information, e.g. a
light, small fibreglass
board with a legrope
Use of adverbial
clauses to indicate
conditions, e.g. If
Use of adverbial
clauses to indicate
reason, e.g. so that ..
in order to
Use of adverbial
clauses of time, e.g.
until, when
Use of adverbs to
indicate manner, e.g.
furiously
Use of different forms
of modality to make
meanings stronger or
weaker, e.g. could,
should
Use of the beginning
of the sentence to
focus the readers
attention, e.g. The
most important

Text Type

Text Type

Explanation
What do explanations do?

These texts explain how or why things happen. They can be about a wide range of subjects, for
example:
the physical world in Geography or Science
the human world in History and PD/Health/PE
aspects of character and plot in English
how a technical effect is achieved in Visual Arts
how equipment is used in TAS

What do explanations look like?

Statement of Phenomenon:
Explanations begin by identifying the thing to be explained.
Explanation Sequence:
This next stage shows how they work. The backbone of an explanation of a sequence of
events.
Concluding Statement : (optional)
The sequence of events or processes is joined together in two main ways.
The first is by cause and effect links using words such as because; as a result; causes; is caused
by; due to.
The second is by time links using words such as after; following; then; initially.

What are the language features of an explanation?

The language of explanations is often technical, that is, it uses technical terms used in the subject
and it is also abstract. Abstract things are those which cannot be seen, touched or heard. In
explanations, these abstract words often refer to processes, e.g. and so the seed germinates. This
germination
This concept of a seed germinating means the student needs to make a connection between the
action of the seed germinating and the name of the process, i.e. germination.

The language is generalised in this example, e.g. we talk about classes of things rather
than individual things, e.g. seeds, not my seeds. The tense is generally simple present, as
in reports, in order to give a sense of timelessness.
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Text Type

Text Type

Explanation
Purpose:
To explain scientifically how or why
something occurs usually a technological
or natural phenomenon.

Structure:

Phenomenon identification a general statement
about your topic

A series of specific statements in chronological order

Concluding statement (optional)
Language Features:

technical language

use of words such as because, as a result, to
establish cause/effect sequences

complex sentences

passive voice

simple present tense

32

Text Type

How to Write an
a Explanation
Statement of Phenomenon:

Key Words:

Explanation Sequence:

Concluding Statement: (optional)

33

Text Type

Text Type

Explanation
Text
Structure
Statement of
Phenomenon

Explanation
sequence

How Do Floods Occur

In winter there is snow on the mountains. When
spring comes the sun comes out, it shines onto
the snow. The snow melts. The melting snow
turns into water and flows off the mountain and
enters the rivers. The huge amount of water
makes the water level rise.
If rocks and concreted areas surround rivers
they can cause floods. If it rains the rain falls
onto the rocks, nothing can sock up the water.
The water flows down the rocks and into the
river.
When it rains for a long time the huge amount of
rain cannot soak into the soil. The water forms
small streams. The streams all lead to the main
river and feed it. As the water enters the river
the water level rises. If there is not a dam on the
bank of the river the river will flood.

Background
information
(optional)

During spring while the rivers are still blocked

by ice, floods occur in Siberia. The snow melts
but the river is unable to flow because of the
ice. The river stops and builds up. When it gets
up as high as the ice, it is already so high that it
causes a flood.
Though floods occur in most parts of the world
they do not occur very often. In the past 250
years there were 150 major floods. The most
flood-prone river is the Huang He River (also
called the Yellow River and Chinas Sorrow)
which is located in Northern China.

34

UseLanguage
of action verbs
to build sequence of
Features
actions, e.g. comes,
melts
Use of action verbs
to create casual
relation, e.g. makes,
cause of
Use of noun group to
build detailed
description of water,
e.g. the huge amount
of water
Use of classifying
adjective, e.g.
concreted areas
Uses action verbs
and nouns
throughout
explanation to build
topic information and
word chains, e.g.
snow, mountains,
water level rises
Use of complex
sentences and
casual conjunctions
to construct cause
and affect
relationships, e.g.
If
Use of time
conjunctions, e.g.
when, as to
sequence events;
these conjunctions
come first in the
sentence, thus
focusing the readers
attention on the time
sequence.
Use of adverbial
phrases of time and
place to tell where
and when actions
occurred, e.g. in
most parts of the
world, often
Use of action verb
cause to construct
casual relationship

Text Type

Text Type

Exposition
What do expositions do?
Expositions are used to persuade by arguing one side of an issue.
What do expositions look like?
In order to achieve this purpose, expositions can be structured in the following way:
Statement of Position (thesis):
This section of the text states the authors position on the issue to be argued and
previews the arguments that will follow. This information which previews is known as a
text preview.
Arguments:
This section states the arguments to be presented. An argument is comprised of a
series of points and elaborations. Each paragraph usually contains a sentence which
previews the remainder of the paragraph. Sometimes there is a sentence which has
the function of previewing a section of text which may include a number of paragraphs.
A sentence which previews a section of text is known as a section preview.
Each argument state consists of a point and elaboration. In the elaboration the
argument is supported by evidence.
Reinforcement of Position Statement:
The final state restates the authors position and sums up the arguments raise.
What are the language features of an exposition?
The language features of expositions are characterised by emotive words such as alarmed;
problems; worried.
Words that qualify statements, e.g. usually; probably; are also used. Words that link
arguments together, e.g. firstly; in summary; on the other hand; however; therefore; are
also characteristic language features.

35

Text Type

Text Type

Exposition
Purpose:
To state a position with respect to an issue
and argue a case for or against.

Structure:

Statement of Position the authors position and
preview of argument

Arguments (more than one)

Reinforcement of position statement
Language Features:

words that qualify, e.g. usually, probably

words that link arguments, e.g. firstly, on the other
hand

modals, e.g. must, certainly

evaluative language, e.g. important, significant,
valuable

36

Text Type

How to Write an
a Exposition
Statement of Position (thesis):

Arguments:

Reinforcement of Position Statement:

37

Key Words:

Text Type

Text Type

Exposition
Text
Structure
Background
information
Statement of
position

Argument 1
- background
information
- point
- elaboration
-elaboration

Argument 2
- background
information
- point
- elaboration
- point
- elaboration

Argument 3
- background
information
- point
- elaboration

Reinforcement of
position statement

Ned Kelly Guilty or Innocent?

This project has been based on a computer program about
the trial of Ned Kelly which gave us the evidence used in the
original trial. After examining a number of incidents, we came
to the conclusion that Ned Kelly was treated unfairly as he
only committed half the crimes he was accused of.
In the Fitzpatrick incident, Ned was charged with the
attempted murder of Constable Fitzpatrick. We believe that
Ned was not guilty as Fitzpatricks story is not believable
because (i) he contradicted himself; (ii) he had just been to
the pub and we think that the wounds he had on his arm
were not from bullet shots (which Fitzpatrick claimed) but
from a broken glass which he might have been drinking his
brandy in; (iii) and finally, he was kicked out of the police
force later on because of his reputation for lying.
In the Stringybark Creek incident, Ned was charged with the
wilful murder of Constable Lonigan, Scanlon and Kennedy.
Ned resisted arrest and had to shoot Lonigan three times.
Kelly says that it was not murder but self defence and he
gave Lonigan a chance to surrender. We feel the McIntyres
evidence is weak. He said that the bullets came from the
back and not from the front. Dr Nicholson finds the opposite,
stating that Lonigan stood his ground and met Ned on equal
terms.
The Glenrowan incident was probably the most bold battle of
the Kelly gang. The police sent up a special train to
Glenrowan. The Kelly gang set up their base in the Jones
hotel. Although this was a gallant battle it was also a fatal
battle as Joe Byrne, Dan Kelly and Steve Hart died as a
cause of it. Ned was taken prisoner and taken to the trial. We
believe that Ned is guilty on the charge of holding hostages,
endangering the community, and the shooting of police
troopers and hostages.
In our opinion, we say that Ned is guilty for half the things he
did but received an unfair trial. He shouldnt have been hung
publicly but given a long imprisonment.

38

Language Features
Use of abstract nouns,
e.g. conclusion,
predicting how the
argument will be
structured (i.e. in terms
of the incidents)
Use of the beginning of
the sentence to focus
the readers attention,
e.g. In the Fitzpatrick
incident..
Use of clauses linked by
conjunctions to show
reasoning, e.g. We
believe that Ned was
not guilty as
Fitzpatricks story is not
believable because
Use of text connectives
to structure argument,
e.g. finally
Use of passive form to
maintain focus, e.g. he
was kicked out of
Use of evaluative
language to persuade
reader, e.g. wilful
murder, evidence is
weak
Use of saying verbs
when quoting someone,
e.g. said, stating
Use of modality, e.g.
probably
Use of clauses
combined in various
ways
Use of thinking verbs to
express opinion, e.g.
believe
Use of modality in
conclusion, e.g. should

Text Type

Text Type

Discussion
What do discussions do?
Discussions are used to consider an issue from more than one point of view in order to
persuade the reader to act or think in a particular way. Discussions are used in the subject
English, Science, History, Creative Arts, Design and Technology and Personal
Development/Health/Physical Education.
What do discussions look like?
Discussions are usually organised to include:
Statement:
This section has a statement outlining the issue, often accompanied by some
background information about the issue.
Arguments:
This section states the arguments for and against, including evidence for different
points of view.
Conclusion:
The final state stage might sum up both sides or might recommend in favour of one
particular side.
What are the language features of a discussion?
The language features for discussion are similar to those of an exposition, with varying
levels of certainty.

39

Text Type

Text Type

Discussion
Purpose:
To examine issues from more than one
perspective and make recommendations
based on evidence.

Structure:

Opening statement presenting the issue

Arguments, for and against, including evidence for
different points of view (elaboration)

Concluding statement and (optional)
recommendation
Language Features:

use of additive, contrastive and casual connectives
to link arguments, e.g. similarly, however

use of varying degrees of modality, e.g. perhaps,
must, should

use of adverbials of manner, e.g. deliberately,
hopefully

40

Text Type

How to Write a Discussion

Example One

Key Words:

Statement of Issue:
 Definition

 Background

 Preview

Arguments For (1-n):

(1
 Point
 Elaboration

Arguments Against (1-n):

(1
 Point
 Elaboration

Conclusion:

Recommendation: (optional)

41

Text Type

Text Type

Exposition
Text
Structure

Should Automatic and semi-automatic Guns be

Banned?

Case for

First Ill state my points on why they should be banned.

argument

Automatic and semi-automatic guns are military weapons.

The automatic guns fire continuously for about 20 seconds
firing a magazine of hundreds of bullets until the trigger is
released. Although they are military weapons they are sold to
the public and are found from urbanised areas to the country
farms.

argument

People buy them for keeping them at the house in case of a

break-in but in that case you wouldnt need a giant weapon to
fend off a robber and with children they can be fatal.

argument

Also people with psychiatric disorders should not be allowed

to own or use a weapon like an automatic firearm or people
with great emotional difficulties otherwise there might be
another Strathfield massacre.

argument

If the gun also falls into the wrong hands (like they usually
do) it will result in murder, robbery and other crimes. If the
gun is banned the rate of murder will go dramatically down.

Language
Features
Use of connectives to
order the argument, e.g.
First
Use of word chains to
build topic information,
e.g. guns, military
weapons
Use of conjunctions to
build point and
counterpoint, e.g. but,
however

Use of noun groups,

e.g. people with
psychiatric disorders

Case against

In this next section Im going to talk about why they shouldnt

be banned.

Use of beginnings of
sentence to focus
readers/listeners
attention, e.g. In this
next section

argument

Farmers sometimes need these rifles not as weapons but

maybe to put down a cow with broken legs or spinal cord as
it is the quickest way to kill an animal without it feeling a long
period of pain.

Use of varying degrees

of modality (from
stronger to weaker), e.g.
shouldnt, maybe

Argument

Also people who shoot game for a sport will lose the privilege
of having a gun that they can shoot a bullet immediately one
after the other instead of losing sight of the animal.

Conclusion/
Recommendation

Well as you can see I have more points for getting rid of the
weapons than against, so from this you obviously can see
what must be done. Not only to make things safer but to
bring humanity to parts of our society. I dont think that
automatic or semi-automatic weapons should be distributed
throughout the community in urbanised areas because they
are just another excuse for trouble.

42

Use of noun groups to

compact information,
e.g. people who shoot
game for sport
Use of higher modality
to convince listeners in
conclusion, e.g. must
Use of abstract words,
e.g. community,
urbanised

Text Type

How to Write a Discussion

Example Two

Key Words:

Statement of Issue:
 Definition
 Background
 Preview
Arguments For:
 Point
 Elaboration
Arguments Against:
 Point
 Elaboration
Arguments For:
 Point
 Elaboration
Arguments Against:
 Point
 Elaboration
Conclusion:

Recommendation: (Optional)

43